Colon Polyps and Polyposis
Syndromes
Douglas K Rex
Two histologies account for 99% of
colorectal polyps
• Adenomas and adenomas with invasive
carcinoma
• Serrated polyps
– Hyperplastic polyps
– Sessile serrated adenomas (SSAs)
– Traditional serrated adenomas (TSAs)
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Polyp classifications
• Shape
• Size
• Histology
Shape – Paris Classification
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Shape classification
• Type 1 – the “polyps”
– Pedunculated (1p) – about 5% of all polyps
– Sessile (1s)‐ about 50% of all polyps
• Type 2 – 40‐50% of all precancerous lesions – also
called “flat and depressed lesions” or “Non‐
polypoid colorectal neoplasia”
– Flat
• IIa ‐very common and not scary
• IIb‐ rare and not scary
– Depressed (IIc, IIa+IIc,IIc+IIa)‐ very uncommon and
very bad histology
Features indicating adenomas – red
headed pedunculated polyps
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Sessile Polyps – Shape 1s
Flat Lesions – Paris Classification
IIa IIb
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IIa (flat) lesions in white light
Depressed
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Polyp shape
• Lateral spreading tumor (essentially a large IIa
lesion: often called “carpet lesion” in U.S.)
– Granular (most common, least worrisome)
– Non‐granular( less common, worse histology)
Lateral Spreading Tumor
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• Any given endoscopic technique is more likely
to miss flat and depressed lesions than
polypoid lesions
Polyp size
• Usual groupings
– Diminutive (1‐5mm) – about 80% of all polyps
– Small (6‐9) – about 10% of all polyps
– Large (≥ 10 mm) – about 10% of all polyps
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Polyp size vs histology
Size %adenoma % serrated
1‐5 mm 50% 50%
6‐9 mm 60% 40%
≥ 10 mm 85% 15%
Adenomas
• All adenomas are dysplastic
• Atypia is an improper term in the description of
adenomas
• Dysplasia should be classified as low grade or
high grade
– Mild,moderate,severe: too much interoberserver
variation
• Most adenomas have LGD
• Pathologists may use different definitions of HGD
– Morphologic criteria: lower rates of HGD
– Cytologic criteria: higher rates of HGD
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Discouraged (outdated) terms
• Carcinoma‐in‐situ: severe dysplastic changes
confined to the epithelium
• Intramucosal carcinoma: dysplasia is present
in the lamina propria but not the mucosa
• Both “carcinoma‐in‐situ” and “intramucosal
carcinoma” should be designated HGD
– Both are benign – patients with completely
resected polyps are cured 100% of the time
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Definition of cancer in the colon
• Invasion of dysplastic elements into the
submucosa
– Why this definition? Because there are no
lymphatics in the mucosa: lesions confined to the
mucosa have no chance of metastasis
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Villous vs Tubular
• Villous: greater risk of HGD and invasive
cancer
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Tubular vs Villous
• Tubular: > 75% tubular
• Villous: > 75% villous
• Tubulovillous: < 75% of both
– Polyps with either villous or tubulovillous
histology are often said to have “villous elements”
• Marked variation in pathologic interpretation:
up to 6 fold differences between pathologists
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Advanced adenoma
• Concept developed as a surrogate marker of
risk in post‐polypectomy studies
• Most common definition is an adenoma with
any of the following:
– Size ≥ 10 mm
– HGD
– Villous elements
Impact of variable interpretation of HGD
• Randomized controlled
trials of diffuse dye‐
spraying
(chromoendoscopy)
• Sheffield, U.K.
(Hurlstone‐260 pts) and
St Mark’s London,U.K.
(Brooker – 259 pts)
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Impact of variable interpretation of HGD
• Adenoma cohort RCTs
colonoscoped at 1 and
3‐4 years
• National Polyp Study
and rofecoxib trial
When is endoscopic resection of a
malignant polyp adequate?
• Rules developed for pedunculated malignant
polyps:
– Clear margin
– Well or moderately differentiated
– No lymphatic or vascular invasion
– Endoscopist confident of complete resection
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Serrated polyps
• Hyperplastic polyps in distal colon
– Mostly diminutive and mostly clinically
insignificant
• In proximal colon these lesions share
molecular features with a group of cancers in
the proximal colon
– CpG Island Methylator Phenotype (CIMP)
– Sometimes with MSI (hypermethylation of MLH1)
– BRAF mutations
Typical proximal colon serrated polyps
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Serrated Polyps
• TSAs are more obvious endoscopically
• SSAs can have cytologic dysplasia and can be
endoscopically very subtle
• Marked interobserver variation between
pathologists in interpretation of SSA vs
hyperplastic
• Risk for individual patients should consider
number, size, location and histology of
serrated polyps
Sessile serrated adenomas
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SSAs
Follow up of proximal colon serrated
polyps
• New recs coming for surveillance
• Problems:
– Miss rate unknown
– Interobserver variation in pathologic
interpretation
– Significance of histology uncertain: sessile
serrated polyp (adenoma) > hyperplastic polyp
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Serrated polyposis syndrome
• WHO definition (not yet validated)
– ≥ 5 serrated polyps proximal to sigmoid of which ≥ 2
are > 1 cm in size
– 1 serrated polyp proximal to the sigmoid in patient
with FDR who has SPS
– > 20 serrated polyps “throughout the colon”
• Many patients with SPS do not have a family
history of SPS or CRC
• Associated with smoking
• Genetic basis not yet established
Follow up of proximal colon serrated
polyps
• Aggressively search for and resect
• Consider number, size, and histology of lesions
in considering follow up intervals (clinical
judgment)
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Other histologies – inflammatory
• Often has exudate on
surface
• Reflects prior injury to
colon
• Common in IBD but
occur sporadically also
• Vascular – brisk venous
bleeding with resection
or biopsy – rarely
clinically significant
Hamartomas – and hamartoma
syndromes
• 3 hamartomatous polyp syndromes
– JPS (juvenile polyposis syndrome): SMAD4 or
BMPR1A
– PJS (Peutz‐Jeghers syndrome): STK11 (also called
LKB1
– Cowden syndrome: (PTEN)
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Juvenile polyp
• Synonymous with “retention polyp”
– Distended mucus filled glands, multiple blood
vessels, cystic dilation (hamartomas)
• Prevalence of 1‐2 % in children age 4‐14y
– 70% of patients have only 1 polyp; most others
have 2 or 3
• Sporadic juvenile polyps not associated with
CRC risk
Juvenile polyposis syndrome (JPS)
• Mutations in SMAD4 or BMPR1A
• Increase risk of CRC, stomach, small bowel (if
polyps present)
• No physical exam clues
• Consider if ≥ 3 JPs in colon, JPs in stomach or
small bowel, JPs with + FH of JPS
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Screening in JPS (www.nccn.org)
• Colonoscopy q 2‐3 y when sx begin or in late
teens
• EGD q 1‐3 y
Peutz‐Jeghers Syndrome
• STK11(LKB1) mutations
• Oral and buccal mucosal hyperpigmentation
• Colorectal cancer, breast, stomach, small
bowel, pancreas, testis, cervix, uterus, ovary,
lung
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Screening in PJS (www.nccn.org)
• Colonoscopy q 2‐3y
• Annual mammogram and breast MRI;biannual
breast exam beginning at age 25 y
• MRCP or EUS q 1‐2y beginning at age 30 y
• EGD and small bowel imaging q 2‐3y beginning at
age 10
• Annual pelvic, Pap smear, and transvaginal
ultrasound beginning at age 18 y
• Annual testis exam beginning at age 10 y
Cowden’s syndrome
• PTEN
• Hamartomas in all sections of the bowel
including esophagus
• Not a clear increased risk of CRC
• Very high risk of thyroid and breast cancer
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Inherited Adenoma Syndromes
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FAMILIAL ADENOMATOUS POLYPOSIS
• <1% of all CRC
• autosomal dominant
• >95% penetrance
• hundreds of adenomas
• cancers in duodenum
• desmoid tumors
• Germline mutations in APC gene
• screening: sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy
• commercial genetic testing available
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Screening in FAP
• Colonoscopy q 1‐2 y beginning at age 10
• Screening can be delayed to late teens in AAFP
• Prophylactic colectomy when polyps
unmanageable
• EGD q 1‐3 y beginning age 25y
• Annual physical exam including thyroid
• If remaining rectum or ileal pouch, screen
every 6 mo to 2 y
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UGI tract polyps, cancer in FAP
• Gastric fundic gland polyps
– Can be dysplastic but rarely become malignant
• Duodenal adenomas
– Most cancers arise at papilla
– Spigelman score predicts non papilla risk
Modified Spigelman score
Points
1 2 3
# polyps 1‐4 5‐20 >20
Polyp size,mm 1‐4 5‐10 >10
Histology Tub TV Villous
Dysplasia LGD ‐ HGD
Stage 0:no polyps; Stage 1: 1‐4 points Stage 2: 5‐6
points; Stage 3:7‐8 points; Stage 4: 9‐12 points
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MUTYH‐Associated Polyposis: MAP
• Autosomal recessive
• Due to germline mutations in MYH genes
• MUTYH defends against oxidative DNA
damage (helps prevent G:C to T:A
transversions)
• Phenotype mimics FAP especially AAPC
(increase in adenomas) but also increase in
serrated polyps
• Duodenal polyposis
Screening in MAP
• Colonoscopy q 2‐3 years beginning at age 25 y
• EGD q 1‐3 y beginning at age 20‐25y
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Lynch Syndrome
HEREDITARY NON POLYPOSIS COLORECTAL CANCER
(LYNCH SYNDROME)
• 2‐5% of all CRC
• Germline Mutation in Mismatch repair genes: MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, PMS1
• Patients usually have only a few adenomas
• Autosomal dominant
• 70% penetrance
• Cancers at young age
• Rightward distribution
• Cancers at other sites: endometrium, small bowel, renal pelvis,ureter, brain,
ovary, stomach
• Microsatellite instability
• Screening: colonoscopy
• Commercial genetic testing available
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Amsterdam II
• Cancers can be at any of following sites:
– Colorectum
– Endometrium
– Small bowel
– Ureter
– Renal pelvis
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Revised Bethesda Guidelines
• CRC in patient < 50 y
• Synchronous, metachronous or other LS
tumor
• CRC in patient < 60y with MSI‐H
• CRC with ≥ 1 FDR with LS tumor with ≥ 1
diagnosed at age < 50 y
• CRC and ≥ 2 FDR or SDR with LS tumor
regardless of age
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Alternative to MSI testing
• Immunostaining for MMR gene protein
products
– Easier to do
– More widely available
General Approach to Lynch Syndrome
• Test tumor for MSI or perform
immunostaining
• Follow with BRAF test or hypermethylation
assay if MHL1 mutated
• If tumor positive (but BRAF negative or
hypermethylation negative) then proceed with
genetic testing
• OR: MSI or immunostaining of all CRCs
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CRC Syndromes
• Muir‐Torre Syndrome
– HNPCC (sebaceous carcinomas)
• Turcot’s syndrome
– HNPCC (indolent glioblastoma multiforme)
– FAP (medulloblastoma)
Familial Colon Cancer Syndrome X
• Clinical features
– High risk of colorectal cancer (mimics HNPCC)
– Little evidence of rapid conversion
– Not at increased risk of extracolonic cancers
• Genetic basis
– Not yet determined
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