AP BIO CHAPTER 1

 
VOCAB:
 
- Emergent property: new property that arises with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and
interactions of parts or complexity increase.
 
- Holism: the idea that all the properties of a given system cannot be determined or explained by its component parts alone.
Instead, the system as a whole determines in an important way how the parts behave.
 
- Evolution: Descent with modification; the idea that living species are descendants of ancestral species that were different
from the present-day ones; also defined more narrowly as the change in the genetic composition of a population from
generation to generation.
 
- Natural Selection: a process in which organisms with certain inherited characteristics are more likely to survive and
reproduce than are organisms with other characteristics.
 
- Biogenesis: production of a chemical compound by a living organism
 
- Reductionism: a theory that all complex systems can be completely understood in terms of their components
 
- Eukaryotic: a type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. 
 
- Prokaryotic: a type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-
enclosed organelles.
 
-Biosphere, ecosystem, communities, populations, organisms, organ system, organ, tissues, cells, organelles, molecules,
atoms
 
-Energy flows,
-1.8 million species, 6,300 species of prokaryotes, 100,000 fungi, 290000 plants, 52000 vertebrates, and 1 million insects. 
 
-Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
 
-Domain Bacteria- the most diverse and widespread prokaryotes and are now divided among multiple kingdoms, some rod-
shaped structure is  a bacterial cell
 
-Domain Archae- many of the porkaryotes known as archae live in Earth’s extreme environments, such as salty lakes and
boiling hot springs.
 
-Domain Eukarya: Protista, Kingdom fungi, kingdom plantae, kingdom animalia
 
-Protists are unicellular eukaryotes and their relatively simple multicellular relaties.  Pictures here is an assortment of protists
inhabiting pond water.
 
 
 
 
QUESTIONS
 
1. Inductive reasoning is a type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations. 
Deductive reasoning is a type of logic in which specific results are predicted from a general premise.
 
2. The 7 emergent properties of life are order, evolutionary adaption, response to the environment, regulation, energy
processing, growth and development, and reproduction.  Life has a highly ordered structure that characterizes life. 
Evolutionary adaption is the adaption that evolves over many generations y reproductive success of those individuals with
heritable traits that are best suited to their environments.  Regulations involve regulations created by the body to maintain
life.  Energy processing is the chemical energy that is produced by eating.  Growth and development is the inherited
information carried by genes controls the pattern of growth and development of organisms.  Reproductions involve the
productions of organism’s own kind.
3. Technology has contributed to the formation of the cell theory as well as current knowledge of cells by allowing scientists
to speed up the process of investing the human genome as well as observing cell in a much clearer picture.
 
4. Science and technology are interdependent because biologist and other scientists often speak of discoveries, while
engineers and other technologist more often speak of inventions.  The beneficiaries of those inventions include scientists,
who put new technology to work in their research; the impact of information technology on systems biology is just one
example.
 
AP BIO CHAPTER 2
 
VOCAB
 
- Valence electrons: electrons in the outermost electron shell
 
- Chemical equilibrium: in a chemical reaction, the state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the
reverse reaction, so that the relative concentrations of the reactants and products do not change with time.
 
-Covalent bond: the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms
- Ionic bond: a chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions.
 
- Hydrogen bond: a type of weak chemical bond that is formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent
bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule.
 
- Cation: a positively charged ion
 
- Anion: a negatively charged ion
 
- Energy of reaction:
 
- Polar covalent bond: a covalent bond between atoms that differ in electronegativity.  The shared electrons are pulled
closer to the more electronegative atom, making it slightly negative and the other atom slightly positive.
 
- Electronegativity: the attraction of a given atom for the electrons of a covalent bond
 
- Reactants: starting material in a chemical reaction
 
- Products of reaction:
 
- Non Polar Covalent Bond: a type of covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally between two atoms of similar
electronegativity.
 
-92 natural occurring elemtns
-25 of the 92 are essential to life
 
-1.7 X 10 ^24= proton
-Protons and neutrons are packed together tightly in a dense core, or atomic nucleus, at the center of an atom.
 
-Energy is the capacity to casue change
 
-The more distance an electron is from the nucleus, the greater its potential energy
 
-Van der Waals interations are weak bonds, but they do play a role in holding proteins together
 
QUESTIONS
 
1. The 4 elements essential to life making up 96% of living matter are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
 
2. Radioactive isotopes are important to biologists because they use measurements of radioactivity in fossils to date these
relics of past life.  They are also useful as tracers to follow atoms through metabolism and monitor biological processes. 
Radioactive tracers are important diagnostic tools in medicine.
 
3. The electron configuration influences the chemical behavior of an atom by the arrangement in relation to the nucleus and
determining the potential energy.  It takes work to move a given electron farther away from the nucleus, so the more
distant an electron is from the nucleus, the greater its potential energy. An electron’s energy level is also correlated with its
average distance from the nucleus, such as the electron shell they are located.
 
4. Electronegativity influences the formation of chemical bonds by defining that the more electronegative an atom is, the
more strongly it pulls shared electrons toward itself.  In a nonpolar covalent bond, the electrons are shared equally.  A polar
covalent bond consists of the electrons of the bond are not shared equally.  Ionic bond is a bond that the two atoms are so
unequal in their attraction for valence electrons that the more electronegative atom strips an electron completely away from
its partner.
 
5.  The importance of weak bonds in living organisms such as hydrogen allows the world to function by allowing
temperature regulation, expansion upon freezing, versatility as a solvent, and cohesive behavior.
 
AP BIO CHAPTER 3
 
VOCAB
 
- Polar molecule: a molecule with opposite charges on different ends of the molecule (water)
 
- Molecular weight: the sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule
 
- Hydrophilic: Having an affinity for water
 
- Hydrophobic: Having an aversion to water; tending to coalesce and form droplets in water
 
- Surface tension: a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid.  Water has a high surface
tension because of the hydrogen bonding of surface molecules. 
 
- Buffer: A substance that consists of acid and base forms in a solution and that minimizes changes in pH when extraneous
acids or bases are added to the solution.
 
- Cohesion: The binding together of like molecules, often by hydrogen bonds.
 
-       Adhesion: The attraction between different kinds of molecule
-       Heat is a measure of the matter’s total kinetic energy due to motion of its molecules, thus heat depends in part on the
matter’s volume.
-       Temperature is a measure of heat intensity that represents the average kinetic energy of the molecules, regardless of
volume.
-       1 calorie is the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1g of water b y 1 degrees Celsius
-       1000 calories is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 2kg of water by 1 degrees Celsius
-       1 joule equals .239 cal; one calorie equals 4.184 joules
-       ethyl alcohol requires .6 cal to raise 1g by 1 degree Celsius
-       Heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1g of it to be converted from the liquid to the
gaseous state. 
-       Hydration shell- the sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion
-       Colloid- a stable suspension of fine particles in a liquid;something that can’t be dissolved
-       6.02 X 10^23
-       Molarity- the number of moles of solute per liter of solution
-       1 in every 5454 milllion water molecules is dissociated
 
QUESTIONS
 
1. Buffers work as regulators in a living system that minimizes changes in the concentrations of H+ and OH- in a solution. 
They do so by accepting hydrogen ions from the solution when they are in excess and donating hydrogen ions to the
solution when they have been depleted. 
 
2. The four emergent properties of water that result from hydrogen bonding are cohesive behavior, ability to moderate
temperature, expansion upon freezing, and versatility as a solvent.  Cohesive behavior refers to how hydrogen bonds
collectively hold substances together and how bonding contributes to the transport of water against gravity in plants.  The
ability to moderate temperature refers to how water moderates air temperature by absorbing heat from air that is warmer
and releasing the stored heat to air that is cooler.  Expansion on freezing is the fact that ice floats and water expands
instead of shrinking when freezing and how all the bodies of waters would be frozen forever if it weren’t for this quality of
water.  The versatility of water as a solvent involves the ability that water has in dissolving the majority of materials in the
world.
 
3.  a) The relevance of water’s high specific heat to life on earth is that a large body of water can absorb and store a huge
amount of heat from the sun in the daytime and during summer while warming up only a few degrees.  Then at night and
during winter, the gradually cooling water can warm the air.  The high specific heat of water also tends to stabilize ocean
temperatures, creating a favorable environment for marine, permitting life.
b) Evaporative cooling of water contributes to the stability of temperature in lakes and ponds and also provides a
mechanism that prevents terrestrial organism from overheating. 
c) Cohesion due to hydrogen bonding contributes to the transport of water and dissolved nutrients against gravity in plants. 
Adhesion of water to cell walls by hydrogen bonds helps counter the downward pull of gravity.  This makes the water
behave as though coated with an invisible film.
d) Expansion upon freezing is extremely important in the fitness of the environment.  If ice sank, then eventually all ponds,
lakes, and even oceans would freeze solid, making life as we know it impossible on Earth.  During summer, only the upper
few inches of the ocean would thaw.  Instead, when a deep body of water cools, the floating ice insulates the liquid water
below, preventing in it from freezing and allowing life to exist under the frozen surface.
 
 
AP BIO CHAPTER 4
 
VOCAB
 
- Organic Chemistry The study of carbon compounds (organic compounds)
 
- Isomer: One of several compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and therefore different
properties.  The three types of isomers are structural isomers, geometric isomers, and enantiomers.
 
- Enantiomer: One of two compounds that are mirror images of each other
 
 
- Hydrocarbon: An organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen.
 
-Structural isomers differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms, same letters and are drawn different
 
-Hydrophilic means it is polar and has an OH
 
-Amino acid has NH2
 
-Aldehyde has a Double bond O at the end of carbon (carbonyl)
 
-Ketone has double bond O on the middle (carbonyl)
-Structural isomers- the same letters, but drawn different
-Enantiomers have mirror image
-Hydrocarbon is composed of only H and C
-Carboxylic acid has double O and OH at the end
-Organic Phosphate has a P
-Geometric isomers are cis and tran]
-Geometric have different spatial
-Structural have same molecular but different structure
-Asymmetric carbon atom is attached to four different atoms or groups, it results in right and left handed versions of a
molecule, it can create enantionmers, its configuration is in the shape of a tetrahedron but it CANT create geometric
isomers
 
-Hydroxyl, OH, alcohols polar group
-Carbonyl C=O, aldehyde or ketone: polar group
-Carboxyl, COOH, carboxylic Acid, releases H ions
-Amino, NH2, Amines, basic, accepts H
- Sulfhydryl, SH, thiols, cross-links stabilize protein structure
-Phosphate, OPO3 ^-2, used in energy transfers
QUESTIONS
 
1.  Carbon’s electron configuration determines the kinds and numbers of bonds that carbon will form in the following
manners.  When a carbon atom forms four single covalent bonds, the arrangement of its four hybrid orbitals causes the
bonds to angel toward the corners of an imaginary tetrahedron.  The electron configuration of carbon gives it covalent
compatibility with many other different elements.  In conclusion the configurations offer different platforms of numerous
bonds that create completely different structures.
 
2. Carbon skeleton variations contribute to the diversity and complexity of organic molecules by creating different number of
bonds and types of bonds that characterize matter.  Also, atoms of other elements can be bonded to the skeletons at
different sites.
 
3. Structural isomer is one of several compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent
arrangements of their atoms.  Geometric isomer is one of several compounds that have the same molecular formula and
covalent arrangements but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms owing to the inflexibility of double bonds. 
Enantiomer is one of two compounds that are mirror images of each other.