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Ground Improvement
using Vibro Techniques
Case Histories from S.E. Asia

Dr.-Ing. V. R. Raju
Keller Foundations (S. E. Asia) Pte. Ltd.,
Singapore

Dipl.-Ing. R. Wegner and D. Godenzie

Keller Grundbau GmbH, Offenbach

Presented by
Keller Grundbau GmbH
Kaiserleistr. 44
D-63067 Offenbach
Tel. 069 / 80 51 - 0 Ground Improvement Conference,
Fax 069 / 80 51 - 244 Singapore 1998
E-mail Marketing@KellerGrundbau.com
www.KellerGrundbau.com Technical paper 10-56E
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GROUND IMPROVEMENT USING VIBRO TECHNIQUES

Case Histories from S.E. Asia

V. R. Raju
Keller Foundations (S. E. Asia) Pte. Ltd., Singapore

R. Wegner, D. Godenzie
Keller Grundbau GmbH, Overseas Division, Offenbach, Germany

ABSTRACT

The application of vibro techniques in improving cohesive and non cohesive soils is illustrated
using four recent and ongoing projects in the south east Asian region. Technical requirements
with regard to settlements, stability and reduction in liquefaction potential and the ground
improvement works proposed to meet these requirements are discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION

Countries in the S.E. Asian region have seen a tremendous growth in infrastructure and industrial
construction activity in the recent years. The presence of poor ground conditions ranging from
very loose sand deposits arising from reclamation works to very soft natural clay deposits has
required that the ground be improved before construction begins. Often these areas are subject
to seismic activity which require special consideration in the design.

This paper describes the application of deep vibro techniques in improving such soils. Firstly, the
technique of vibro compaction is briefly presented and is followed by case histories of an airport
project in Singapore and a port project in Indonesia. The second technique described is vibro
replacement (installation of stone columns) followed by case histories from a power plant project
in the Philippines and an earthworks project in Malaysia. The use of vibro replacement in liquefac-
tion prevention is illustrated using the power plant project in the Philippines.

2. VIBRO COMPACTION

Vibro compaction is a technique used to densify granular soils which are typically clean sands
(fines content generally less than 10 %) using the depth vibrator. The vibrations are produced by a
rotating eccentric weight which is driven by an electric motor mounted within the vibrator. The
Keller S 300 depth vibrator produces horizontal vibrations with very large amplitudes and centrifugal
forces. The vibratory energy is used to rearrange the particles of the sand in a denser state.

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V. R. Raju · R. Wegner · D. Godenzie

The vibrator with its motor running is lowered into the ground with the assistance of water jets.
Once the vibrator has reached the required depth, the water jets are turned off/reduced and the
vibrator is pulled back in short steps. At each step, the vibrator is held in position for a predeter-
mined period of time. During this period, the interparticle friction is temporarily reduced and the
sand particles are arranged in a denser state. The process is repeated until the required depth of
sand is compacted, leaving behind a column of compacted sand. The vibrator is then positioned at
the next compaction point and the process is repeated. For further details the reader is referred
to publications such as those by Moseley and Priebe [1].

2.1 CHANGI AIRPORT, SINGAPORE

As a part of the Changi East reclamation project, it is proposed that a third runway be con-
structed for the Changi Airport. The reclamation works involve the dredging of some 170 million
cubic meters of sand. Underlying the dredged sandfill are soft clay deposits having thicknesses of
up to 35 m. The soft clay deposits and the dredged sandfill lying underneath the runway and
taxiway areas are being treated.

2.1.1 Treatment
The Engineers design requires that the soft clay be improved by the installation of prefabricated
vertical drains and the placement of surcharge. Following consolidation of the clay layers, the
sand underneath the runway and taxiway areas is to be compacted to a depth of 10 m such that
the CPT test shows the following minimum tip resistances:
Runway area : 15 Mpa
Taxiway area : 12 Mpa
Figure 1 shows a plan drawing of the runway and taxiway areas and a cross section showing the
reclaimed sandfill, the underlying clay and the area to be densified.

Taxiway
80m

Compacted
Sand 10 m
Runway sandfill
4000m
Treatment area Clay

Figure1: Plan drawing of the runway and taxiway areas and a cross section showing reclaimed sand fill and
the area to be densified.

Keller has been awarded contracts to densify the sands over an area of approx. 500,000 sq.m. of
the runway and taxiway areas using vibro compaction. These works started in January 1997 and
are expected to be completed in February 1999.

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Ground Improvement using Vibro Techniques · Case Histories from S.E. Asia

For the runway areas, a trial was carried out using three different equilateral triangular grid spacings
for the compaction points. Based on the results of the trial and taking into consideration factors
such as variations in soil conditions and the intention of minimizing recompaction, a grid spacing
of 2.5 m was chosen. The compaction process was monitored using automatic recorders. Settle-
ments following compaction of upto 1.0 m were recorded with typical values in the range of
0.7 m (7 % of depth of treatment).
A second trial was carried out to establish spacing and compaction sequence required to achieve
a CPT tip resistance of 12 Mpa in the taxiway area. Based on the results, a grid spacing of 3.0 m
triangular was chosen when working from existing ground level and a larger grid spacing used
when working from the top of a surcharged area.
Over 1.2 million cubic meters of sand underneath the runway and 2.5 million cubic meters of
sand underneath the taxiway have been compacted to date (August ‘98) by Keller.

2.1.2 Testing
The treatment area was divided into panels, each having an area of approx. 2,500 sq.m. Following
a period of 7 days after compaction, a CPT test was conducted in each panel. The tests were
conducted at locations as required by the Engineer and were typically at the centroid of the
triangle formed by three compaction points or at the midpoint between two compaction points.
Figure 2 shows typical CPT test results in a) uncompacted area b) post compaction test in taxi-
way area and c) post compaction test in runway area. In the areas where clay layers were found,
the required tip resistance cannot be achieved and the requirement had to be waived over the
thickness of the clay layer.

a) CONE RESISTANCE b) CONE RESISTANCE c) CONE RESISTANCE

0 4 8 12 16 20 MPa 0 4 8 12 16 20 MPa 0 5 10 15 20 25 MPa
0 0 0

2.5 2.5 2.5

5 5 5
Depth [m]

Depth [m]

Depth [m]

7.5 7.5 7.5

10 10 10

12.5 12.5 12.5

15 15 15

Figure 2: Results of CPT tests in a) uncompacted area, b) taxiway area after compaction and
c) runway area after compaction

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V. R. Raju · R. Wegner · D. Godenzie

2.2 PORT FACILITY, MERAK, INDONESIA

A new quayside unloading facility and breakwater is being built in Merak, West Java, Indonesia.
This is to facilitate the bulk delivery of materials for a pulp and paper manufacturing plant. Figure 3a
shows a plan drawing of the breakwater and the quay wall.
The quay walls are constructed by an interlocking system of tubular steel piles and sheet piles
(known as a combi-wall), together with an anchor wall and tie back rods to provide structural
stability. The new area created behind the combi-wall has been filled with dredged sand, together
with a lower fill zone on the off-shore side to provide stability to the toe of the wall. Figure 3b
shows a cross section of the combi-wall, the tie-rod and the sand fill. The breakwater is to be
constructed by installing two parallel lines of combi-wall with tie rods, together with an end
closure wall. The enclosed structure will also be filled with dredged sand, as well as an off-shore
fill zone to the toe of the walls.

a) b)
Rock armour sea wall
Line of combi - wall
Breakwater
Reclaimed area
(not treated) "Offshore" treatment

Warehouse area Quay

Storage area Combi - wall

Main quay
Tie rod

Reclaimed area Anchor wall

(not treated)

Compacted
sand fill

Treatment area

Figure 3: a) Plan drawing of the breakwater and quay wall

b) Cross section of quay showing combi-wall, tie rod and sand fill.

2.2.1 Treatment
The requirement of the ground treatment works was to compact the dredged sand with in the
combi-wall to a relative density of 70 %. The total volume of sandfill is approx. 1,300,000 cub.m.
with treatment depths up to 25 m.
Trials were performed prior to commencement of production works to assess the spacing re-
quired for the compaction points. Using a Keller S 300 vibrator, different rectangular grid spacings
were tested and works started with 2.7 m centres initially. Following testing, the centres were
opened up to 3.0 m c/c and all ensuing works were carried out with this spacing.
All compaction works were carried out in acordance with standard procedure and were moni-
tored using automatic recorders (Type Keller M4). Induced settlements of over 10 % of the

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Ground Improvement using Vibro Techniques · Case Histories from S.E. Asia

compaction depth have been recorded, with an average of 7 %. Two compaction units working
double shift - 6 days per week are being used to carry out the works.
Treatment to the off-shore sections, which are a 10 m wide strip along the toe of the wall, has
also been carried out from the top of the fill consisting 3 rows of compaction points.

2.2.2 Testing
Both pre and post CPT tests are performed at the rate of 1 test per 600 sq.m. to monitor the
effectiveness of the treatment. The requirement for compaction was a relative density of 70 %.
This was verified by determining the tip resistance corresponding to 70 % relative density using
the correlation of Schmertmann. Figure 4a shows the results of a CPT test before compaction.
Figure 4b shows a post compaction test result along with a curve for 70 % relative density according
to Schmertmann. The ground water table was at a depth of 3 m below ground level.

a) CONE RESISTANCE MPa b) CONE RESISTANCE MPa

0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
0 0

2 2

4 4

6 6
Depth [m]

Depth [m]

8 8

10 10
70% relative density acc.
12 12 to Schmertmann

14 14

16 16

Figure 4: Results of CPT tests; a) Precompaction-, b) Post compaction test result along with curve for
70 % relative density according to Schmertmann

3. VIBRO REPLACEMENT

Vibro replacement is a technique used to improve granular soils with high fines contents (>15 %)
and cohesive soils such as silts and clays. In this method columns made up of stone are installed
in the soft ground using the depth vibrator. The vibrator is used to first create a hole in the
ground which is then filled with coarse granular fill during withdrawal of the vibrator. The stone is
then laterally displaced into the soil following repenetration of the vibrator. In this manner a
column made up of well compacted stone fill with a diameter typically ranging between 800 mm
and 1,000 mm is installed in the ground.

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V. R. Raju · R. Wegner · D. Godenzie

Two methods of installation namely the ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ methods are available for the installation
of the columns. In the wet method water jets are used to create the hole and assist in penetra-
tion. In the dry method the hole is created by the vibratory energy and a pull down force. The
dry method is often required by the client because of its environmental friendliness (no dis-
charge water). For a more detailed description of the vibro replacement method, the reader is
referred to publications, such as those by Moseley and Priebe [1] and Raju et.al. [2] for further
details.

3.1 POWER PLANTS IN SANTA RITA, PHILIPPINES

A 1,000 MW combines cycle power station is in construction in Santa Rita, Batangas in Philip-
pines. An approach embankment is to be constructed to connect the unloading jetty with the
power station area. The cooling water intake and outfall pipes are built within the embankment.
The embankment also supports oil pipelines (see Figure 5).
The site is overlain by an approx. 3 m to 4 m thick soft silty, sandy clay layer which appears to be
deposits and remains from fish ponds and agricultural activities. This soft layer is underlain by
loose to medium dense silty sand layers having a fines content in the range of 10 % to 30 %. This is
followed by dense to very dense sand layers which were encountered at depths varying between
3 m and 15 m. The poor subsoil conditions and the intensity of possible earthquakes made an
extensive soil improvement programme necessary prior to embankment construction.

3.1.1 Treatment
A maximum peak ground acceleration (PGA) of 0.4 g is to be expected during possible seismic
events. This makes the loose to medium dense silty sand layer highly susceptible to liquefaction.
The presence of the soft clay layer at the surface posed problems with regard to slope stability.
Ground treatment was therefore required to:
1. Reduce the liquefaction potential in the sands and silts underlying the causeway area.
2. Provide effective drainage to the sands and silts to prevent build up of excess pore pressure
and hence the onset of liquefaction.
3. Increase the shear strength in the soft clay layers so as to assure adequate slope stability.

Stone columns installed using vibro replacement was selected to achieve the required ground
improvement since:
a. It forms in the soil large diameter columns of coarse, permeable material to act as drains
which allow immediate dissipation of excess pore pressures.
b. It compacts the in-situ sands, increasing their relative density. This is generally possible in
soils with fines content up to about 5 % to 8 %.
c. The columns made up of highly compacted granular material provide an overall gain in the
shear strength of the treated soil.

Figure 5 shows a cross section of the embankment along with the layout of the stone columns.

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Ground Improvement using Vibro Techniques · Case Histories from S.E. Asia

Intake pipes

Jetty
Stone columns under
jetty approach embankment

Outfall pipes

Treatment area Power

plant

30 m

Primary SC - grid
Second. SC - grid
Oil pipelines

Intake pipes Outfall pipes

Embankment

Stone columns not to scale

Figure 5: Schematic sketch showing jetty, pipelines and approach embankment to the power plant (top) and
a cross section of embankment (bottom)

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V. R. Raju · R. Wegner · D. Godenzie

3.1.2 Design Considerations

For the design, two functional requirements had to be met:
– reduction of liquefaction potential in the loose to medium dense sand to values safe for the
earthquake strength envisaged.
– improvement of shear strength in the soft silty clay underneath the causeway to ensure
embankment stability under earthquake conditions.
Figure 6 (curve marked ‘w/o SC’) shows the critical SPT values required such that a liquefaction
will not occur according to the method of Seed [3], for anaverage fines content of 15 % and a
peak ground acceleration of 0.4 g. The actual in-situ SPT values (curve marked ‘MCD04’) show
that the existing SPT values are lower than the required values indicating the possibility of lique-
faction in the silty sands.
Using the method of Priebe [4] and a stone column layout of 0.8 m diameter columns on a 2.0 m
square grid, the reduction in the required SPT values was calculated. The resulting curve is shown
in figure 6, marked as ‘with SC’. On comparing this curve with the actual in-situ values, it can be
seen that the existing values are higher and this provides the necessary reduction in liquefaction
potential.

soft silty
sandy clay

loose to
Depth (m)

medium
dense
10 silty sandy

15 MCD04,
02.03.-03.03.1998
dense to
very dense with SC
sandy w/o SC
CH80 / +01.0m CD ??
20
0 10 20 30 40 50
SPT - Value (N)

Figure 6: Plot showing existing in situ SPT values (MCD04), critical SPT values according to Seed (‘w/o SC’) and
critical SPT values after stone column treatment (‘with SC’) according to Priebe.

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Ground Improvement using Vibro Techniques · Case Histories from S.E. Asia

The soil at site surface is extremely soft and provides only very low shear resistance which is
inadequate for slope stability. Reinforcing this layer by a close stone column grid for liquefaction
prevention provided a factor of safety for slope stability of only 0.8. It was therefore necessary to
install a secondary stone column grid at the centre of the primary grid. The depth of this second-
ary stone column grid however was only over the depth of the soft sandy clay layer and the
loose to medium dense sand layer down to a depth where the shear resistance was sufficient to
provide the required stability, which was in the range of 8.0 m. Based on this layout, the required
FOS of 1.05 under earthquake loading was met. Under normal static conditions, the FOS was in
the range of 2.5 to 3.5.

3.1.3 Installation procedure

An installation method which minimises disturbance to nearby fish farms was required. The ‘dry’
method of installation was selected where the hole for the stone columns is formed by vibration
and displacement and the stones are introduced by ‘bottom discharge’ through a special stone
tube. Water jetting was not foreseen to be used except where hard layers were encountered
prior to reaching the required penetration.
Before start of stone column installation the top soil was removed from the ground surface and
a geotextile fabric was placed over the soft clay layer. An approx. 60 cm thick working platform
made up of non-cohesive fill was then placed over the geotextile. Clean, coarse graded stone
backfill material was imported to site for forming the well compacted stone columns with the
required shear resistance and permeability.

3.2 PUTRAJAYA BOULEVARD, MALAYSIA

The construction of the Boulevard in Putrajaya, the new administrative capital of Malaysia re-
quired the construction of embankments to a height of up to 18 m. The presence of extremely
soft organic clays to a depth of 8 m to 12 m posed problems of stability for the proposed em-
bankment. Soil investigations showed that the very soft organic clay layer had shear strengths in
the range of only 5 kPa to 7 Kpa and organic contents in the range of 10 % to 20 %.
The original solution as per conforming tender was to excavate out the soft clay and replace
with compacted suitable fill.This method posed problems with regard to excavation below ground
water level and inadequate dumping grounds for the excavated soil. As an alternative, the main
contractor proposed to improve the soil in-situ using vibro replacement. This method was also
more environmentally friendly when compared to the excavate and replace solution.

3.2.1 Treatment
The factor of safety against slope stability of the embankment on untreated ground was less than
1.0. To improve the shear resistance of the soft organic clay, stone columns were installed over
the full depth of the soft clay. A variety of stone column spacings were used depending on the
strength of the in-situ soil and embankment geometry. Figure 7 shows a cross section of the
embankment along with the zone of treatment using stone columns.

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V. R. Raju · R. Wegner · D. Godenzie

The extremely soft condition of the clay posed stability problems for the stone column installa-
tion equipment.Without a suitable platform, the equipment would simply sink into the soft ground.
To prepare a suitable working platform, the organic material on top was first cleared and a 1.0 m
thick sand platform was placed over the soft clay. In particularly soft areas where significant loss
of sand was expected, a 0.75 m thick cohesive fill layer was first placed by end dumping the mate-
rial and then the sand platform was placed on top.

+16 m
+13,5 m
+11 m

±0m

Stone columns

8m
Soft clay

Dense layers
80 m lateral extent

Figure 7: Cross section of the embankment showing zone of treatment using stone columns.

A combination of wet and dry methods was used for the installation. For the wet method sedi-
mentation ponds were required to assist in the general problem of mud handling normally asso-
ciated with these process. The dry method posed no problems with regard to environmental
considerations and work could proceed on a 24 hrs basis, uninterrupted.
A total of 165,000 linear meters of stone columns are to be installed over a period of 7 months.
These dry units working day and night and two wet units working day shift only have been used
to complete 130,000 lin.m. in about 5 months.

3.2.2 Monitoring
Embankment construction has commenced with fill heights of up to 6 m. To monitor the per-
formance of the ground, deep settlement gauges and inclinometers have been installed at regular
intervals. Preliminary results show settlements in the order of 10 to 15 cm (see figure 8) and
minimal lateral movements indicating satisfactory performance in terms of settlements and slope
stability.

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Ground Improvement using Vibro Techniques · Case Histories from S.E. Asia

6
Settlement [mm] Height [m]

0
10 20 30 40 50 60
-20

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120
Time, DAY

Figure 8: Plot of embankment height and corresponding settlement.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Land reclamation works for airports and harbours by dredging sand results in large deposits of
loose sandfills with relative densities in the order of 35 to 40 %. Vibro compaction has proven to
be an effective method of compacting these sandfills so as to allow structures such as airport
runways, quaywalls etc. to be built. Primary advantages are the ability to consistently achieve a
high degree of densification, a depth of treatment of up to 50 m and mimimum disturbance to
neighbouring structures.
The risk of seismic events in countries such as the Philippines poses problems of liquefaction of
the natural sandy deposits. Vibro replacement is being used to densify and hence increase the
shear resistance and decrease the liquefaction potential of these soils.
Where the soils are made up of very soft silts and clays, even soils with undrained shear strength
values as low as 5 kPa. Vibro replacement has proven to be a reliable method for improving these
soils and allowing the construction of structures such as embankments. Safety against slope fail-
ure is assured and long term settlements minimised.

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REFERENCES

1. Moseley, M. P. and Priebe, H. J. “Vibro techniques”, Ground Improvement.

Edited by M. P. Moseley, Blackie Academic, pp 1–19, 1993.

2. Raju, V. R., Masud Alam, Paul Ha. “Vibro replacement - a technique for extensive ground
improvement works in very soft cohesive soils at the Shah Alam Expressway”,
Proc. of the 4th Geotech Colloqium, Darmstadt. Germany, 1997.

3. Seed, H. B. and Idriss, I. M. “Simplified procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential”.
J. of Soil Mech. and Found. Div. ASCE Vol. 97, 1971.

4. Priebe, H. J. “The prevention of liquefaction by vibro replacement”,

Proc. of Intl. Earthquake Conf. Berlin, 1989.

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