1. What is Electronics?

ECE engineering is the study of electronic devices, their use in system design, digital and analog designing, study of
communication devices and so many other subjects.

2. What is meant by D-FF?

Simply a Delay (D) flip flop. The D-flip flop just transfers the input to the output on the ACTIVE (positive/negative) edge
of the clock. So whatever may be your clock frequency, you can delay any signal for the clock period.

May be this would help :

Input | Output

0|0

1|1

Input will reach the output at the active clock edge.

3.What are the functions of Base Station System (BSS)?

Responsible for managing the radio network & it is maintained by MSC. Typing one MSC contains several BSS.

4.Define the terms.

1.Resistor: A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current in an electronic
circuit.
2.Capacitor : A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field.
3.Diode: A diode is a semiconductor device with two terminals, typically allowing the flow of current in one direction
only.
4.Transistor: A transistor is a semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate
for electronic signals.

5.What is the basic difference between Latches and Flip flops?

A Latch is a circuit element that alters the output based on the current input, previous input, and previous output.

The flip-flops are built from latches and it includes an additional clock signal apart from the inputs used in the latches.

Types

There are four types of latches namely SR Latch, D Latch, JK latch, and T Latch.

There are four types of flip flops namely SR Flip-flop, D Flip-flop, JK Flip-flop, and T Flip-flop.

Built from
They are built from logic gates to form sequential circuits.

They are built from latches with an additional clock signal to form sequential circuits.

Output changes

When there is a change in the input during the continuous input checking process.

Of course, the outputs are computed based on the inputs during the continuous input checking process but they are
computed only when the time signal is ‘+ve’.

Sensitive to?

It is sensitive to the input switch and we can transmit data as long as it is ‘On’.

It is sensitive to the clock signals and it never alters the output until there is a change in the input clock signal.

How do they work?

It works purely based on the binary inputs.

It works based on the binary inputs as well as on the clock signal.

Trigger Type

It is level triggered as the output gets changed based on the binary levels ‘0’ or ‘1’.

It is edge triggered as the output gets changed based on the ’+’ or ‘-’ clock signals.

Can be used as a register?

No. As registers need more sophisticated electronic circuits where time plays an important role. Here we miss the clock
or time signals and hence it cannot be used as a register.

Yes. It includes clock signals in its inputs and therefore, cascaded flip-flops can be used as registers.

Synchronous?

No. It is asynchronous as it never works based on the time signals.

Yes. It is synchronous as it works based on the clock signals.

6. What is wireless communication concept?

Wireless communication is the transfer of information between two or more points that are not connected by any
physical medium. Wireless communications can be via:
1. Radio communication.
2. Microwave communication.
3. Light, Visible and Infrared communication.

7.What are the parts of Network Management System (NMS)?

Following are the parts of network management system:
 OMC: Operation and maintenance center – Computerized monitoring center.

 NMC: Network Management Center – Centralized control of a network is done here.

 OSS: Operation and support system – Used for supporting activities performed in an OMC and/or NMC.

8.What is a signal?

A signal is an electrical or electromagnetic current that is used for carrying data from one device or network to another.

A signal is a single-valued function of time that conveys information. In other words, at every point in time there is a
unique value of the function. This value may either be a real number, giving a real valued signal, or a complex number,
giving a complex valued signal.

9.What is a multiplexer?

A multiplexer is an electronic device which converts many digital or analog signals into one output signal using several
control lines.

The no of control lines can be determined by the formula 2^n=r where r are the no of input signals and n the no of
control lines required.

Conversely,

A demultiplexer is one which converts one input signal into many hence called demultiplexer or in short demux.

The same formula is used to determine the number of control lines.

One of the use of mux and demux is to send more data over a network over smaller bandwidth. Mux is used at the
sender’s end and demux at the receiver’s end.

Multiplexer has many inputs & one output.

It includes Data selector.

It is a Parallel to serial conversion.

Types of multiplexers are 8:1, 16:1 and 32:1

Demultiplexer has one input & many outputs.

It includes Data distributer.

It is a Serial to parallel conversion.

10.What do you mean by frequency reuse ?

In this, a group of cells (referred to as a cluster) is allocated a particular frequency, and all cells in this cluster share the
same frequency.

Frequency reuse is the practice of splitting an area into smaller regions that do not overlap so that each utilizes the full
range of frequencies without interference.

11.What are applications of DSP?

Some selected applications or digital signal processing that are often encountered in daily life are listed as follows:

 Telecommunication: Echo cancellation in telephone networks.

 Military Radar signal processing

 Consumer electronics Digital Audio/TV

 Instrumentation and control

 Image processing image representation, image compression

 Speech processing speech analysis methods are used in automatic speech recognition

 Medicine Medical diagnostic instrumentation such as computerized tomography (CT)

 Seismology DSP techniques are employed in geophysical exploration for oil and gas.

 Signal Filtering Removal of unwanted background noise.

12.What is sampling?

A continuous time signal can be represented in its samples and can be recovered back when sampling frequency fs is
greater than or equal to the twice the highest frequency component of message signal.

13.What is Race-around problem? How can you rectify it?

Race around condition occurs in a JK flip-flop when both the inputs are set to ‘1’, it can be rectified using edge-triggered
flip-flop or using master-slave flip-flops

14.What do you mean by Handoff ?

When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in progress, the Mobile Switching
Center automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new Base Station.

15. Explain radio environment in building.

 Building penetration: Building penetration depends on the material used for construction and architecture used. This
varies building to building and is based on building construction.

 Building Height Effect: The signal strength is always higher at top floor and generally floor gain height is about
2.7dB/floor which is not dependent on building construction.

 Building Floor Reception: The signal isolation between floors in a multi floor building is on the average about 20dB.
Within a floor of 150 * 150 feet, the propagation loss due to interior walls, depending on the wall materials is about 20
dB between the strong and the weak areas.
16. State sampling theorem.
It states that, while taking the samples of a continuous signal, it has to be taken care that the sampling rate is equal to
or greater than twice the cut off frequency and the minimum sampling rate is known as the Nyquist rate.

17.How can you convert an JK Flip-flop to a D Flip-flop?

Connect J to D and K to not(D)

18.What do you mean by Network and Switching Subsystem ?

t controls hand offs between cells in different BSSs, authenticates users , validates and maintains their accounts.It is
mainly supported by four databases:-
1. Home Location Register.
2. Visitor Location Register.
3. Authentication Center.
4. Equipment Identity Register.

19.What are the various types of numbers for network identity?

Various types of number for network identity are as follows:

 MSISDN (Mobile station ISDN) Number: It is international mobile subscriber number which is normally called mobile
number. It is unique worldwide.

 MSRN (Mobile Subscriber Routing Number) : MSRN is used during mobile terminate trunk call to provide location of
mobile subscriber.
 HON (Hand Over Number) : HON is used for providing information required to transfer call from one B?SC to another
BSC or to another MSC.

 ISMI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity Number) : Purpose of ISMI is for location update and authentication.

 TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity) : TMSI is used instead of IMSI to improve security efficiency of network.
 IMEI : International Mobile Equipment Identity.
20.What is cut-off frequency?
The frequency at which the response is -3dB with respect to the maximum response.

21. What do you mean by zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown?

zener breakdown takes place when very high voltage is applied to the diode this results in very high reverse current, as
voltage is further increased minority carriers gain further momentum and strike atoms releases more carriers, which
results in further increase in temp. It becomes vicious cycle and leads to avalanche breakdown or on other words
“thermal runaway”.

22. What are the different types of transmission impairment?

When the received signal is not as same as the transmitted signal then it is known as Transmission impairment. Three
different types of transmission impairment are:-
1. Attenuation.
2. Noise.
3. Delay Distortion.
23.What are GPRS services?
 GPRS services are defined to fall in one of the two categories: PTP (Point to point)

 PTM (Point to Multi point)

Some of the GPRS services are not likely to be provided by network operators during early deployment of GPRS due in
part to the phased development of standard. Market demand is another factor affecting the decision of operators
regarding which services to offer first

24.What is pass band?

Passband is the range of frequencies or wavelengths that can pass through a filter without being attenuated

25.What are the different types of filters?

analog filters n digital filters not sure what u meant

27.What is the principle of microwave?

Microwave essentially means very short wave. The microwave frequency spectrum is usually taken to extend from 1GHZ
to 30GHZ. The main reason why we have to go in for microwave frequency for communication is that
lower frequency band are congested and demand for point to point communication continue to increase. The
propagation of the microwave takes place in space wave in v
28.What is impulse response?
Response given by a digital system when impulse signal is applied to it. Used to find out stability of system

9. How can a Pseudo Random Noise Code be usable?

To be usable for direct sequence spreading, a PN code must meet the following conditions:

 Sequence must be built from 2 leveled numbers.

 The codes must have sharp auto correlation peak to enable code synchronization.

 Codes must have a low cross-correlation value, the lower it is, more are the number of users which can be allowed in
the system.

 The codes should be “balanced” i.e. the difference between ones and zeros in code may only be one.
30.What is the principle of microwave?
Microwave essentially means very short wave. The microwave frequency spectrum is usually taken to extend from 1GHZ
to 30GHZ. The main reason why we have to go in for microwave frequency for communication is that
lower frequency band are congested and demand for point to point communication continue to increase. The
propagation of the microwave takes place in spacewave in view of high gain and directivity in the form of a bean and is
similar to that of light.

31.What do you mean by half-duplex and full-duplex communication? Explain briefly.

Half-duplex: either sender or receiver can use the channel at one time eg walky-talky and full-duplex: sender or receiver
or both can use the channel at one time eg telephone)

2. What is communication?
Communication means transferring a signal from the transmitter which passes through a medium then the output is
obtained at the receiver. (or)communication says as transferring of message from one place to another place called
communication.

3. Different types of communications? Explain.

Analog and digital communication.
As a technology, analog is the process of taking an audio or video signal (the human voice) and translating it into
electronic pulses. Digital on the other hand is breaking the signal into a binary format where the audio or video data is
represented by a series of "1"s and "0"s.
Digital signals are immune to noise, quality of transmission and reception is good, components used in digital
communication can be produced with high precision and power consumption is also very less when compared with
analog signals.

4. What is sampling?
The process of obtaining a set of samples from a continuous function of time x(t) is referred to as sampling.

8. What is stop band?

A stopband is a band of frequencies, between specified limits, in which a circuit, such as a filter or telephone circuit,
does not let signals through, or the attenuation is above the required stopband attenuation level.

9. Explain RF?
Radio frequency (RF) is a frequency or rate of oscillation within the range of about 3 Hz to 300 GHz. This range
corresponds to frequency of alternating current electrical signals used to produce and detect radio waves. Since most of
this range is beyond the vibration rate that most mechanical systems can respond to, RF usually refers to oscillations in
electrical circuits or electromagnetic radiation.

10. What is modulation? And where it is utilized?

Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic of a periodic wave with an external signals.
Radio communication superimposes this information bearing signal onto a carrier signal.
These high frequency carrier signals can be transmitted over the air easily and are capable of travelling long distances.
The characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of the carrier signal are varied in accordance with the information
bearing signal.
Modulation is utilized to send an information bearing signal over long distances.

11. What is demodulation?

Demodulation is the act of removing the modulation from an analog signal to get the original baseband signal back.
Demodulating is necessary because the receiver system receives a modulated signal with specific characteristics and it
needs to turn it to base-band.

12. Name the modulation techniques.

For Analog modulation--AM, SSB, FM, PM and SM
Digital modulation--OOK, FSK, ASK, Psk, QAM, MSK, CPM, PPM, TCM, OFDM

13. Explain AM and FM.

AM-Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with
the information bearing signal.
FM-Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with
the information bearing signal.

14. Where do we use AM and FM?

AM is used for video signals for example TV. Ranges from 535 to 1705 kHz.
FM is used for audio signals for example Radio. Ranges from 88 to 108 MHz.

15. What is a base station?

Base station is a radio receiver/transmitter that serves as the hub of the local wireless network, and may also be the
gateway between a wired network and the wireless network.
16. How many satellites are required to cover the earth?
3 satellites are required to cover the entire earth, which is placed at 120 degree to each other. The life span of the satellite
is about 15 years.

17. What is a repeater?

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or higher power, or onto
the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation.
18. What is an Amplifier?
An electronic device or electrical circuit that is used to boost (amplify) the power, voltage or current of an applied signal.

19. Example for negative feedback and positive feedback?

Example for – ve feedback is ---Amplifiers and for +ve feedback is – Oscillators

20. What is Oscillator?

An oscillator is a circuit that creates a waveform output from a direct current input. The two main types of oscillator are
harmonic and relaxation. The harmonic oscillators have smooth curved waveforms, while relaxation oscillators have
waveforms with sharp changes.

21. What is an Integrated Circuit?

An integrated circuit (IC), also called a microchip, is an electronic circuit etched onto a silicon chip. Their main
advantages are low cost, low power, high performance, and very small size.

22. What is crosstalk?

Crosstalk is a form of interference caused by signals in nearby conductors. The most common example is hearing an
unwanted conversation on the telephone. Crosstalk can also occur in radios, televisions, networking equipment, and
even electric guitars.

23. What is resistor?

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that opposes an electric current by producing a voltage drop between
its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR.

26. What is conductor?

A substance, body, or device that readily conducts heat, electricity, sound, etc. Copper is a good conductor of electricity.

27. What is a semi-conductor?

A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between that of a conductor and that of an insulator
(An Insulator is a material that resists the flow of electric current. It is an object intended to support or separate electrical
conductors without passing current through itself); it can vary over that wide range either permanently or dynamically.

28. What is diode?

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal device. Diodes have two active electrodes between which the signal of interest
may flow, and most are used for their unidirectional current property.

29. What is transistor?

In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals. The
transistor is the fundamental building block of computers, and all other modern electronic devices. Some transistors are
packaged individually but most are found in integrated circuits

30. What is op-amp?

An operational amplifier, often called an op-amp, is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with differential
inputs and, usually, a single output. Typically the output of the op-amp is controlled either by negative feedback, which
largely determines the magnitude of its output voltage gain, or by positive feedback, which facilitates regenerative gain
and oscillation.

31. What is a feedback?

Feedback is a process whereby some proportion of the output signal of a system is passed (fed back) to the input. This
is often used to control the dynamic behaviour of the system.

32. Advantages of negative feedback over positive feedback.

Much attention has been given by researchers to negative feedback processes, because negative feedback processes lead
systems towards equilibrium states. Positive feedback reinforces a given tendency of a system and can lead a system
away from equilibrium states, possibly causing quite unexpected results.

33. What is Barkhausen criteria?

Barkhausen criteria, without which you will not know which conditions, are to be satisfied for oscillations.
Oscillations will not be sustained if, at the oscillator frequency, the magnitude of the product of the
transfer gain of the amplifier and the magnitude of the feedback factor of the feedback network (the magnitude of the
loop gain) are less than unity” .
The condition of unity loop gain -A? = 1 is called the Barkhausen criterion. This condition implies that
A?=1 and that the phase of - A? Is zero.

34. What is CDMA, TDMA and FDMA?

Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method utilized by various radio communication technologies.
CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code)
to allow multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel. By contrast, time division multiple access
(TDMA) divides access by time, while frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) divides it by frequency.
An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people wish to communicate with each other.
To avoid confusion, people could take turns speaking (time division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or
speak in different directions (spatial division). In CDMA, they would speak different languages. People speaking the
same language can understand each other, but not other people. Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is given
a shared code. Many codes occupy the same channel, but only users associated with a particular code can understand
each other.

35. Explain different types of feedback

Types of feedback:
Negative feedback: This tends to reduce output (but in amplifiers, stabilizes and linearizes operation). Negative
feedback feeds part of a system's output, inverted, into the system's input; generally with the result that fluctuations
are attenuated.
Positive feedback: This tends to increase output. Positive feedback, sometimes referred to as "cumulative causation", is
a feedback loop system in which the system responds to perturbation (A perturbation means a system, is an alteration
of function, induced by external or internal mechanisms) in the same direction as the perturbation. In contrast, a
system that responds to the perturbation in the opposite direction is called a negative feedback system.
Bipolar feedback: which can either increase or decrease output.

36. What are the main divisions of power system?

The generating system, transmission system, and distribution system

37. What is Instrumentation Amplifier (IA) and what are all the advantages?
An instrumentation amplifier is a differential op-amp circuit providing high input impedances with ease of gain
adjustment by varying a single resistor.

38. What is meant by impedance diagram?

The equivalent circuit of all the components of the power system are drawn and they are interconnected is called
impedance diagram.

39.What is the need for load flow study?

The load flow study of a power system is essential to decide the best operation existing system and for planning the
future expansion of the system. It is also essential for designing the power system.

40. What is the need for base values?

The components of power system may operate at different voltage and power levels. It will be convenient for analysis of
power system if the voltage, power, current ratings of the components of the power system is expressed with referance
to a common value called base value.

What are different categories of antenna and give an example of each?

Different categories of antenna are as follows:

1. Wire Antennas - Short Dipole Antenna

2. Microstrip Antennas - Rectangular Microstrip (Patch) Antennas
3. Reflector Antennas - Corner Reflector
4. Travelling Wave Antennas - Helical Antennas
5. Aperture Antennas - Slot Antenna
6. Other Antennas - NFC Antennas

What is handover and what are its types?

Handover in mobile communication refers to the process of transferring a call from one network cell to another
without breaking the call.
There are two types of handover which are as follows:

Hard Handoff: hard handoff is the process in which the cell connection is disconnected from the previous cell before it
is made with the new one.

Soft Handoff: It is the process in which a new connection is established first before disconnecting the old one. It is thus
more efficient and smart.

What is ionospheric bending?

When a radio wave travels into the ionospheric layer it experiences refraction due to difference in density. The density
of ionospheric layer is rarer than the layer below which causes the radio wave to be bent away from the normal. Also the
radio wave experiences a force from the ions in the ionospheric layer. If incident at the correct angle the radio wave is
completely reflected back to the inner atmosphere due to total internal reflection. This phenomenon is called ionospheric
reflection and is used in mobile communication for radio wave propagation also known as ionospheric bending of radio
waves.

What is CDMA?

CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access which uses digital format. In CDMA systems several transmissions via
the radio interface take place simultaneously on the same frequency bandwidth. User data is combined at the
transmitter’s side with a code, then transmitted. On air, all transmission get mixed. At the receiver's side the same code
is used as in the transmitter’s side. The code helps the receiver to filter the user information of the transmitter from
incoming mixture of all transmissions on the same frequency band and same time.

Explain the concept of frequency re-use.

The whole of the geographical area is divided into hexagonal shape geometrical area called cell and each cell having its
own transceiver. Each BTS (cell site) allocated different band of frequency or different channel. Each BTS antenna is
designed in such a way that i cover cell area in which it is placed with frequency allotted without interfering other cell
signals. The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all of the cellular base station within system is
called frequency reuse.

Explain Bluetooth.

Bluetooth is designed to be a personal area network, where participating entities are mobile and require sporadic
communication with others. It is omni directional i.e. it does not have line of sight limitation like infra red does. Ericsson
started the work on Bluetooth and named it after the Danish king Harold Biuetooth. Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz
area of spectrum and provides a range of 10 metres. It offers transfer speeds of around 720 Kbps.

8. What are the advantages of CDMA?

Advantages of CDMa are as follows:

1. Frequency diversity : Transmission is spread out over a large bandwidth due to that less affected by noise. If
bandwidth is increased S/N ratio increases, which means noise will be reduced.
2. Multiplication Resistance: Chipping codes used for CDMA not only exhibit low correlation but also low
autocorrelation. Hence a version of the signal that is delayed by more than one chip interval does not interfere with
dominant signal as in other multipath environments.
3. Privacy: Due to spread spectrum is obtained by the use of noise like signals, where each user has a unique code, so
privacy is inherent.
4. Graceful Degradation. In CDMA, more users access the system simultaneously as compared to FDMa, TDMA.

9. What are the advantages of spread spectrum?

SPread spectrum has the following advantages:

1. No crosstalk interference.
2. Better voice quality/data integrity and less static noise.
3. Lowered susceptibility to multipath fading.
4. Inherent security.
5. Co-existence.
6. Longer operating distances.
7. Hard to detect.
8. Hard to intercept or demodulate.
9. Harder to jam than narrow bands.
10. Use of ranging and radar.

10. Explain the steps involved in demodulating a signal.

Once the signal is coded, modulated and then sent, the receiver must demodulate the signal. This is usually done in two
steps:
1. Spectrum spreading (e.g., direct sequence or frequency hopping) modulation is removed.
2. The remaining information bearing signal is demodulated by multiplying with a local reference identical in structure
and synchronised with received signal.

11. How can a Pseudo Random Noise Code be usable?

To be usable for direct sequence spreading, a PN code must meet the following conditions:

1. Sequence must be built from 2 levelled numbers.

2. The codes must have sharp autocorrelation peak to enable code synchronization.
3. Codes must have a low cross-correlation value, the lower it is, and more are the number of users which can be
allowed in the system.
4. The codes should be “balanced” i.e. the difference between ones and zeros in code may only be 1.

14. List some advantages of GSM.

Here are some advantages of GSM:

1. GSM is mature, this maturity means a more stable network with robust features.
2. Less signal deterioration inside buildings.
3. Ability to use repeaters.
4. Talk time is generally higher in GSM phones due to pulse nature of transmission.
5. The availability of Subscriber Identity Modules allows users to switch networks and handset at will.
6. GSM covers virtually all parts of world so international roaming is not a problem.

19. What is analog-to-digital conversion of signals?

A discrete-time signal is defined by specifying its value only at discrete times, called sampling instants. When the
sampled values are quantised and encoded, a digital signal is obtained. A digital signal is obtained from the analog signal
by using an analog-to-digital converter. This entire process is referred to as the conversion of signals from analog to
digital form.

20. What are the properties of ROC for z-Transform?

Properties of the ROC for the z-Transform:

1. X(z) converges uniformly if and only if the ROC of the z-transform X(z) of the sequence includes the unit circle. The
ROC of X(z) consists of a ring in the z-plane centered about the origin. That is, the ROC of the z-transform of x(n) has
values of z for which x(n) r-n is absolutely summable.
2. The ROC does not contain any poles.
3. When x(n) is of finite duration then the ROC is the entire z-plane, except possibly z=0 and/or z=infinity.
4. If x(n) is a right sided sequence, the ROC will not include infinity.
5. If x(n) is a left sided sequence, the ROC will not include z=0. However if x(n)=0 for all n>0, the ROC will include
z=0.
6. If x(n) is two sided and if the circle |z| = r0 is in the ROC, then the ROC will consist of a ring in the z-plane that
includes the circle |z|=r0.
7. If X(z) is rational, then the ROC extends to infinity, i.e. the ROC is bounded by poles.
8. If x(n) is causal, then the ROC includes z=infinity.
9. If x(n) is anti- causal, trhen the ROC includes z=0.

what is interrupt?

An interrupt is a signal from a device attached to a computer or from a program within the computer that causes the
main program that operates the computer (the operating system) to stop and figure out what to do next. Almost all
personal (or larger) computers today are interrupt-driven - that is, they start down the list of computer instruction s in
one program (perhaps an application such as a word processor) and keep running the instructions until either (A) they
can't go any further or (B) an interrupt signal is sensed. After the interrupt signal is sensed, the computer either
resumes running the program it was running or begins running another program.