Half-tones, Screen Angles & Moiré

What these terms mean & what you should know.

Eureka Printing Company, Inc.

106 T Street
Eureka, California 95501
(707) 442-5703
(707) 442-6968 Fax
ekaprint@pacbell.net (DSL line)
ekaprint@humboldt1.com

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Eureka Printing Company, Inc.
encourages you to contact us
during the planning stages of your
project so that we can help you
with any questions or concerns
you may have. We are happy to
provide you with this basic
information, but please be advised
that these pages are only general
guidelines. Your project may
require different procedures.
Screening Technologies
Images can either be created within the computer with a vector based illustra-
tion application or may be nondigital and originate from a source external to the
computer, like a scanner or digital camera.
The image is placed onto the page layout programs and combined with other
objects to produce the final document. When the application sends the print job
to the printer, it converts the color data in the image into the cyan, magenta,
yellow and black (CMYK) color-separation files.
The separation files are sent to a raster image processor (RIP) that converts the
information in the separated files into binary data and sends the data to an
imagesetter. The imagesetter contains a laser that combines the laser spots into
cells which form halftone dots on the film and create the image. The imagesetter
will output four pieces of film, each containing one of the color separations.
Halftoning – A Definition
A halftone screen is a pattern of shapes that is used to simulate various intensi-
ties in the image (i.e., darker to lighter) with a single ink. Halftone screening is
the process of reproducing a continuous-tone image with an imagesetter by
using dots of various sizes and density to emulate shades of color. On laser print-
ers that cannot print different sizes of dots, the halftone is produced by printing
different numbers of dots in a given area.
The halftone-screen size corresponds to the size of the image, and the imagesetter
places each screen of halftone cells in its location on the image by using a re-
corder grid. You could compare the recorder grid to a series of addresses that the
imagesetter uses to determine where and how to place the halftone screens when
it creates the image.
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Halftone type refers to the type of dot that is being used to create the halftone.
Typically, a halftone screen consists of rows of evenly spaced, round or diamond-
shaped dots. However, it is possible to use halftone screens that have dots that
are shaped differently. In fact, halftone screens can even use straight lines instead
of dots to create an image. You can experiment with different halftone types to
create interesting effects.
If you are printing a black-and-white image, the printer will recreate it with black
ink only. Screening adjusts the concentration of black dots on the page to repro-
duce the shades of gray between black and white.

The halftone dots are grouped into grids of printer spots to form cells. If the
screen frequency is set so that 100 spots (or points on the paper that the
imagesetter can define) can be inked or not, then many shades of color can be
produced within the cell. When the screen frequency is set to only 10 printer
spots, fewer colors can be produced per cell. The capacity of an imagesetter to
place printer dots on an image is defined as its resolution and is measured in dots
per inch (dpi).

What Is Screening?
Originally, a halftone screen was an opaque screen with thousands of tiny holes.
An image with shading was photographed through this screen using special pho-
tographic paper or film. The resulting image consisted entirely of dots. This
image could then be used to create printing plates. Now, halftoned images are
created with software to simulate the effect of a halftone screen. The halftone,
used in conjunction with the color-separation process, is necessary to convert
photographic images into material printed using process colors.

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To the eye, a photographic image appears as a continuous-tone image because
the chemicals used to produce the image blend smoothly at different intensities
to produce shades of color. The printer creates the illusion of all those different
colors and shades of color by overlaying patterns of tiny dots in only four col-
ors—cyan, magenta, yellow and black. These colors, called process colors, are
used to reproduce full-color images on a printing press. Although your monitor
may be capable of producing millions of colors, a printer is capable of reproduc-
ing only a few thousand colors.

The screening process combines the technologies of halftone screening and color
separation. The screening patterns form the shape and density of the dot pat-
terns required for each of the four-color separations. When the four colors are
combined in these patterns, the illusion of all the other colors and shades of
color in the image are created.The screen technology should be set to match the
type of imagesetter your service bureau will be using. Talk to your service bureau
to determine the correct setting. If you are not using an imagesetter or you are
unable to speak to your service bureau, use the standard default settings.

Screen Frequency
The halftone-screen frequency determines the number of dots used to create the
image. The screen frequency is measured in lines per inch (lpi) or lines per cen-
timeter (lpc). This measurement refers to the number of vertical rows of dots
per inch (dpi) or centimeter.
When you choose a screen frequency remember that the higher the screen fre-
quency, the sharper the image. However, there are limits to screen frequency that
are determined by the type of printing press on which you are printing and the
type of paper you are using. In general, a screen frequency of 85 lpi works on
newsprint, and a frequency of 100 lpi or higher works on bond and glossy paper.
If possible, consult your service bureau or printing shop to determine the screen
frequency you should use.

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Imagesetters create screens using differing screen frequency values. When the
screen frequency is high, the higher resolution screen produces an image with
more detail. A lower screen frequency (the effect is exaggerated in the apple on
the right) produces a screen with less detail and the image will look grainy.

Moiré Effect
Because each halftone screen consists of a regular pattern of shapes, it creates a
pattern on the printed image. When the separations are combined, the patterns
created by each separate halftone screen interact. This interaction can create an
undesirable effect called a moiré pattern. These patterns appear when an image
is printed from color separations with incorrect halftone screen angles. There-
fore, the four screens used in the color-separation process must be properly
aligned to avoid undesirable geometric patterns in an image.
Moiré patterns can be eliminated by changing the screen angle of each color
separation. If you were using an actual screen and a camera, you would rotate the
screen 15° by hand for each separation by hand. However, because you are using
software to create halftone screens, you must change certain print options to
change the screen angle. When you print color separations, the screen angles are
set automatically. If you change these settings incorrectly, your image may not
print properly.

Above is an example of moireé displaying a rosette pattern in the screening.

Consult your service bureau before you change any of these settings.

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Conventional Screen Angles
The image is converted to four grayscale separations based on four process inks
used to print the image. Conventional screen angles for a CMYK image are dem-
onstrated in the separations below.

Cyan: 15° Magenta: 75° Yellow: 0° Black: 45°

Early printing with CMY devices achieved best results when the screens were
offset from each other at 45°, with the yellow screen at 0°. With the introduction
of CMYK four-color printing, the screens could no longer be rotated in 30° incre-
ments because four rotations of 30° exceeded a total of 90° and a 0° screen would
give the same results as the 90° screen. A compromise was achieved by offsetting
three of the screens by 30° and the fourth by 15°.
Note: Most manufacturers use proprietary algorithms to generate screen fre-
quencies and angles that may not conform exactly to traditional screening.

Screening Considerations
Screen angles are offset so that the moiré pattern can be avoided; however, when
you combine the four-color separations, the slightest misalignment of the sepa-
rations can lead to moiré. This can also result in color shifting because misalign-
ment of the halftone dots can result in a change of dot density. To correct this
problem, the screen frequency or angle must be modified. Some experienced
operators will modify default screen angles, but this is probably something that
should not be attempted from the desktop.

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Halftoning and Banding
Halftones
Halftoning is a method of creating the illusion of shades of gray by using only
black ink on a white background. In the past, laser printers and offset printing
presses could print only one solid color, as solid spots of ink were placed on the
paper. This process was useful when newsletters, newspapers and books were
the only things being printed. Its greatest limitation was the inability to repro-
duce photographic images accurately, and this limitation created the need for the
halftone process.
Originally, a halftone screen was an opaque screen with thousands of tiny holes.
An image with shading was photographed through this screen using special pho-
tographic paper or film. The resulting image would consist entirely of dots. This
image was then be used to create printing plates. Now, we create halftoned im-
ages with software to simulate the effect of a halftone screen.
Commercial printing presses are unable to produce true shading, but they can
create the illusion of shading by printing images made up of tiny dots. The size of
the dots determines the different levels of shading (i.e., the larger the dots, the
darker the shade). A halftone screen is necessary to convert images with true
shading into images made up of tiny dots.
The output device groups together a small grid of device pixels to create a half-
tone dot. The size of the pixels depends on the resolution currently being used
for printing. The size of the grid depends on the lines per inch (lpi) generated by
the output device. The pixels are colored or uncolored in a pattern within the
grid to create halftone dots. The halftone dots emulate shades of gray through-
out the image. The human eye registers a shade of gray when, in fact, it is looking
at a fine pattern of black-and-white dots.
To demonstrate this, create an object defined as 50% gray. When printed, half of
the dots within one cell of this grid will be turned on, black, and the other half of
the dots will remain off, white. The pattern is then replicated throughout the
object to make it appear to be gray in color.

This illustration is a typical halftone dot created by a printer. The small grid
represents the device pixels, and the large dot created by filling the grid is the
halftone dot. A collection of grids is assembled into a group that creates the
image. This is called a halftone screen.

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The image will have either the smooth appearance of a continuous tone image or
look like a newapaper photograph depending on four factors:
Dot Shape – Although halftone dots can be any shape, the industry has standard-
ized on an elliptical shape because it is less likely to “clog” or become muddy in
the midtones. The elliptical shape also means that each halftone dot can be placed
closer to the adjacent dot before it contacts its neighbor.
Dot Density – Density is a measure of the proportion of dots in a given area of the
image.
Screen Angle – Because each halftone screen consists of a regular pattern of
shapes, it creates a pattern on the printed image. When the separations are com-
bined, the patterns created by each separate halftone screen interact. This inter-
action can create an undesirable effect called a moiré pattern that can be elimi-
nated by changing the screen angle of each color separation. If you were using an
actual screen and a camera, you would rotate the screen by hand 15° for each
separation. However, because you are using software to create halftone screens,
you must change certain print options to change the screen angle. When you
print color separations, the screen angles are set automatically. If you make in-
correct changes to these settings your image may not print properly.
Screen Frequency – The halftone-screen frequency determines the number of
dots used to create the image. The screen frequency is measured in lpi. This
measurement refers to the number of rows of dots per inch. When you choose a
screen frequency, remember that the higher the screen frequency, the sharper
the image. However, there are limits to screen frequency that are determined by
the type of printing press on which you are printing and the type of paper you are
using. In general, a screen frequency of 85 lpi works on newsprint, and a fre-
quency of 100 lpi works on bond and glossy paper. If possible, consult your ser-
vice bureau or printing shop to determine the screen frequency you should use.

Banding
Banding in halftones is the appearance of distinct steps across a fountain fill
rather than a smooth transition of shades. It is the result of abrupt changes in
shades or color in objects with a graduated or “stepped” transition from one
color to another.

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PostScript® Level 3 technology
can render 4096 levels of gray.
There are several factors that affect the amount of banding in an object, and you
can work with each as follows:
Object Size – Decrease the width of an filled object so that fewer steps are re-
quired across the color gradation.
Number Of Fountain Stripes – Increase the number of fountain steps or bands in
the Fountain Fill dialog box.
Percentage Of Gray Change – Decrease the degree of change from one color to
another in the fountain fill.
Printing Resolution – Increase the resolution of the print job.
Screen Frequency – Lower the screen frequency as set in the Printer Driver dialog
box or the Options\Options\Advanced dialog box of the Corel Print Engine.
Example: A black-to-white color change is from 100% to 0% black. You can deter-
mine the optimal number of steps required to make this color change in a foun-
tain fill by dividing the printer resolution (dpi) by the screen frequency (lpi) and
multiplying by the desired percentage change in color to determine the number
of steps required. For example: (300 dpi/60 lpi = 5) x 1.00 = 5.
The value for Screen Frequency depends on the PostScript® output device, the
color being used and the print job. This value should be assigned by your service
bureau.
PostScript® Level 2 Printing
With current PostScript Level 2 technology, the output device is limited to a total
of 256 shades total on a single color or a grid that is based upon 16 X 16 halftone
cells = 256 shades of gray. By dividing the desired resolution of your output by
16, you can determine the maximum screen frequency that the device can use to
achieve 256 shades of gray. The printer will accept other values, but the grid may
be limited. Using a lower number may cause the image to be more coarse than
desired. Similarly, using a high value may cause banding to be more prominent in
the document.
Example: A 300 dpi laser printer prints at 60 lpi. Using the above formula, 300 dpi/
16 = 18.75 lpi. Although grouping 16 device pixels together at 300 dpi will force
the printer to produce a coarse image, this value of 18.75 will result in a smooth
gradation between colors within the size limitations. Using 60 will produce a
reasonable image but the printer will be limited to as many shades of gray as it
can actually print. Whether this will be noticeable or not depends on the fountain
fills in the document, how they were created and the quality of output desired.
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Note: The current PostScript technology limits the maximum number of bands
to 256.
By using the method below, you can determine how many shades of gray or
bands in a fountain fill are available to the printer based on the current dpi and
lpi. It is then possible to determine if banding will be noticeable in certain ob-
jects. After the file has been sent to the printer, the PostScript interpreter will
make the changes to the values that you have specified.
The human eye can see objects as small as 0.03 inches (1/32") in size, bands in the
fountain fill as small or smaller than this will usually appear smooth. To deter-
mine the size of a band, divide the number of bands by the length of the object
containing the fountain fill.
If the size of the band is smaller than 0.03 inches, banding will not be noticeable.
Number of Bands = [(dpi/lpi)² x (% gray change)]/100 where dpi = resolution
and lpi = screen frequency.
The Adobe® PostScript® Language Reference Manual* (the “Red Book”) reads:
“…the best choice of screen parameters is often dependent on specific physical
properties of the output device itself (e.g., pixel shape, overlap between pixels,
and effects of electronic or mechanical noise). …The setscreen operator may
make slight adjustments to the requested frequency and angle so as to ensure
that the patterns of enclosed pixels remain constant as the screen cells are repli-
cated over the entire page.”
If you are creating black-and-white fountain fills only, this seems fairly straight-
forward; however, when you are using color, it is necessary to calculate the gray
equivalent. The following formula is from the Adobe PostScript Language Refer-
ence Manual:
% gray = 0.30 x (% red) + 0.59 x (% green) + 0.11 x (% blue)

* PostScript Language Reference Manual (c) 1985 Adobe Systems Incorporated,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.

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