Quarry Seminar 2015

Quarry Management
Optimisation of Quarrying
Requires an overview of operations, technology and markets
Organisation Mgt.
Technology Pit Plant Sales
 end-product volume sales

Market  pricing
analysis  costs
 stockpiling / waste
=> right mix of all issues?
Sandvik Mining and Construction

Quarry Management
Quarrying operations
Shotrock fragmentation curve

Shotrock fragmentation
100
Evaluate rock curve
Crush and size shotrock
50
0
1 10 100 1000 mm
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
Selling and
Sell and supply
Drill rock Blast rock Move shotrock supplying
rock products
rock products

Quarry Management
Process Management
Crush & Screen

Dump Shaping aggregates
Surge bin Capacities of desired
Haul capacities fractions
Cycle times
Haul road
Load quality
Dig rates
Drill & Blast

Straight-hole drilling
Fragmentation
Muckpile profile
Floor control

Quarry Management
Load & Haul – Practical cost reduction
The influence of operators
truck loading
 Rehandling /
Short cycle
Volvo comprehensive operator evaluation 2012
 73 operators
 classified in 4 levels:
- novice, average, inside professional, external professional
• Load & carry

 metrics
(crushed
stone)
- measured productivity and fuel efficiency for 3 cases
 tested in 3 applications
(digging rock)
 Face loading
Quarry Management
Load & Haul – Practical cost reduction
Volvo Comprehensive Operator Evaluation 2012
A. Between ‘novices’ and ‘professional’ operators:

 productivity varies as much as 700%
 fuel efficiency varies as much as 200%
B. Excluding ‘novices’:
 productivity still varies as much as 300%
 fuel efficiency still varies as much as 150%
Fuel burn (t/litre)

C. Strong linear relation between experience and
results
 more experience (trained) = better results
Production (t/hour)

Quarry Management
Quarry Reviews
 benchmark processes – productivity & costs
 the target is to reduce the overall productions costs
=> success comes when:

 equipment selection and logistics match local site
conditions and production requirements
 everyone in the loop gets the picture and has a
stake in the optimal result
Drill 10%
Haul 30%
Blast 11%
Oversize 1%
Load 15%
Crush & Screen 33%

Quarry Management
Quarry Reviews
 Summary of pie chart
D&B => 22%
L&H => 45%
C&S => 33%
 a 10% increase in D&B compensated by a reduction in:

L&H => 0.1 · 22 / 45 = 0.049 or 4.9%
C&S => 0.1 · 22 / 33 = 0.067 or 6.7%
 a 1€ decrease in … compensated by an increase in D&B:

L&H => 45 / 22 = 2.05€
C&S => 33 / 22 = 1.50€

Quarry Management
Occupational health and safety
 work related accidents for:
 mobile equipment
 hazardeous work areas
 emissions control
 noise control
 dust control
 fly rock / charging / straight-hole drilling
 falling rocks / wall control
 safety is linked as much to equipment as

it is to atitudes
 health, safety and environmental issues
are everyone’s concern
 the ultimate target is zero harm – not
just a minimum occurrence of accidents

Quarry Management
Assessment of work related health risks
by authorities in Sweden ( UG + SF )
Risk
Musculoskeletal
disorders
Stress/mental
Silicosis workload
Diesel
Oil mist Radon Vibrations Noise
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Quarry Management
Safety of inpit operations
 unwanted incidences do not just happen – they have root causes
 actions can be taken so as to reduce frequency and consequences
of unwanted occurrences
 the relationship between complexity and knowledge in the workforce
is often unbalanced - e.g. operator hazard training is a must!
Premature ignition of Pit wall failure

electric detonators and burying 3 drill
blast due to lightning rigs in rubble

Quarry Management
Flyrock
MEMU electric fire

and detonation
Before
After

Quarry Management
Rollover from terrain

Tramming bench - 35m drop
Fire in motor
Drilling into dynamite

Blast Management
The 6 elements of successful blasting operations
 match drill patterns to rock conditions
 match shotrock fragmentation to worksite requirements
 match muckpiles to loading equipment (digger)
 rate explosives performance by VOD measurements
 minimise blast damage in highwalls, control ground vibrations and flyrock
 straight hole drilling

Blast Management
Blast data
Jelsa Quarry Norway
Rock type Granodiorite
Bench height 9m
Drill-hole diameter Ø89 mm
Drill pattern 3.2 x 2.7 = 8.6 m2
Explosive Slurrit 700 (SSE)
Powder factor 0.78 kg/bm3
Subdrilling 1.5 m
Uncharged 2.2 m
Rows 6
Row delays 67 ms Video: Iver Hauknes, Orica Mining Services
Hole delays 25 ms
Throw 40 m
H
Muckpile swell 1.39
Throw

Blast Management
Shaping muckpiles to maximise loading rates
12
4 SB = 2.25 x 2 m
16
Rows = 3
0
12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 m
8
20
4
SB = 3 x 2.5 m
16 Rows = 5
0
12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 m
SB = 2.9 x 2.4 m
4
Rows = 4
Surveyed Ø76mm / ANFO
0
Shotrock profiles – wheel loaders
0 10 20 30 40 50 m

Blast Management
Example of blasting with tighter drill patterns and E-dets
Std. blast Test blast

Blast Management
Confined detonation and rock fracturing process
Unreacted explosive
Detonation front
Shock front
Expanding shothole
Radial fracturing in
progress
PETN fired in
Gas venting
Photo: Algot Persson, SveDeFo plexiglass (PMMA)

Blast Management
Fracture damage reduction to crests
Example of HSBM modelling of a Ø251mm / emulsion shothole with E‐dets
Toe and center

Toe priming priming

Blast Management
Axial priming of shotholes using E-dets
Primer ( E-det )
Overlapping
compressive
waves – which in
Leading the free face are
compressive reflected as 2x
waves tension waves –
with additional
slabbing as a
result
Trailing
tensile
waves
Primer ( E-det )

Blast Management Liberated rock - boulder zone from
uncharged portion of blast
Fractured rock - well fragmented
zone from charged portion of blast
Blasting results Boulder “skirt” from
front row and crest
UCH
 shotrock fragmentation
H
 muckpile throw, swell and CL
loadability SUB
 side / back break and floor Shotrock throw New floor

onto old floor

Blast Management
Characterisation of shotrock fragment size distribution
- ( k1 / k50 ) n
P( ki ) = 100 · [ 1 - 2 ]
Aggregates k50 = 200 and n = 1.125
P( ki ) = passing in % for size ki
Rockfill dams k50 = 270 and n = 1.25
ki = fragment size in mm ( Li ) Armourstone k50 = 615 and n = 1.25
n = uniformity index
100
k50 = mean fragment size ( 50% passing )
Cumulative passing (%)

80
60
50
40
20
k50
Fragment dimension L (mm)

Blast Management
Uniformity index n - effect of bench charging zones
A simplified expression for estimating the shotrock uniformity index is:
n = 1.60 · ( k50 / 270 ) 0.61 · fCL
fCL = “charged” bench height ratio
Since the shotrock fragment size distribution parameters k50 and n are dependent
parameters, this leads to a simplification in that it is not necessary to find separate blast
design guidelines for both size distribution parameters - only the mean fragment size k50.
Terrain blast Bench blast

fCL = ( H - UCH ) / H fCL = ( H - UCH + SUB' ) / H
Terrain blast
SUB'
UCH
H H
Bench blast
SUB SUB

Boulder Management
Where do boulders originate?
 primarily from the uncharged portion of blasts
 poorly blasted backwalls (now front rows),
sidewalls and corners
 seams / dykes within blasts 2.2
 poor field performance of explosives

2.0
Ratio ( k50-shotrock / k50-CL )

 poorly drilled patterns (drill-hole deviation)
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
“Charged” bench height ratio, ƒCL
k50-shotrock = k50-CL / ƒCL0.76

Boulder Management
Stemming for flyrock and airblast control
Stemming material
For aggregates, use approx. 15% of drill-hole diameter in hard rock
as mean fraction size, e.g. for Ø76mm use fraction 8 – 16 mm.
Stem plug
Note: - friction coefficient μ increases for weaker minerals
- friction coefficient μ decreases with water content
Stem plugs allow for additional stemming length reductions

- Vari-Stem
- StemTite
- Foam Stem
Item No Plug Vari-Stem
VOD for ANFO charge 3660 m/s 3666 m/s

Time to stemming movement 2.3 ms 5.3 ms Primer
Velocity within stemming 482 m/s 281 m/s

Boulder Management
Match column charging to blast conditions
Standard Soft Soft Soft
design Rock Rock Rock
=> not always the best? => reduces fines (and PF) => reduces boulders => less stem ejections
=> lower charge per hole => less stem ejections => increase SB by 15%
=> adjust stem length to CD
Stem plug
Air deck Weak charge

(low charge density)

Boulder Management
Match column charging to blast conditions
Standard Hard Hard Hard
design Rock Rock Rock
=> not always the best? => reduces stem ejections => reduces boulders => reduces fines (and PF)
- not always boulders (best with E-dets) => less stem ejections
Stem plug Stem charge
Pipe charge

Boulder Management
Typical inpit usage of hydraulic excavator mounted breakers
 down-sizing boulders BR 3088
 removing floor humps
Boulders per hour

 scaling and cleaning back walls
 breaking up frozen sub-drill zones prior to removal
Boulder size (m3)

Blast Management
How finer fragmented shotrock can be achieved
 enhance overlap of radial fractures from neighbouring shotholes
 enhance growth of fractures by stress wave re-inforcement
Start-off
pattern
Stress wave
re-inforcement Primer ( E-det )
(multiple priming)
Tighter
pattern
Stronger
explosive
Primer ( E-det )

Blast Management
Explosives performance
Explosive type Velocity of Energy Charge Water resistance

detonation, VOD 1 EE density, CD
(m/s) (MJ/kg) (g/cm3)
ANFO 2,3 2200 - 4300 3.9 0.40 - 1.05 Poor
HANFO 2 4000 - 6000 3.5 0.95 - 1.30 Fair

Augured blends => 10 - 50% Emulsion (can not augur holes with standing water)
Pumped blends => 55 - 100% Emulsion
Watergels 2,6 4200 - 5500 2.9 0.80 - 1.25 Good
Emulsions 2,4,5 4200 - 6200 3,1 0.90 - 1.30 Good
1 Typically commercial explosives have non-ideal detonation resulting in higher VODs and detonation pressures
for increasing shothole diameters and confinement.
Critical density and critical diameter defined as value where detonation does not take place.
2 Up to 10% Al powder is can be added to increase bottom charge energy content and detonation pressure.
3 Water resistance can temporarily be improved by wax coating of prills.
Differential ANFO density charged columns can also be used. ANFO can poured, augured or blown into holes.
4 Emulsions sensitised by micro-balloons or by gassing (column expansion completed after 30 – 60 minutes
dependent on temperature). Differentially gassed columns can also be used.
5 Doped emulsions – i.e. emulsions with up to 30% AN prills (pumped).
6 Watergels are typically sensitised by gassing – and stiffen by crosslinking. Less adhesive to walls than emulsions.

Blast Management
Energy (density) distribution within shotholes
Blown AnB Poured Augured Gassed

ANFO - 0.85 HANFO - 1.15 Emulsion ~ 1.18
ANFO - 0.45 +
ANFO - 0.85 Emulsion
Al-ANFO - 0.95 cartridges

Blast Management 100 BI = 0.58
Drill pattern versus hole diameter 70
Scaled drill pattern parameters: 50

Better
4/5 4/5 · 
SB = constant · ( Q1 /  ) · ( k50 / 270 ) blastability
30
k50-new  k50-old · ( SBnew / SBold ) 0.8  1.3
25
20
15
Drill pattern, SB (m2)

10
Finer
fragmentation
7
50 70 100 150 200 300 400
Drill-hole diameter, d (mm)

Blast Management
Explosives performance rated by VOD measurements
 exact timing and good positioning of primers in explosive columns
 variation of VOD along explosive columns
 occurrence of malfunctioning explosive columns
VOD = 4198 m/s
VOD = 4279 m/s VOD = 3921 m/s

Premature initiation
of upper deck due
to insufficient
length of decking
VOD = 4208 m/s

Malfunction in bottom
3m of column due to
water attack on ANFO
Malfunction of bottom
charge due to water
attack on ANFO

Blast Management
VOD = 4650 m/s VOD = 670 m/s

due to stress induced deflagration
of the gassed emulsion
1
2
1 2
0.5 m
Intended hole
2.5 m bottom position
Actual hole
bottom position
Delay time
42 ms between holes

Blast Management
6.0
Distance (m)
Top portion
of column Dyno
charge 4.8
Gold SD
initiated by
top (backup) 5750 m/s
primer 3.6
Primer
Bottom
2.4
500 (ms)
portion of 2279 m/s Horizontal
column joint
charge 1.2
deflagrated 5736 m/s
0 Primer
Deflagration 475 (ms)
110.6 110.9 111.2 111.5 111.8 112.2
started from
horizontal Time (ms)
open joint

Blast Management
VOD’s in sandstone and waste coal seam
 Ø251mm – gassed emulsion blend
 sandstone – P wave cp => 3900 m/s
 waste coal – bulk wave => 2500 m/s
Courtesy BME

Blast Management
Explosives performance rated by visual observation
Potential for flashover initiation or

dead-pressing or deflagration
through open joints - when the
flushing medium comes out of
neighbouring drill-holes

Blast Management
Blast damage / adverse blast area edge effects / drilling
 open corner damage
 back- and sidebreak
 induced plane and wedge failures
 flyrock from walls, 1st row toes, poor 1st row drilling
 open joints and mud seams
 drill patterns that fit poorly into the blast area
20m
15
10
0
20m 15 10 5 0

Blast Management
Open corner and mudseam damage
Open corner
damage
Mudseam
or shear
Side-break due to
open corner damage

Blast Management
Shothole delays – what do we know?
■ hard rock - use shorter delays
■ soft rock - use longer delays
■ row delays - increase with burden or charge per meter Q1

■ hole (spacing) delays - increasing delays result in coarser fragmentation
- short delays result in more backbreak
■ longer row delays - will increase muckpile throw lengths

- increase muckpile swell
■ shorter row delays - will limit muckpile swell, increase heave and
occurrence of flyrock
■ rock with open joints - decrease delay times due to rapid blowouts
■ blast with many rows - increase row delays with row count so as to reduce
flyrock and backbreak (especially for tight timing)

Blast Management
Shothole delays – phenomena we can observe
■ blast geometry - burden, spacing, charge per meter Q1 (or diameter d)
■ twall - time to first observable movement of bench face
■ texpansion = %swell • B / vwall - time to allow for rock in burden to expand or swell
■ muckpile profile - wheel loader operations (long throw and flat muckpile)
- shovel operations (short throw and high muckpile)
H
- selective mining (little movement so as to reduce dilution)
Throw
■ “perfect” video blasts - termed “well timed” blasts
■ “tight” video blasts - termed “tightly timed” blasts

Blast Management
Result of tight timing between rows
Rear-end packing of muckpiles occurs
due to decreasing burden relief in the
Blasting front walls shaped by back-break: last rows, i.e. insufficient room for
 excessive flyrock due to high column volume expansion or swell of each row.
charge or small front row burden giving rise
Heave, crest failures and back-spill also
to blowouts and gas venting of shotholes
tend to increase with row count for
 followed by an excessive loss of shothole tightly timed blasts.
pressure with reduced heave as a result
Primary toe problem area since:

 excessive bottom-hole burden and reduced
pressure leads to reduced front row throw
 with insufficient heave and liberation of
the fragmented rock mass before the next
Back-break
row is on its way
profile
New floor
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6

Blast Management
Shot firing with row and hole delays
trow = row (burden) delays

= constant · B
thole = hole (spacing) delays

= constant · S

Blast Management
Shothole delays – plots for NONEL
“well” timed
200 blasts
100
150
80 “well” timed
blasts
100 60
“tightly”
80 timed blasts
Row delays ∆trows, milliseconds
Hole delays ∆thole, milliseconds

40
60
“tightly”
timed blasts
40
20
excessive
backbreak
occurs
20 when
10 combined
with tight
8 row delays
10
60 80 100 150 200 300 60 80 100 150 200 300
Diameter d, mm Diameter d, mm

Blast Management
How drilling and blasting affect down-stream operations
Drilling Blasting Loading Crushing
 sizing drill patterns  field performance  loadability and  boulder downtime

 drilling accuracy of explosives loading capacities  crushing capacities
 shotrock fragmentation  selectivity in  power consumption
 boulders mining & industrial
mineral operations  production of fines
 floor humps and waste
 fines and fragment
microfractures
 muckpile profiles & swell

Fines Management
Nodest Vei A/S, Norway - effect of shotrock micro-fracturing
Rock type Anorthosite
Explosive Slurrit 50-10 Feed 0 - 950 mm
Test blasts 4 x 50 000 tonnes
Bench height 11 m
40
0 - 300 mm
Percentage of 0 - 32 (mm)
Ø115
Belt
35 weights
Ø89 Ø102 0 - 70 mm
30
Large SUB’
from prior
25 Ø76 0 - 32 mm
bench level
20
70 80 90 100 110 120 32 - 64 mm
Hole diameter, d (mm)

Drilling Management
Agenda for successful drilling operations
 well planned operations and correctly selected rigs lowers drilling costs
 technically good drilling (good drill settings) and correctly selected drill steel
lowers drilling costs
 straight hole drilling yields safe and low cost D&B operations

Drilling Management
How to improve drilling operations
 productivity => technically good drilling?
=> capacities (drm/shift)
 operator skills => up to date? use of KPIs
 cost effectiveness => typical costing items – fuel, service, etc.
=> pit producing the right stuff?
=> correct hole size as to fragmentation?
 pit design and layout => bench heights, terrain benches, …
=> drainage, transport distances, roadway quality, …
Unmarketable Stockpiled
fines boulders

Drilling Management
The most common drilling methods in use
Uniaxial compressive strength, UCS (MPa)
Down-the-Hole
(pneumatic) - 54
Top Hammer
(hydraulic or
pneumatic) - 45
Rotary pulldown (tonnes)

350 -
- 36
280 -
Rotary - 27
210 - (roller bits)

- 18
140 - - 9
70 - Rotary
(drag bits)
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 "
25 51 76 102 127 152 178 203 229 254 279 305 330 356 381 mm

Drilling Management
Typical problems in drilling operations
 selected correct rig size / moving times / terrain benches?
 excessive drill-hole deviation?
 low shift capacities?
 high fuel consumption?
 flushing / cuttings removal?
 excessive drill steel breakage?
 availability of local service?
 setting out drill patterns – use of TIM-3D?
 collapsing holes / time consuming drilling through overburden?
 noise, dust dampening in urban area?
 drilling into explosives

Quarry Management
Urban drilling
Neighbourly relationships – noise, dust (bagging or vacuuming), …
NoiseGuard reduces noise

levels by approx. 10 dB(A)

Drilling Management
Guidelines for selecting cemented carbide grades
 avoid excessive button wear (rapid wearflat development)
=> select a more wear resistant carbide grade or drop bit RPM
 avoid button failures (due to snakeskin development or too aggressive button shapes)
=> select a less wear resistant or tougher carbide grade or spherical buttons
=> use shorter regrind intervals
48 DP65 PCD ?

Drilling Management
Selecting button shape and cemented carbide grade
Spherical buttons
DP65
S65
Robust ballistic buttons

48
R48

Drilling Management
Over-drilled bits – what to do?
Gauge buttons heavily worn down – due
to too high bit RPM’s (i.e. adhesive wear)
Vgauge = π · 0.076 / ( 60 / 122 )
= 0.49 m/s
Broken buttons due to sharp wearflat

edges – regrind more often so as to
maintain button shape!
Limestone 0.7 m/s

Granite 0.4 m/s
Quartzite 0.25 m/s

Drilling Management
Bit regrind intervals, bit service life and over-drilling
2000
1000
600
400
200
100
Bit regrind intervals (drm)

d d
60
d/3 d/3
40
20
Premature
button 10
failures 8
6
2
20 40 60 100 200 400 1000 2000 4000 10000
Bit service life (drm)

Drilling Management
Trendlines for bit service life
20000
Rotary Drilling - Ø311mm / Std.
10000 DTH *
6000 Tophammer *
4000 * Bit service life highly dependent
on regrind intervals – regard
curve as a top limit
2000
Max bit service life (drm/bit)
1000
600 Limestone
400
Dolomite
200
Granite
100
1 2 4 6 10 20 40 60 100 200
Quartzite
Siever’s J Value, SJ

Drilling Management
Example of drill steel followup for MF-T51
20000
16000
10000
Short holes
6000
Rod and shank service life (drm)

4000 Long holes
2000 Spread in
data due to
1000 calculations
in drm and
600
not in rdm
400
Shanks
200
MF-T51 rods
100
50 100 200 400 600 1000 2000 4000 10000

Drilling Management
Ratio of rod-meters to drill-meters
Single pass Short holes Long holes
(1 rod) (2 rods) (4 rods)
1 · 4 = 4 rdm 4m 1 · 4 = 4 rdm 4m 1 · 4 = 4 rdm 4m

2 · 4 = 8 rdm 4m 2 · 4 = 8 rdm 4m
Σ 4 rdm Σ 4 drm 3 · 4 = 12 rdm 4m
Σ 12 rdm Σ 8 drm 4 · 4 = 16 rdm 4m
∴ ( rdm / drm ) = 4 / 4 = 1.0
∴ ( rdm / drm ) = 12 / 8 = 1.5 Σ 40 rdm Σ 16 drm
∴ ( rdm / drm ) = 40 / 16 = 2.5
Formula: ( rdm / drm ) = ½ ∙ ( N + 1 )

Drilling Management
Example of application – drill steel service life
Single pass Short holes Long holes
(1 rod) (2 rods) (4 rods)
Rod life 8000 rdm Rod life 8000 rdm Rod life 8000 rdm
( rdm / drm ) = 1 ( rdm / drm ) = 1.5 ( rdm / drm ) = 2.5
∴ Rod life 8000 / 1 ∴ Rod life 8000 / 1.5 ∴ Rod life 8000 / 2.5
= 8000 drm = 5333 drm = 3200 drm
Relative rod life
1.0
{ ½ ∙ ( N + 1 ) } ‐1
0.75
0.50
0.25
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Ratio ( rdm / drm )

Drilling Management
Jobsite KPI’s for drill steel
 drill steel component life
 bit regrind intervals
 bit replacement diameters
 component discard analysis
 costs in € per drm or m3

Drilling Management
Mechanics of percussive drilling
PERCUSSION
Percussive drilling
 Down-the-hole, DTH
FEED Stress waves transmitted directly through bit into rock
ROTATION
 Tophammer
Stress wave energy transmitted through shank, rods,
bit, and then into rock
FLUSHING
Basic functions
 percussion - reciprocating piston used to produce

CUTTINGS stress waves to power rock indentation
 feed - provide bit-rock contact at impact
 rotation - provide bit impact indexing
 flushing - cuttings removal from hole bottom
 foam flushing - drill-hole wall stabilisation

Drilling Management
Flushing of drill-cuttings
Insufficient air < 15 m/s Too much air > 30 m/s Correction factors
 low bit penetration rates  excessive drill steel wear  high density rock
 poor percussion dynamics  erosion of collars  badly fractured rock
 interupt drilling to clean holes  extra dust emissions (air lost in fractures
- use water or foam to
 plugged bit flushing holes  increased fuel consumption mud up hole walls)
 stuck drill steel  high altitude
 ”circulating” big chip wear (low air density)
 large chips require
additional air as well
Flift Flift
G G

Drilling Management
Collar erosion – use of flushing aids for stabilisation
With water injection (or foam) No water injection
 cleaner collars  loose stones can make holes
 no loose stones “unchargeable” – requiring redrilling
 easy to charge  problems increase with water saturation
and thickness of prior sub-drill zone
 drill-hole deviation starts with poor
collaring

Drilling Management
Foams seal and stabilise walls – and improve flushing
Loss of in- Loss of Seal collar
hole air cuttings and joints
Erosion of When bit

collar and loss retracted to
of feed foot this position –
hold cuttings slip
past bit and fill
up hole
bottom

Drilling Management SUB'
Protecting drill-hole collars

- in wet and damaged rock conditions H
Remove prior
sub-drill zone
SUB
Reusable
neoprene
collar piping
Reusable
steel collar
piping
Throw-away
cardboard
collar piping Terrain bench
plastic sleeves

Drilling Management
Foam flushing – an aid for drilling in caving material
tough hole
Time consumption for 2 holes normal hole
25
20
rock found with tube #5 uncoupling

15
Burst of inhole water drilling uncoupling
Hole depth (m)
tube #2 back
10
to carousel
5
hole ready
hole ready - 22 min 1h 46min
0:00:00 0:14:24 0:28:48 0:43:12 0:57:36 1:12:00 1:26:24 1:40:48 1:55:12
Time (h:min:s)

Drilling Management
Casing wall clearance – 5” hammer
■ new bit diameter 152 mm
■ casing diameter 126 mm
■ clearance 26 / 2 = 13 mm
■ worn bit diameter 130 mm

■ casing diameter 126 mm
■ clearance 4 / 2 = 2 mm
■ min. recommended 6.5 mm

■ recommended 13 mm
wall clearance

Drilling Management
Some strengths and weaknesses
TH DTH Rotary
■ General weaknesses - drill string - fuel efficiency - heavy rig

- operator skills
■ Drill steel - rods / tubes - tubes - tubes
■ Soft rock good good + good +
■ Hard rock good + good - (rot. heads) good (for big bits)
■ Broken rock (flushing) good - good good -
■ Running water OK OK - OK -
■ High altitude

Drilling Management
Chip formation by bit indentation and indexing
Direction of
bit rotation
Spray paint applied
between bit impacts
Button footprint area
Chipping around the

Ø76mm bit button footprint areas

Drilling Management
How rock breaks by button indentation
Fbutton Fbutton
Energy used
for rock
breakage
k1 Energy lost as
elastic rock
deformation
1
ubit
ubit ubutton
Vcuttings
Volume of
cuttings
Abutton footprint
ubit

Drilling Management
Energy transfer efficiency η
‐ related to impedance matching between bit and drill steel forces
Lpiston 2 · Lpiston
Feed force
 impedance Fbit
k1
k1 = bit indentation resistance (kN/mm) ubutton

Drilling Management
Stress under an indenting button
σbutton = Fbutton / Abutton = f · UCS
Fbutton
f = 5.5 for “static” button loading

11.5 for “dynamic” button loading
ubit Abutton = π · 2t · u ≈ π · dbutton · u
Abutton footprint
∴ Fbit = N · Fbutton
= N · π · 2t · u · f · UCS

Drilling Management
How do we study energy transfer issues?
 strain gauge measurements on rods/tubes while drilling
 online stress wave amplitude measurements by lasers
 numerical modelling
=> the tell-tale items we are looking for:
incident
wave
1st compressive
Stress in rods, σ (MPa)
1st γ reflection
1st tensile
bit mass
… etc.
Time, t (ms)
Drilling Management
Energy transfer chain – video clip cases
cavity
“perfect” bit / rock match
bit / rock gap – i.e. underfeed
bit face bottoming – caused by:

■ drilling with too high impact energy
■ drilling with worn bits i.e. too low button protrusion
■ drilling with too few buttons

Drilling Management
Energy transmission through threads Compressive wave 
Energy transfer efficiencies can be divided into:

 energy transmission through the drill string
- optimum when the cross section throughout
the drill string is constant  Tensile wave
- length of stress wave
- weight of bit
 energy transmission to rock

- bit indentation resistance – k1
- bit-rock contact
- elastically stored energy (rock breakage or rebound?)
The most critical issue in controlling stress waves in the drill string is to avoid high tensile
reflection waves (from bit or shank-end).
Tensile stresses are transmitted through couplings by the thread surfaces - not through
the bottom or shoulder contact as in the case for compressive waves.
High surface stresses combined with micro-sliding result in high coupling temperatures and
heavy wear of threads.

Drilling Management
Tensile waves reduce drill steel service life – 3 cases
20000
16000 Shanks
10000 MF-T51 rods
Rod and shank service life (drm)
6000
4000
SR
2000
1000
600
HR
400
200
100
50 100 200 400 600 1000 2000 4000 10000
 Tensile wave Compressive wave 

Drilling with
underfeed

Drilling Management
Tube drilling for TH – avoid:
 bending of drill string - leads to premature tube failures
 heavy rebounds or bit service life < 1750 drm - leads to poor tube life
 jerky tube rotation - leads to an unstable bit which initiates drill-hole deviation
Flushing housing
for tubes
2 x slot plates with

cut-outs for larger
tube diameters 2 x R/C jaws for tubes
Centraliser jaws for tubes

Guide plate for tubes

Drilling Management
Case study – Singrauli Coal Mine, India
■ Rock Overburden sandstone
■ Drill rig P1524 / HL1560T / chain feed Bottom
■ Tubes ST68 threads / Ø96mm / 2 x 12’ SP strike
■ Bits Ø152mm / 6” Retrac
Shoulder
strike
■ Bit penetration rate 112 drm/ph = 1.87 m/min
■ Feed-percussion ratio 90 bar / 150 bar = 0.60
■ Bit service life 5679 drm

■ Shank service life 3589 / 19137 / 25840 drm
■ Tube service life 1362 / 5047 / 11187 drm
With guide plate

for tubes installed

Drilling Management
Feed force requirements
From a drilling point of view From a mechanical point of view
- to provide bit-rock contact - compensate piston motion
- to provide rotation resistance - compensate linear momentum
so as to keep threads tight of stress waves in rods
Rod force
Feed force
Stress waves in rod (MPa)

Piston movement (mm)
Ffeed = 2 · mvp · f · ( 1 + β )

Drilling Management
Short history of drilling control systems
 avoid broken steels => anti-jamming and feed speed controls
 avoid stuck steels => flushing control
 avoid longterm drilling with UF => feed-percussion pressure linkup
=> RockPilot (feed-percussion-feed speed linkup)
 enhance smoother drilling => drill steel torque control
=> DPi
 as rig and hammer sizes increase - importance of drilling control systems increase
 as drilling control systems advance - sensor data can also be used for drilling
performance data collection (MWD)
 bit and drill steel selection - no system guidance as to bit selection, …

Drilling Management
What drilling controls do
 feed speed control => avoids bit rushing through joints and voids
 flushing control => reverses feed direction if no air flow
 anti-jamming => reverses feed direction if rotation pressure over limit
=> frequently activated - a sign of poor flushing?
=> frequently activated - results in STOP-GO drilling
due to recollaring algorithm
 feed-percussion linkup => avoids longterm under and over feeding
 torque control => smooth drilling through joints, avoids STOP-GO, …

Drilling Management
Matching drill settings to site conditions - TH
Same bit in 2 different

rock types or quarries
BPR ratio
 single pass
Fbit
Feed ratio k1-soft

( pfeed / pperc. )  1
k1-soft k1-good rock ubutton
k1-soft k1-good rock
Rock hardness
Button count and size
( and bit size )
Drilling Management Drilling in variable rock mass
k1-void  0 Total overfeed Very fast

(feed speed control)
BPR ratio
k1-good rock OK Medium
(ratio set here)
 single pass
k1-joint < k1-good rock Overfeed Fast
k1-good rock OK Medium
k1-hard layer > k1- Underfeed Slow

Feed ratio 
good rock
( pfeed / pperc )

k1-soft k1-good rock
Actual feed Actual feed
Situation => conditions speeds
k1-good rock
k1-hard layer
k1-joint
k1-void

Drilling Management
Summary of TH percussion dynamics
Piston strike Contact 2 Contact 3 - m bit
energy Rotation
Ffeed
Contact 1 Drilling control range Contact 4 - gap
200  (  γ ) Fbit

σ (MPa)
150
100
50
-50 Wrock =  F du
-100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
k1 ubutton
(ms)
Percussive Energy transfer Bit indentation
energy transfer efficiency work

Drilling Management
Improving operator productivity and skills
 training facilities
- traditional inpit
- simulator for DPi series
- vocational schools
 objectives
- improve overall drilling performance
- increase skills as to drilling in
difficult rock mass conditions

Drilling Management
Can we drill straight holes?
Ventilation Shaft, Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant
Shaft diameter, Section I Ø6.5 m
Shaft length 15 m
Rock type Quartz Diorite
Contour hole size Ø60 mm
Contour hole charging 80 g/m cord
Contour hole spacing 0.4 m
Contour row burden 0.7 m

Drilling Management
How do we go about drilling straighter holes?
 understand the many issues leading to
drill-hole deviation
 technically good drill string
 technically good drill rig, instrumentation, …
 motivate the drillers!

Drilling Management
What happens when we shoot holes that look like spaghetti?
 blast patterns change locally
(at hole bottoms)
Drill-hole collar positions

Drill-hole positions at hole bottom
 floor humps => poor loading conditions, uneven floors

 poor walls => unstabile walls
=> difficult 1st row drilling and blasting
 flyrock from walls => safety, dust, toes, …
 blast direction => quality of floors and walls
 shothole deflagration / misfires => safety / explosives in muckpile
=> locally choked muckpiles (poor diggability)
 good practice => max. drill-hole deviation up to 2 – 3%
for production drilling

Drilling Management
Accurate drilling gives effective blasting
Sources of drilling error
1. Collar position
2. Hole inclination and direction
3. Deflection (bending)
4. Hole depth
5. Omitted or lost holes
6. Shothole diameter (worn out bits)
1 2
3
4

Drilling Management
Examples of drill-hole deviation
Directional error for Ø89 mm
retrac bit / T45 in granite
Deflection with and without pilot tube for

Ø89 mm DC retrac bit / T51 in micaschist
Floor hump due

to explosives
malfunction -
Drill string deflection caused
caused by drill
by gravitational pull or
string deflection
sagging of drill steel in
inclined holes in syenite

Drilling Management
Lafarge Bath Operations, Ontario
Annual production 1.6 mill. tonnes
Rock type limestone
Bench height 32 m
Bit Ø115 mm guide XDC
Drill steel Sandvik 60 + pilot tube
Hole-bottom deflection < 1.5 % or 0.5 m
Gross drilling capacity 67 drm/h
Drill pattern 4.5 x 4.8 m2 (staggered)

Sub-drill 0 m (blast to fault line)
Stemming 2.8 m
Blastability Index BI = 0.32
No. of decks 3
Stem between decks 1.8 m
Deck delays 25 milliseconds
Charge per shothole 236 kg
Explosives ANFO (0.95 & 0.85 g/cm3)
Powder factor 0.34 kg/bm3

Drilling Management
Shothole diameter error control
100
 bits loose diameter due to gauge button wear
 typical diameter loss for worn out bits is ~ 10% 70
 diameter loss effect on drill patterns 50
Better
blastability
blastability
Diameter new bit Ø102mm 30
25
Diameter worn out bit Ø89mm
20
Diameter loss ( 102 – 89 ) / 102 = 12.8%
15
=> Drill pattern too big ( 102 / 89 )1.6 = 24%
10

Finer
Finer
fragmentation
fragmentation
7
50 70 100 150 200 300 400
Drill-hole diameter, d (mm)

Drilling Management
Collar position error control
 use tape, optical squares or alignment
lasers for measuring in collar positions
 use GPS or total stations to measure in
collar positions
 collar positions should be marked using 2B
painted lines – not movable objects such
as rocks etc.
 completed drillholes should be protected
by shothole plugs etc. to prevent holes
from caving in (and filling up)
 use GPS guided rig mounted collar posi-
tioning devices e.g. TIM-3D
Difficult 1st row drilling:

- avoid flyrock
- avoid floor humps

Drilling Management
Hole depth error control
b
Remaining drill length = c-a
(at 1st laser level reading) laser level
Total drill hole length = c-a+b
a
bench top level
Set-point values
c inclination
for TIM 2305
c-a
laser height
quarry floor level

sub-drill level

Drilling Management
Hole inclination and direction error control
blast direction
bench top level
Set-point values for TIM 2305

inclination ✓ inclination
✓ blast direction projection
✓ distant aiming point direction
(new aiming point reading
required when tracks are moved)
quarry floor level

sub-drill level

Drilling Management
Drill-hole deflection error control
 select bits less influenced by rock mass discontinuities
 reduce drill string deflection by using guide tubes, etc.
 reduce drill string bending by using less feed force
 reduce feed foot slippage while drilling - since this will 
Prior sub-
cause a misalignment of the feed and lead to excessive drill zone
drill string bending
 avoid gravitational effects which lead to drill string
sagging when drilling inclined shot-holes ( > 15° )
 avoid inpit operations with excessive bench heights Feed foot
slippage 
occurs at
this point
L = ƒ ( L3 ) for   0
deflection,  L
Drill-hole
L = ƒ ( L2 ) for   0
Drill-hole length, L L

Drilling Management
How bit face designs enhance drill-hole straightness
Feed When the bit first starts to

penetrate through the joint surface
on the hole bottom - the gauge
buttons tend to skid off this
surface and thus deflect the bit.
More aggressively shaped gauge
inserts (ballistic / chisel inserts)

and bit face gauge profiles (drop
center) reduce this skidding effect
by enabling the gauge buttons to
“cut” through the joint surface
quickly - thus resulting in less
overall bit deflection.

Drilling Management
How bit skirt designs enhance drill-hole straightness
As the bit cuts through the joint surface

- an uneven bit face loading condition
arises; resulting in bit and drill string
axial rotation - which is proportional to
Feed bit impact force imbalance.
A rear bit skirt support (retrac type bits)
reduces bit and string axial rotation by
“centralizing” the bit.
Other counter measures:
- longer bit body
- add pilot tube behind bit

- lower impact energy
- rapid drilling control system reacting
to varying torque and feed conditions

Drilling Management
Drill pattern at quarry floor Bench height 33 m
Hole inclination 14°
Drill-hole collar positions

Drill steel Ø76 mm retrac / T45
Drill-hole positions at quarry floor Drill pattern 2.5 x 2.75 m2
Rock type Granitic gneiss
Bench toe
12 4 5
6 20
9 10 17 18
78 16 19
3 11 13
Bench crest 12 14 15 21
37 31
H = 33 m 39
36 35 34 23 22
25 24
2 3 4 5 33 32
1 27
6 30 29
7 26 20
8 28 19
9 17 18
10 11 13 14 16
12 15
39 38 37 36 35
34 21
33 22
32 31 23
30 29 27 26 24
28 25
Clustered shothole areas / Risk of dead pressing
Vacant shothole areas / Risk of toe problems
Small burden areas / Risk of flyrock

Drilling Management
Vertical projection of Row 1
7 8 9 10 11 12 15 16 17
6 13 14 18 19 20 34m
4 5
1 2 3 2.72 2.90 2.78 2.75 3.03 2.78 2.75 2.77 2.85 2.90 2.72 2.75 2.79 2.75
32m
2.21 2.88 2.84 3.18 2.77

28m
24m
20m
16m
12m
8m
1.1 1.1
4m
3.41 6.08 4.14 1.67 2.72 3.74 2.68 3.54 2.42 2.99 3.74 2.20 5.97 1.75 3.49
0m
- 3m

Drilling Management Drill-hole Deviation Prediction
predH=33.xls/A. Lislerud
Prediction of deviation errors Location

Rock type
Bench H = 33m
Granitic gneiss
Bit type Retrac bit
 direction of deviation can not be “predicted”

Bit diameter (mm) dbit 76
 magnitude of deviation can be predicted Rod diameter (mm) dstring 45
Guide tube diameter (mm) dguide / No No
Rock mass factor, krock Total deflection factor kdef 1,34

rock mass krock 1,30
 massive rock mass 0.33 drill-string stiffness kstiff ness 0,138
 moderately fractured 1.0 bit wobbling kw obbling 0,592
 fractured 2.0 guide tubes for rods kguide 1,000

bit design and button factor kbit 0,88
 mixed strata conditions 3.0 constant krod 0,096
Bit design and button factor, kbit Inclination and direction error factor k I + D 47,8
 normal bits & sph. buttons 1.0
 normal bits & ball. buttons 0.70 Drill-hole deviation prediction
 normal X-bits 0.70 Drill-hole Drill-hole Drill-hole Drill-hole Drill-hole
Le ngth Inc + Dir Deflection Deviation Deviation
 retrac bits & sph. buttons 0.88 L L I + D Ldef L total L total / L
 retrac bits & ball. buttons 0.62 (m)
9,3
(mm)
444
(mm)
116
(mm)
459
(%)
4,9
 retrac X-bits 0.62 13,4 640 241 684 5,1
17,6 840 415 937 5,3
 guide bits 0.38 21,7 1036 631 1213 5,6
34,1 1628 1559 2254 6,6

Drilling Management
KPIs for straight-hole drilling
 Knowledge => address technical issues listed above
 Implementation => system for boom alignment recalibrated recently?
=> operator recently attended a refreshment course?
 Verification => measured drill-hole deviation recently?
(lamp tests or more advanced)
=> documented problems with flyrock from walls, toes, …?

Drilling Management
Quarries and D&B Contractors
 equipment flexibility and reliability
 D&B as to aggregate production requirements
 ability to handle difficult ground conditions
 availability of local / on-call field service
Mines and Mining Contractors

 wall control blasting (plus dewatering, depressurisation and bolting holes)
 grade control (sampling, MWD, …)
 system for tracking consumables, engine hours, …
 inpit remote controlled / automated drills
 availability of service contracts

Drilling Management
Criteria for selecting drills
 annual production requirements in bm3 or t => number of drills
 critical diameter of explosive => hole size big enough?
 flexibility in usage => different types of work?
 application costing => D&B costs per bm3 or t
 level of automation 100
 operator training and support 70
 operator comfort and safety 50

Better
Better
 ease of transport between pits

blastability
blastability
30
25
20

15
D&B costs (€/t)
10
Finer
Finer
fragmentation
fragmentation
7
100 200 300 50 70 100 150 200 300 400
Drill-hole diameter (mm) Drill-hole diameter, d (mm)

Drilling Management
SimDrill – Operator training for DPi serie rigs
Productivity
Contractor benefit
Training
before
startup
Training during
startup
Machine delivery Time

Quarry Seminar 2015

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Quarry Management

Technology Pit Plant Sales

 end-product volume sales

Sandvik Mining and Construction

Shotrock fragmentation curve

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Crush & Screen

Drill & Blast

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• Load & carry

A. Between ‘novices’ and ‘professional’ operators:

Fuel burn (t/litre)

Sandvik Mining and Construction

=> success comes when:

Sandvik Mining and Construction

 a 10% increase in D&B compensated by a reduction in:

 a 1€ decrease in … compensated by an increase in D&B:

Sandvik Mining and Construction

 safety is linked as much to equipment as

Sandvik Mining and Construction

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Sandvik Mining and Construction

Premature ignition of Pit wall failure

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MEMU electric fire

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Rollover from terrain

Drilling into dynamite

Sandvik Mining and Construction

Sandvik Mining and Construction

Sandvik Mining and Construction

Sandvik Mining and Construction

Std. blast Test blast

Sandvik Mining and Construction

Sandvik Mining and Construction

Toe and center

Sandvik Mining and Construction

Sandvik Mining and Construction

 side / back break and floor Shotrock throw New floor

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Cumulative passing (%)

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Terrain blast Bench blast

Sandvik Mining and Construction

 poor field performance of explosives

Ratio ( k50-shotrock / k50-CL )

“Charged” bench height ratio, ƒCL

k50-shotrock = k50-CL / ƒCL0.76

Sandvik Mining and Construction

Stem plugs allow for additional stemming length reductions

Item No Plug Vari-Stem

VOD for ANFO charge 3660 m/s 3666 m/s

Sandvik Mining and Construction

Air deck Weak charge

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Stem plug Stem charge

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Boulders per hour

Boulder size (m3)

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Explosive type Velocity of Energy Charge Water resistance

ANFO 2,3 2200 - 4300 3.9 0.40 - 1.05 Poor