Privacy Policy | Join our Community :- Upload Now

Home
 Home
 About Us
 Content Quality Guidelines
 Upload & Share
 Disclaimer
 Privacy Policy
 Terms of Service
 Contact Us
 Report Spelling and Grammatical Errors
 Suggest Us
 Users Testimonials
 Prohibited Content
 Copyright infringement takedown notification template
 Image Guidelines
 Content Filtration
 Uploader Agreement
 Account Disabled
 Plagiarism Prevention
 Home
 Copyright
 Thank You
 How to Report A Policy Violation
 Home 2
Return to Content

Rankine’s Theory of Active Earth Pressure

| Soil
Article shared by : <="">

Rankine (1857) considered the equilibrium of a soil element at

any depth (h) in the backfill behind a retaining wall and
determined the active earth pressure.
Rankine assumed that the soil element is subjected to
only two types of stresses:
i. Vertical stress (σz) due to the weight of the soil above the
element.
ii. Lateral earth pressure (pa).
Dry Cohesionless Backfill:

Assuming the back of the wall as smooth and vertical, Rankine

considered that the active earth pressure (pa) acts horizontally
for a backfill with a horizontal surface [Fig. 15.7(a)]. In the
active case, the vertical stress is more than the horizontal stress.
Since both the stresses are considered as principal stresses –
Major principal stress, σ1 = σz = γh and minor principal stress,
σ3 = pa
Figure 15.6 shows the Mohr’s circle of stresses and the failure
envelope for the active case. When the soil element reaches the
state of plastic equilibrium with sufficient movement of the wall
away from the backfill, the Mohr’s circle of stresses touches the
Coulomb’s failure envelope, as shown in Fig. 15.6.
It is known that the principal stresses are related to the shear
parameters of the backfill material by the Bell’s equation as
follows –
σ1 = σ3 tan2 α + 2c tan α …(15.7)
Considering a dry cohesionless backfill, we have c = 0, hence –
σ1 = σz = γh (in active case) and σ3 = pa
Substituting these values in Eq. (15.7), we have –

where Ka is the Rankine’s coefficient of active earth pressure

and is given by –

α = 45+ ɸ/2
Equation (15.8) indicates that the active earth pressure is zero at
the top surface of the backfill (h = 0) and increases linearly with
depth below the surface. The distribution of active earth
pressure is shown in Fig. 15.7(b).

The total or resultant active earth pressure exerted on the wall is

obtained by computing the area of the pressure diagram.
Total active earth pressure = Area of the pressure diagram
that is,

The total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the

centroid of the pressure diagram. Vertical distance of total
active earth pressure above the base of the wall = y̅.
For a triangular pressure distribution, we know that y̅ = (H/3)
above the base of the wall. The failure plane makes an angle of α
= 45 + (ɸ/2) with the major principal plane. As the major
principal stress in the active case is vertical, the major principal
plane is horizontal and the failure plane makes an angle of α =
45 + (ɸ/2) with the horizontal.
The assumptions made in Rankine’s theory of earth
pressure may be summarized as follows:
i. The backfill is homogeneous and semi-infinite.
ii. The backfill is dry and cohesionless.
iii. The surface of the backfill is plane and horizontal.
iv. The back of the retaining wall is vertical and smooth so that
there is no friction between the wall and the backfill when the
wall moves away from the backfill.
v. The shear strength of the backfill is governed by Coulomb’s
equation.
vi. The wall moves sufficiently away from the backfill so that the
Mohr’s circle touches the failure envelope and the backfill
attains a state of plastic equilibrium so that lateral earth
pressure becomes minimum equal to active earth pressure.
vii. The position and direction of the resultant or total active
earth pressure are known. The resultant active pressure acts
parallel to the surface of the backfill through the centroid of the
pressure diagram.
Cohesionless Backfill with Surcharge:

Figure 15.9(a) shows a retaining wall with a horizontal backfill

subjected to additional pressure (surcharge) of intensity q
(kN/m2) on the backfill surface. The surcharge applied at the
top may be assumed to be uniform throughout the depth of the
wall. The simple principle for the determination of active earth
pressure at any level in Rankine’s theory is to multiply the
vertical stress at that depth with the Rankine’s coefficient of
active earth pressure. Vertical stress at any depth below the top
of the backfill –

σv = γh + q …(15.12)
Hence, active earth pressure at any depth is given by –

pa = Ka σv = Ka(γh + q) ⇒ pa = Kaγh + Kaq …(15.13)

When h = 0, active earth pressure at the top of the backfill is
given by –
pa0 = Ka × γ × 0 + Kaq = Kaq
When h = H, active earth pressure at the bottom of the wall is
given by –
PaH = Ka × γ × H + Kaq = KaγH + Kaq
Thus, for a backfill subjected to a surcharge q at the top, the
active earth pressure distribution is trapezoidal, as shown in
Fig. 15.9(b), with intensity pa0 at top and paH at bottom.
Total active earth pressure is obtained by computing the area of
the pressure diagram –

Pa = (Kaq) × H + 1/2 × (KaγH) × H ⇒ Pa = KaqH + KayH2/2

…(15.14)
Total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the
centroid of the pressure diagram. From the principles of
mechanics, the distance of the centroid above the base of the
wall is given by –
y̅ = ΣAiyi/ΣAi …(15.15)

where Ai is the area of each part of the pressure diagram, that is,
A1 and A2 and yi the distance of the centroid of each part of the
pressure diagram above the base of the wall, that is, y1 and y2.
The above principle of determination of active earth pressure
when the backfill is subjected to a surcharge of intensity q may
be similarly applied for determination of active or passive earth
pressure under any backfill condition when the backfill is
subjected to a surcharge. For example, passive earth pressure
due to surcharge will be equal to Kpq.
Fully Submerged Cohesionless Backfill:

Figure 15.10(a) shows a retaining wall with a fully submerged

backfill, with the groundwater table at the surface of the
backfill. The principle of determination of active earth pressure
is to multiply the effective vertical stress with the lateral
pressure coefficient (Ka) and then add the hydrostatic pressure
due to water table, if any. This is because the hydrostatic
pressure is equal in all directions as per Pascal’s law, and hence,
the lateral pressure coefficient (Ka) should not be applied to the
hydrostatic pressure.
The active earth pressure at any depth h below the surface of the
backfill, as per Rankine’s theory, is given by –
pa = Ka γ’h + γw h …(15.16)
where Ka, the Rankine’s coefficient of active earth pressure, is –
K = (1 – sin ɸ)/(1 + sin ɸ)
Here γ’ is the submerged density of backfill material and γw the
density of water is 9.81 kN/m3 = 1 t/m3= 1 g/cc. The active earth
pressure at the base of the wall is –
PaH = Ka γ’H + γwH
Figure 15.10(b) shows the active earth pressure distribution
program. Total or resultant active earth pressure exerted on the
wall is obtained by computing the area of the pressure diagram.
That is –

Total active earth pressure = Area of the pressure diagram

Total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the
centroid of the pressure diagram. The vertical distance of total
active earth pressure above the base of the wall = y̅.
For a triangular pressure distribution, we know that y̅ = H/3
above the base of the wall.
Partially Submerged Cohesionless Backfill:

Figure 15.12(a) shows a retaining wall of height H, with a

partially submerged backfill, with the groundwater table at a
depth h1 below the surface of the backfill. The soil above the
water table may be either partially or fully saturated. The bulk
density of the soil is to be used for computation of vertical stress
for soil above the water table.

The active earth pressure at depth h1 below the surface of the

backfill is given by –
pa1 = Ka γh1 …(15.18)
where
Ka = (1 – sin ɸ)/(1 + sin ɸ)
where γ is the bulk density of the backfill material above the
water table, γ’ the submerged density of the backfill material,
and γw the density of water is 9.81 kN/m3 = 1 t/m3= 1 g/cc.
The active earth pressure at the base of the wall is given by –
Pa2 = Kaγh1+Kaγ’h2 + γwh2 …(15.19)
Figure 15.12(b) shows the active earth pressure diagram. Due to
the use of submerged density, the slope of the pressure diagram
(Kaγ’) decreases below the water table (dotted line) as compared
with that (Kaγ) above the water table. As the water pressure is
added, the slope of the active pressure diagram (Kaγ’ + γw) is
more than that above the water table (solid line). The total or
resultant active earth pressure exerted on the wall is obtained
by computing the area of the pressure diagram. That is –

Total active earth pressure = Area of the pressure diagram

Total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the
centroid of the pressure diagram. Vertical distance of total
active earth pressure above the base of the wall is y̅. The
distance of the centroid can be computed from the principles of
mechanics using –

where y̅ is the distance of line of action of Pa above the base of

the wall, A1, A2, A3 are the areas of segments 1, 2, and 3 of the
pressure diagram as shown in Fig. 15.12(b), and y1, y2, y3 the
distances of the centroid of segments 1, 2, and 3 from the base
of the wall.
Two-Layered Cohesionless Backfill:

Figure 15.15(a) shows a retaining wall of height H, with a

cohesionless backfill of two layers having density of γ1and γ2,
friction angles of ɸ1 and ɸ2 over depths h1 and h2, respectively. As
the friction angles are different for each layer, the Rankine’s
coefficient of active earth pressure will be different for the two
layers. Thus, for layer 1 –

Active earth pressure at any level is obtained by multiplying the

effective vertical stress at that level with the coefficient of active
earth pressure at that level. Thus, active earth pressure in layer
1 at depth h1 is given by –
Pa11 = Ka1γ1h1 …(15.24)
Active earth pressure in layer 2 at the same depth h1 is given by
–
Pa21 = Ka2γ1h1 …(15.25)
Active earth pressure at the base of the wall is given by –
Pa22 = Ka2(γ1h1 + γ2h2) …(15.26)
Figure 15.15(b) shows the active earth pressure diagram.
The total or resultant active earth pressure exerted on the wall is
obtained by computing the area of the pressure diagram.
Total active earth pressure = Area of the pressure diagram
that is –

Total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the

centroid of the pressure diagram. Vertical distance of total
active earth pressure above the base of the wall = y̅. The
distance of the centroid can be computed from the principles of
mechanics using Eq. (15.21) as –

where y̅ is the distance of line of action of pa above the base of

the wall, A1, A2, A3 are the areas of segments 1, 2, and 3 of the
pressure diagram as shown in Fig. 15.15, and y1, y2, y3 are the
distances of the centroid of segments 1, 2, and 3 from the base
of the wall.
Cohesionless Backfill with Sloping Surface:
Figure 15.20(a) shows a retaining wall with a cohesionless
backfill having its surface sloping at an angle β with the
horizontal.

Consider a soil element of width b, along the slope, at any depth

h below the surface of the backfill.
Rankine considered that the soil element is subjected
to two stresses:
1. Vertical stress, σv, due to self-weight of the soil, acting
vertically downward on the inclined planes AB and CD of the
soil element.
2. Active earth pressure, pa, acting parallel to the surface of the
backfill on the vertical planes BC and AD.
The two stresses are called conjugate stresses because the
direction of each stress is parallel to the plane on which the
other stress is acting. As shear stress also acts on plane AB of
the soil element, the vertical stress is not a principal stress.
Similarly, lateral pressure is also not a principal stress. Volume
of the soil above the element per unit length will be –
V = h × b cos β × 1 = bh cos β
Weight of the soil above the element will be –
W = γ × V = γ × (bh cos β)
Resisting area of the soil element will be –
A=b×1=b
Vertical stress on the soil element will be –
σv = W/A = γ × (bh cos β)/b = γh cos β
Figure 15.20(b) shows the Mohr’s circle of stresses for the soil
element. Point M represents plane AB, and hence, OM gives the
vertical stress. In fact, the vertical stress is the resultant of the
normal stress and the shear stress acting on plane AB. When the
backfill is in plastic equilibrium, the Mohr’s circle passes
through point M and will be tangential to the Coulomb’s failure
envelope. To find pole P on the Mohr’s circle, a line is drawn
from point M parallel to plane AB (on which it is acting) to
intersect the Mohr’s circle at point P, as shown in Fig. 15.20(b).
Now from point P, a line is drawn parallel to plane AD (on
which pa is acting) to intersect the Mohr’s circle at point N.
Point N represents plane AD on which the active earth pressure
pa is acting. Hence, ON gives the value of pa.
It should be noted that active earth pressure is assumed to act at
an angle P with the horizontal, parallel to the backfill surface. If
β = 0 is substituted in Eq. (15.30)
K a = (1 – sin ɸ) (1 + sin ɸ)
which is the same as Eq. (15.9) for a cohesionless backfill with a
horizontal surface.
Equation (15.29) indicates that active earth pressure is zero at
the top surface of the backfill (h = 0) and increases linearly with
depth below the surface. Active earth pressure at the base of the
wall –
PaH = Ka γH …(15.31)
The distribution of active earth pressure is shown in Fig.
15.21(b) for the wall with inclined backfill shown in Figs. 15.20
and 15.21(a).

The total or resultant active earth pressure exerted on the wall is

obtained by computing the area of the pressure diagram.
Total active earth pressure = Area of the pressure diagram
that is –
The total active earth pressure acts at an angle β with the
horizontal through the centroid of the pressure diagram.
Vertical distance of the line of action of total active earth
pressure above the base of the wall is y̅.
For a triangular pressure distribution, we know that y̅ = (H/3)
above the base of the wall. The failure plane makes an angle of α
= 45+ (ɸ/2) with the major principal plane. However, the major
principal plane is not horizontal as in other active cases.
Let θ1 is the angle of the major principal plane with the
horizontal and θf is the angle of the failure plane with the
horizontal –
θf = α – θ1 …(15.32)
In ΔOCP, the exterior angle, Ψ = 2θ1 + β, therefore –
θ1 = (Ψ – β)/2
Substituting the value of θ1 in Eq. (15.32), we have –
θf = α – [(Ψ – β)/2] …(15.33)
In ΔCEP,

The angle of the failure plane with the horizontal, θf, can be
obtained by solving Eqs. (15.33) and (15.34) simultaneously.
Rankine’s Active Earth Pressure for Cohesive Backfill:
Resal (1910) and Bell (1915) extended Rankine’s theory of earth
pressure for cohesive soils. We know that the principal stresses
are related to soil properties by Bell’s equation, which is as
follows –
σ1 = σ3 tan2 α + 2c tan α …(15.35)

Consider a soil element at any depth h below the surface of the

backfill, as shown in Fig. 15.24(a). In the active case, major
principal stress –
σ1 = σv = γh
Minor principal stress –
σ3 = Pa
Substituting these in Eq. (15.35), we have –

σv = pa tan2 α + 2c tan α = γh ⇒ pa tan2 α = γh – 2c tan α

Thus, active earth pressure is negative at the top of the wall and
increases linearly with the increase in depth. As the soil is weak
in tension, tension cracks will develop in the negative active
earth pressure zone of the backfill. The depth of a tension crack
can be obtained by substituting pa = 0 in Eq. (15.38) –

If the soil is able to withstand the negative active earth pressure,

the negative pressure over the depth htc is balanced by a positive
pressure over the same depth below. Hence, the resultant active
earth pressure is zero over the depth Hc = 2htc, known as critical
height. Thus, excavations in cohesive soils can stand with
vertical sides without any lateral support over the critical
height, provided no tension crack is developed in the negative
pressure zone. Critical height –
The total active earth pressure can be obtained by computing
the area of the pressure diagram.
The magnitude of total active earth pressure depends
on whether a tension crack is developed in the negative
pressure zone as shown below:
Case 1 – Active Earth Pressure When Tension Crack Is
Developed:

Figure 15.24(a) shows a retaining wall of height H with a

cohesive backfill. Figure 15.24(b) shows the active earth
pressure diagram when a tension crack is formed. If a tension
crack is developed, it indicates that the soil has failed in the
negative pressure zone and hence the negative pressure will no
longer be acting on the wall. The total active earth pressure is
obtained by computing the area of the positive pressure
diagram, ignoring the negative active earth pressure as shown
in Fig. 15.24(b). That is –
Total active earth pressure = Area of the positive pressure
diagram

The total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the

centroid of the resultant pressure diagram. The height of the
total active earth pressure above the base of the wall –
y̅ = (H – htc)/3 …(15.42)
Case 2 – Active Earth Pressure When Tension Crack is not
developed:
If a tension crack is not developed, the negative pressure over
the depth htc is balanced by a positive pressure over the same
depth below. The wall will be therefore subjected to the net
active earth pressure (shown hatched in Fig. 15.24(c)) below the
critical height Hc. The depth of the wall, over which the net
pressure acts, is (H – Hc).
The total active earth pressure is obtained by computing the
area of the resultant pressure diagram over this depth, as shown
hatched in Fig. 15.24(c). That is –
Total active earth pressure = Area of the resultant pressure
diagram

The total active earth pressure acts horizontally through the

centroid of the resultant pressure diagram. The height of the
total active earth pressure above the base of the wall –
y̅ = (H – Hc)/3 …(15.44)

Home ›› Soil Engineering ›› Earth Pressure ›› Active Earth Pressure

Releted Articles:
 Coulomb’s Theory for Earth Pressure | Soil

Start Uploading Your Articles Now.

 Title*

 Description*
 Your Name*

 Your Email ID*

 Upload Your File

Drop files here or
 Type bellow words

 Latest

 Soil Formation: How is Soil Formed [with Factors and Processes

for Class 7, 8 ,9, 10]
 Exam Questions with Answers on Soil Mechanics [Geotechnical
Engineering]
 List of Objective Questions on Soil and Water Engineering
(With Answers)
  85 + MCQs on Soil Science (with Answers)
 Soil Compaction: Meaning, Compaction, Methods and Effect |
Soil Engineering

Terms of Service Privacy Policy Contact Us

www.soilmanagementindia.com/lateral-earth-
pressure/rankines-theory/rankines-theory-of-active-earth-
pressure-soil/14031