Optics

Physics Lecture Hand-outs 3/27/2019
Optics
(Lecture in Physics for Engineers)
Reynold V. Luna
Physics Instructor, College of Science 1
Optics. (n) a science which deals with

the behavior and properties
of light and other
electromagnetic radiation
Photo: “A wordless statement”
reynold.luna@gmail.com 1
How would a PHYSICIST write the Biblical story of CREATION in

the beginning of the 20th Century?
Outline
• Nature of Light
• Light Sources
• Light Interactions with Matter
• Properties of Light
Nature of Light
Wave-Particle
Particle Theory Wave Theory
Duality
Wave front formed by
Corpuscle’s path and Photons propagate
wavelets describes light’s
direction is traced by ray stochastically.
propagation
Newton’s Huygen’s Wave Quantum
Corpuscular Theory Theory Mechanics
Electromagnetic Quantum Field

Wave Theory Theory
Emanating Ray (beam of corpuscles)
One point light source Two points light source
Light radiates spherically from point source.

The rays represent direction in which light travels. 6
“wavelet”
Huygen’s Principle
Every point on a wavefront may be regarded as a secondary source of source
wavelets and each wavelets form a new wavefront through superposition
Spherical wavefronts
7
Straight Wavefront
Planar wavefronts
Electricity, Magnetism and Light

Maxwell equations in integral form:
∮ ∙ ⃗= (1)
∮ ∙ ⃗=0 (2)
∮ ∙ ⃗= − (3)
∮ ∙ ⃗= + (4)

1 m
= = 3.0 × 10
s James Clerk Maxwell (1865)
Speed of Light
=
10
Measurements of Speed of Light, c (in km/s)
1675 Romer and Huygens, 220,000 1926 Albert Michelson,

299,796 ± 4
Moons of Jupiter Rotating 8-sided mirror
1729 James Bradley, 301,000 1950 Essen and Gordon-Smith,
299,792.5 ± 3.0
Aberration of light Cavity resonator
1849 Hippolyte Fizeau, 315,000 1958 K.D. Froome,
299,792.50 ± 0.10
Toothed wheel Radio interferometry
1862 Leon Foucault, 298,000 ± 500 1972 Evenson et al.,
299,792.4562 ± 0.0011
Rotating Mirror Rotating Mirror
1907 Rosa and Dorsay, 1983 17th CGPM,
299,710 ± 30 299,792.458
EM constants Definition of a meter
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light 11
Celestial Distances
1 lightyear is the distance light
travels vacuum in 1 year.
12
Sample Problem
The light we currently see
from the North Star (Polaris)
was actually emitted in the
year 1584. How far from the
Earth is the North Star?
13
EM waves in matter
Displacement current: = =
Permeability in matter: =
Plane EM wave: =
EM wave in matter: =
Speed of light in matter:

1 1 1
= = =
EM Waves in different materials

(a) Visiting a jewelry store one evening, you hold a diamond up to the light of
a sodium-vapor street lamp. The heated sodium vapor emits yellow light
with a frequency of 5.09 × 1014 Hz. Find the wavelength in vacuum and the
wave speed and wavelength in diamond, for which K = 5.84 and Km = 1.00
at this frequency.
(b) A 107.5-MHz radio wave (Wish FM radio band) passes from vacuum into
an insulating ferrite (a ferromagnetic material used in computer cables to
suppress radio interference). Find the wavelength in vacuum and the wave
speed and wavelength in the ferrite, for which K = 10.0 and Km = 1000 at
this frequency.
Electromagnetic-Photon Spectrum
16
Characteristics of Light
Radio and Radar Microwaves Infrared Visible Light
f = 104 – 1010 Hz f = 109 – 1012 Hz f = 1011 – 4.0⨯1014 Hz f = 4.0⨯1014 -7.5⨯1014 Hz
λ = 104 – 10-2 m λ = 10-1 – 10-4 m λ = 10-3 – 7.5⨯10-7 m λ = 7.5⨯10-7 – 4.0⨯10-7 m
energy: very low energy: low energy: low energy: medium
Ultraviolet X ray γ ray Cosmic ray

f = 7.5⨯1014–1017 Hz f = 1017 – 1020 Hz f = 1019 – 1024 Hz f = 1024 Hz and greater
λ = 4.0⨯10-7 – 10-9 m λ = 10-9 – 10-12 m λ = 10-11 – 10-16 m λ = 10-16 m and less
energy: high energy: very high energy: extremely high energy: extremely high
17
Methods of Producing EM radiations

Radio and Radar Microwaves Infrared Visible Light
• oscillation (rapid • Spinning of • Vibrations and • higher-energy transitions
acceleration and electron and/or rotations of molecules of valence electrons in
deceleration) of nucleus atoms
electrons in circuits • Klystron/
magnetron valve
18
Methods of Producing EM radiations

Ultraviolet X ray γ ray Cosmic ray
• Even higher-energy • Rapid deceleration of • Decay of unstable • Collision of high
transitions of electron (bremsstrahlung) nuclei energy particles
valence electrons in • De-excitation of electrons • Pair annihilation
atoms (Characteristic x-ray)
19
Particle vs. Wave

 No size or dimension  Size depends on its amplitude
 Localized  Spreads out
 Does not super impose  May super impose
 All energies are allowed  Has quantization of energy
 Governing Equations:
 Governing Equation:
Wave Equation – depends on the
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
method of transferring
⃗ energy
⃗ ⃗, =
20
Waves or Particles?
• Young’s double-slit diffraction experiment demonstrates the wave
property of light. However, dimming the light results in single flashes on
the screen representative of particles.
21
Planck’s Hypothesis
Max Planck Imagine the walls of a glowing solid to be composed of billion
oscillating electrons with different energies. These oscillating
electrons are allowed only to have certain discrete energies.
Quantized Energy
Frequency of emitted or
= absorbed light, other symbol: “ ”
n= 1,2,3,… Planck’s constant
(quantum number) ( = 6.62559x10-34 Joule-sec)
22
De Broglie’s Hypothesis
A moving particle (photon or electron) can be associated
Louis de Broglie with a wave. The wave associated is a de Broglie wave or
matter wave.
Derivation of de Broglie’s wavelength:

Planck’s quantization of radiation: = ℎ = ℎ /
Einstein’s equation for an energy of a photon: =
Then,
ℎ ℎ
= ⟶ =
23
The Copenhagen Interpretation

Bohr’s interpretation of the photon’s wave function consisted of 3 principles:
1) The uncertainty principle of Heisenberg: ∆ ∆ ≥ ℏ/2
2) The complementarity principle of Bohr
3) The statistical interpretation of Born (based on probabilities
determined by the wave function)
Together these three concepts form a logical interpretation of the physical

meaning of quantum theory. According to the Copenhagen interpretation,
physics depends on the outcomes of measurement.
24
Models of Light
Ray Wave Photon
Advantage: Color is described Advantage: Required in

Advantage: Simplicity in terms of wavelength. explaining the interaction
Required in explaining the of light with individual
interaction of light with atom.
materials of comparable size
25
What is light?
• An electromagnetic radiation which behaves like transverse wave and
particle
• Modeled by a wave or ray (when propagating) or by a photon (when
generated and absorbed)
• Travels at a constant speed of = 3.00 x 108 m/s in a vacuum: =
• Its types are identified based on their frequency, wavelength, and source.
• It carries a quantized energy that travels outward in all directions from its
source: = ℎ = ℎ / for each photon
• Each photon has momentum: = =ℏ
26
27
Thermal Spectrum
28
29
Conventional Light Sources
Incandescent
Sun Fire Gas Lamp CFL Bulb LED Bulb
Bulb
30
Light Sources
Natural Light Artificial Light Light Emission
Solar Radiator Solar Light producing

(Direct & Diffuse) Reflector energy sources
31
Light Emission LASER
Spontaneous Stimulated
Semiconductor
Incandescence Luminescence
Diode
Phosphorescence Fluorescence
Chemiluminescence Bioluminescence Photoluminescence Radioluminescence
Cathodoluminescence Electrooluminescence Thermoluminescence CryoluminescenceTriboluminescence Fractoluminescence Sonoluminescence
Blackbody spectrum and Wien’s law
Wien’s Law:
2.898 × 10 m ∙ K
=
33
Light Emission
Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission
34
Photoluminescence
Fluorescence: Light
production shortly
after energy input;
Short life time of
excited level (< μs)
Phosphorescence:
Light production long
after energy input;
Long life time of
excited level (> ms)
35
Emission Spectrum
• Atomic excitation by electric discharge.
• De-excitation of electrons release EM
radiation.
36
Emission spectra of incandescent lamps
two tungsten incandescent lamps

mercury vapor
with different temperatures
37
Emission Spectra of fluorescent lamps
(a) halophosphate type and (b) triphosphor type

38
Emission Spectra of LED
Blue, Green and Red LEDs. Trichromatic white light LED

Each has bandwidth of 25 nm.
39
Light-Matter Interaction
40
Light-Matter Interactions
Absorption Transmission Reflection Refraction Diffraction Interference
Dispersion Scattering Polarization Birefringence Luminescence

41
Vis Light-Matter Interaction

Interaction of photons with the electronic or crystal
structure of a material leads to a number of
phenomena:
• Absorption – photons may give their energy to
the material
• Reflection – photons give their energy, but
photons of identical energy are immediately
emitted by the material
• Transmission – photons may not interact with
the material structure
• Refraction – photons changes velocity during
transmission 42
Vis Light-Solid Interaction

Incident light is either reflected, absorbed, or transmitted.
Reflected: IR Absorbed: IA
Transmitted: IT
Incident: Io
= + +
43
Selective Absorption and Transmission
Plastic cover Green leaf
44
Optical Classification of Solid

Transparent
Translucent
• Optically transparent for all visible wavelength (e.g. glass )

• Optically translucent only for parts of the visible
wavelength (e.g. colored glass).
• Optically opaque (e.g. metals). This can either be highly
Opaque absorbing (e.g. soot) or highly reflective (e.g. mirror)
45
polarization
reflection
birefringence
scattering
Properties
of Light
refraction
dispersion
interference
diffraction
46
Reflection
Law of Reflection: The

angle of incidence is equal to
the angle of reflection.
=
47
Types of Reflection
Specular Diffused
48
Refraction
The change in direction of a light ray at the interface between two media,
which occurs when there is a change in wave speed.
Refractive index:
The ratio of the
speed of light in a
vacuum to the
speed of light in the
material.
49
Snell’s Law
sin = sin
50
Huygens’ Principle
Law of Reflection Law of Refraction
i r
vi t
i sin  i 
vi = c/ni L
90   r 90   i ct vr = c/nr t v r t
cos90   i   sin  r 
L L
ct vi sin  r  vr sin  i
cos90   r  
L
L  θi   r ni sin  i  nr sin  r
L
Application: Apparent Depth

actual depth
=
apparent depth
Example:
A stone at the bottom of a pool in a
creek appears to be 1.2 m from the
surface. What is the true depth of the
pool? (nw = 1.33)
52
Total Internal Reflection

Total internal reflection occurs only for
waves incident on a boundary with a
medium where the refractive index is
reduced.
53
Critical Angle
1. What is the critical angle for total internal reflection when
light of wavelength 550 nm travels through plastic with a
refractive index of 1.2 to air with a refractive index of 1.0?
Answer: 56.4o .
2. Red light of wavelength 700nm is travelling through water

and is incident at an angle of 75° on a water–air interface.
Describe what happens to this light.
54
Dispersion
Decomposition of wave components when their speed is dependent on frequency.
By dispersive medium: By diffraction grating:
The refractive index variation of some

dispersive media. 55
Polarization
The phenomenon of restricting the geometrical orientation
of the light oscillation
Methods of Light Polarization:

 Reflection
 Absorption (Dichroism)
 Scattering
 Refraction (Birefringence)
56
Malus’ law
It states that when a beam of plane polarized
light is incident on the analyzer, the intensity
of light transmitted from the analyzer is:
∝ cos
Where:
= angle between the planes of transmission
of the polarizer and analyzer
If the intensity of plane polarized light incident

on analyzer is , then intensity of light
emerging from analyzer is:
A polaroid is a type of plastic sheet = cos
which polarizes light. 57
Brewster's law
By Reflection Angle of Polarization :
The angle of incidence for which an
ordinary light is completely polarized in
the plane of incidence when it gets
reflected from a transparent medium.
Brewster’s Law :
It states that tangent of the angle of
polarization ( ) is numerically equal
to the refractive index ( ) of the
medium:
= tan
58
Scattering
Deviation of light from a straight path due to localized non-uniformities in the
medium through which light pass
Incident
Light Ray
Scattered
Light Rays
59
Types of Scattering
• Thomson scattering which occurs when EM waves are deflected by single
particles.
• Compton scattering which is frequency-dependent and a quantum
mechanical process
• Raman scattering occurs when the frequency changes due to excitation of
the atoms and molecules.
• Brillouin scattering occurs when the frequency of light changes due to
local changes with time and movements of a dense material.
60
Models of Light Scattering

• Rayleigh scattering - small
particle compared to
wavelength of light
• Mie scattering - particle about
the same size as wavelength
of light, valid only for spheres
• Geometric scattering -
particle much larger than
wavelength of light
61
62
Birefringence
63
Interference
Superposition of two waves travelling along the same medium
64
Thin Film Interference
Iridescence in Soap Bubble Newton’s Ring in thin film of diesel

oil on wet road 65
Young’s double slit

Coherent, monochromatic light passes through two narrow slits
66
Interference Pattern
67
Diffraction
Bending of light around an obstacle and spreading of light waves
into the region behind the obstacle
68
Types of Diffraction
• Fresnel Diffraction
(or Near-field Diffraction)
- source of light and the
screen are near the
obstacle
• Fraunhofer Diffraction
(or Far-field Diffraction)
- source of light and the
screen are infinitely far
from the obstacle
69
Diffraction Patterns
Single Slit
Minimum for single slit:
sin = ±
Double Slit where:
= width of slit
= 0, 1, 2, … (order number)
Maximum for 2 slit:

Square Aperture Circular Aperture sin =±
where:
= separation of slits
= 0, 1, 2, …
70
Diffraction Grating
A diffraction grating has a large number N (>100) of evenly spaced slits
Astronomy
Biochemistry
Ex: 1/d = 500 lines/mm
d sin θm  mλ
71
Diffraction from a crystal

EM waves of short wavelength scatters off of atoms
Crystals – periodic
arrangements of
atoms – create
same interference
pattern as
diffraction grating!
72
X-ray Diffraction (XRD)

X rays scattered from
regularly spaced atoms
in a crystal will remain in
phase only at certain
scattering angles.
73
XRD Patterns
If a material is crystalline, it will have an XRD pattern.
74
Bragg’s Law: = 2 sin

The path length difference between x-rays hitting parallel
atomic planes must be a multiple of their wavelength.
constructive
interference
sin sin
2 sin = path length difference
75
X-ray Crystallography
As long as λ < d, small features lead to large θ. BUT

need regular ordering of atoms – i.e. a crystal! 76
Light changes used in measurements
77
Geometric Optics
Uses ray diagram to trace the propagation of light
Plane
Mirrors Concave
Spherical
Convex
Optical System Converging
Components Lenses
Diverging
Prisms
78
Image Characteristics
Image
Description
Characteristic
Magnification Same size, enlarged, or diminished
Attitude Upright, Inverted or Undefined
Position Displacement from mirror surface
Type Real, Virtual or No image formed
79
Image Formation in Plane Mirror
If the object is real, the image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, erect, of
same size and at the same distance from the mirror.
80
Image Formation in Plane Mirror

point object
extended object
object displaced from mirror multiple images in perperdicular mirrors
81
Spherical Mirrors
Convex Concave
A
C F
Terms:
A – Principal axis or
optical axis
A
F C C – Center
F – Focus or Focal point
82
Mirror Ray Tracing

Image is formed at the intersection of three reflected principal
rays which all starts from object
1. ray parallel to optical axis then reflects through the focal
point
2. ray passes through focal point then reflects parallel to
principal axis
3. ray directed to center of curvature then reflects back to
itself
83
Image Formation By a Concave Mirror

The formed image is:
Magnification Diminished
Attitude Upright
Center Focus
Between the
Object Position
focus and center
Image Type Real
84
Mirror Equations
> 0, concave converging mirror
Focal length: = −
< 0, convex (diverging) mirror
Mirror Equation: + = where:

R = radius of curvature
f = focal length
Magnification: = =− s = object’s distance from surface
s’ = image distance from surface
hi = height of image
ho = height of object
85
Sign Convention for Mirrors

• All figures are drawn with light initially travelling from left to right, so the
object is to the left of the mirror.
• The distance from the object to the mirror is positive.
• The distance from the mirror to a real image is positive. (Image is located
to the left of the mirror.)
• The distance from a virtual image to the mirror is negative. (Image is
located to the right of the mirror.)
• For a concave (converging) mirror, f is positive.
• For a convex mirror (diverging) mirror, f is negative.
86
Sample Problem
When you look at the back of a spoon you see an upright image
of yourself. This is because the reflective curved surface of the
metal acts as a diverging mirror. (Ignore distortions when
answering the following questions).
a) If the image of your head is 3 cm tall, your head is 22 cm
tall, and you are holding the spoon 16 cm away from your
head, what is the focal length of the back of the spoon?
b) When you flip the spoon around it now acts like a
converging mirror and you see an inverted image.
Assuming that the curvature of the inside of the spoon is
the same as the curvature of the outside of the spoon how
large is the image of your head?
87
Thin Lenses
Diverging Lenses
Converging Lenses 88
Lens Ray Tracing

Image is formed at the intersection of three reflected principal
rays which all starts from object
1. ray parallel to optical axis then refracts through the focal
point behind the lens
2. ray passes through focus in front of the lens then refracts
as it reaches the lens parallel to principal axis
3. ray passes directly to the center of the lens
89
Image Formation By Lenses
Converging Lens Diverging Lens
Thin Lens Equation: + =
Magnification: = =− =
Lensmaker’s Equation: −1 − = 90
Activity
Using ray tracing, locate and characterize the image formed for each case:
91
Sample Problem
A converging lens with a focal length of 30 cm is used to
create an image of a 2mm-long ant.
a) If the lens is placed so that the image of the ant is
8mm-long, upright, and viewed by looking through
the lens, how far away from the ant was the lens
placed?
b) If the lens is placed so that the image of the ant is
8mm-long, inverted, and viewed on a screen held
some unspecified distance on the other side of the
lens to the ant, how far away from the ant was the
lens placed?
92
Sample Problem
A compound microscope consists of two converging lenses,
the objective lens and the eyepiece lens, positioned on a
common optical axis. The objective lens is positioned to form
a real, highly magnified image 1 of the sample being
examined, and the eyepiece lens is positioned to form a
virtual, further magnified image 2 of image 1. It is image 2
that the user sees. A knob on the microscope allows the user
to move the objective lens upward and downward to change
both the sample-objective lens distance and the distance
between the two lenses.
a) How must the sample and the two lenses be positioned relative to one
another so that the user sees a highly magnified, virtual image of the sample?
b) What is the overall magnification produced by the microscope?
93
Ray Diagram of the Problem
94
Optical Power
how strong is the bending light passing through it
1
=
SI unit: diopter (D)

1 diopter = 1 m-1
The most powerful lens (iii) bends the light to a
greater degree than the weakest lens (i).
95
Person's face appearance due to

optical power
96
Sign Convention for Lenses

• All figures are drawn with light initially travelling
from left to right, so the object is to the left of the
lens.
• The distance from the object to a lens is positive.
• The distance from a lens to a real image is positive.
(Image is located to the right of the lens.)
• The distance from a lens to a virtual image is
negative. (Image is located to the left of the lens.)
• For a convex (converging) lens, f is positive.
• For a concave (diverging) lens, f is negative.
97
Sample Problem
Light from a distant source enters a 0.5 D lens parallel to the optical axis.
a) How far from the first lens must a second, 1.2D lens be placed such that
the light leaving the second lens is also parallel to the optical axis?
b) How far from the ﬁrst lens must a second, −1.5D lens be placed such
that the light leaving the second lens is also parallel to the optical axis?
c) A second 1.2D lens is placed 1.2m behind the first. Is the light leaving
this lens, converging, diverging, or parallel to the optical axis?
98
Mirror and Lens Systems
• Diopteric System
• Catoptric System
• Catadiopteric System
99
Prism
+
sin = sin
2 2
100
Types of Prisms
triangular quadrangular regular right parallelepiped
pentagonal hexagonal irregular oblique cuboid

101
Complete the diagrams

shown below where a
ray of light passes from
air to a block of glass:
102
References
• Hecht, E. (2017) Optics, 5e, Pearson
• Crowell, B. (2016) Light and Matter, Fullerton, California,
www.lightandmatter.com
• Franklin, K. et al. (2010) Introduction to Biological Physics for the Health
and Life Sciences, John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.
103
104

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Physics Lecture Hand-outs 3/27/2019

Optics. (n) a science which deals with

Photo: “A wordless statement”

How would a PHYSICIST write the Biblical story of CREATION in

Electromagnetic Quantum Field

Emanating Ray (beam of corpuscles)

One point light source Two points light source

Light radiates spherically from point source.

Electricity, Magnetism and Light

Measurements of Speed of Light, c (in km/s)

1675 Romer and Huygens, 220,000 1926 Albert Michelson,

Speed of light in matter:

EM Waves in different materials

Ultraviolet X ray γ ray Cosmic ray

Methods of Producing EM radiations

Methods of Producing EM radiations

Particle vs. Wave

Derivation of de Broglie’s wavelength:

The Copenhagen Interpretation

Together these three concepts form a logical interpretation of the physical

Advantage: Color is described Advantage: Required in

Conventional Light Sources

Solar Radiator Solar Light producing

Light Emission LASER

Chemiluminescence Bioluminescence Photoluminescence Radioluminescence

Cathodoluminescence Electrooluminescence Thermoluminescence CryoluminescenceTriboluminescence Fractoluminescence Sonoluminescence

Blackbody spectrum and Wien’s law

Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission

Emission spectra of incandescent lamps

two tungsten incandescent lamps

Emission Spectra of fluorescent lamps

(a) halophosphate type and (b) triphosphor type

Emission Spectra of LED

Blue, Green and Red LEDs. Trichromatic white light LED

Absorption Transmission Reflection Refraction Diffraction Interference

Dispersion Scattering Polarization Birefringence Luminescence

Vis Light-Matter Interaction

Vis Light-Solid Interaction

Selective Absorption and Transmission

Plastic cover Green leaf

Optical Classification of Solid

• Optically transparent for all visible wavelength (e.g. glass )

Law of Reflection: The

Application: Apparent Depth

Total Internal Reflection

2. Red light of wavelength 700nm is travelling through water

The refractive index variation of some

Methods of Light Polarization:

If the intensity of plane polarized light incident

Models of Light Scattering

Thin Film Interference

Iridescence in Soap Bubble Newton’s Ring in thin film of diesel

Young’s double slit

Maximum for 2 slit:

Ex: 1/d = 500 lines/mm

Diffraction from a crystal

X-ray Diffraction (XRD)

Bragg’s Law: = 2 sin

As long as λ < d, small features lead to large θ. BUT

Light changes used in measurements

Image Formation in Plane Mirror

Image Formation in Plane Mirror

object displaced from mirror multiple images in perperdicular mirrors