3/14/2018

GEOTECHNICS
Lecture 2. Engineering properties of soils, Grain Size
Analysis, Weight-Volume Relationships, Plasticity,
and Structure of Soil
Dr. Emre ÇEÇEN

ececen@umt.edu.al

Formation of soils

Physical Chemical
weathering weathering

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Soil Formation
Parent Rock

Residual soil Transported soil

in situ weathering weathered and
(by physical & chemical transported far away
agents) of parent rock
by wind, water and ice.

Residual Soils

Formed by in situ weathering of parent rock

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Transported Soils

Transported by: Special name:

 Wind Aeolian
Sea (salt water) Marine
Lake (fresh water) Lacustrine
River Alluvial
Ice Glacial

Parent Rock
Formed by one of these three different processes

igneous sedimentary metamorphic

formed by cooling of formed by gradual formed by alteration

molten magma (lava) deposition, and in layers of igneous &
sedimentary rocks by
e.g., limestone, shale pressure/temperature
e.g., granite

e.g., marble

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Origins of soils from rocks

All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks in the Earth's crust:
igneous rocks
crystalline bodies of cooled magma
e.g. granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro, syenite, porphyry

sedimentary rocks
layers of consolidated and cemented sediments, mostly formed in bodies of
water (seas, lakes, etc.)
e.g. limestone, sandstones, mudstone, shale, conglomerate

metamorphic rocks
formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from igneous intrusions
(e.g. marble, quartzite, hornfels)
or pressure due to crustal movement (e.g. slate, schist, gneiss).

Soil types

60mm 60mm 2mm 2mm 0.075

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Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, 2e Das/Sivakugan

Soil-Grain Size
Several organizations have developed soil-separate-size limits:

9 © 2016 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved.

Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, 2e Das/Sivakugan

Soil-Grain Size Cont’d

American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) adopted the Unified Soil
Classification System.

Below are the size limits in graphical form:

10 © 2016 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved.

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Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, 2e Das/Sivakugan

Soil-Grain Size Cont’d

Gravel: Pieces of rocks with occasional grains of quartz, feldspar, and

other minerals.
Sand: Grains that are mostly made of quartz and feldspar. Other
minerals may be present at times.
Silts: The microscopic soil fractions which consist of very fine quartz
grains and some flake-shaped grains that are micaceous mineral
fragments.
Clays: Mostly flake-shaped microscopic grains of mica, clay minerals,
and other minerals. Grains are classified as clay based on their size;
they do not always contain clay minerals.

11 © 2016 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved.

Grading and composition

Coarse soils
Very coarse BOULDERS > 200 mm
soils COBBLES 60 - 200 mm
coarse 20 - 60 mm
G
medium 6 - 20 mm
GRAVEL
Coarse fine 2 - 6 mm
soils coarse 0.6 - 2.0 mm
S
medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm
SAND
fine 0.075 - 0.2 mm

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Aids to size identification

SAND (and coarser) particles are visible to the naked

eye.
SILT particles become dusty when dry and are easily
brushed off hands and boots.
CLAY particles are greasy and sticky when wet and
hard when dry, and have to be scraped or washed off
hands and boots.

CLAYS

Atomic Structure

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Basic Structural Units

Clay minerals are made of two distinct structural units.

hydroxyl or oxygen
oxygen

aluminium or
silicon magnesium

0.26 nm
0.29 nm

Silicon Tetrahedron Aluminium Octahedron

Clays

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Clays

Tetrahedral Sheet
Several tetrahedrons joined together form a tetrahedral
sheet.

tetrahedron

hexagonal
hole

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Tetrahedral & Octahedral Sheets

For simplicity, let’s represent silica tetrahedral sheet by:

Si

and alumina octahedral sheet by:

Al

Different Clay Minerals

Different combinations of tetrahedral and octahedral sheets
form different clay minerals:

1:1 Clay Mineral (e.g., kaolinite, halloysite):

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Different Clay Minerals

Different combinations of tetrahedral and octahedral sheets
form different clay minerals:

2:1 Clay Mineral (e.g., montmorillonite, illite)

Kaolinite

Al
Si
Typically 70-
100 layers Al
0.72 nm
Si
Al
joined by strong H-bond
∴no easy separation Si
Al joined by oxygen
Si sharing

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Kaolinite

 used in paints, paper and in pottery and

pharmaceutical industries
 (OH)8Al4Si4O10

Halloysite
 kaolinite family; hydrated and tubular structure

 (OH)8Al4Si4O10.4H2O

Montmorillonite
 also called smectite; expands on contact with water

Si
Al
Si

Si
Al 0.96 nm
∴easily separated Si
by water
Si
joined by weak
van der Waal’s bond Al
Si

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Montmorillonite

 A highly reactive (expansive) clay

 (OH)4Al4Si8O20.nH2O swells on contact with water

high affinity to water

Bentonite
 montmorillonite family

 used as drilling mud, in slurry trench walls, stopping

leaks

Illite
Si
Al
Si
joined by K+ ions
Si
fit into the hexagonal 0.96 nm
Al
holes in Si-sheet
Si

Si
Al
Si

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Others…

Chlorite
 A 2:1:1 (???) mineral.
Si Al Al or Mg

Vermiculite
 montmorillonite family; 2 interlayers of water

Attapulgite
 chain structure (no sheets); needle-like
appearance

A Clay Particle

Plate-like or Flaky Shape

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Clay Fabric
edge-to-face contact
face-to-face contact

Flocculated Dispersed

Clay Fabric

 Electrochemical environment (i.e., pH, acidity, temperature,

cations present in the water) during the time of sedimentation
influence clay fabric significantly.

 Clay particles tend to align perpendicular to the load applied

on them.

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Identifying Clay
Minerals

Scanning Electron Microscope

 common technique to see clay particles

 qualitative

plate-like
structure

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Others methods
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
 to identify the molecular structure and minerals
present

Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

 to identify the minerals present

Casagrande’s PI-LL Chart

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U-line
50
montmorillonite illite A-line
Plasticity Index

40

30
kaolinite
20
halloysite
10

0
chlorite
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Liquid Limit

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Special Terms

Specific Surface

 surface area per unit mass (m2/g)

 smaller the grain, higher the specific surface

e.g., soil grain with specific gravity of 2.7

1 mm cube
10 mm cube

spec. surface = 222.2 mm2/g spec. surface = 2222.2 mm2/g

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Isomorphous Substitution

 substitution of Si4+ and Al3+ by other lower

valence (e.g., Mg2+) cations
 results in charge imbalance (net negative)

positively charged edges

+ +
+ _ _ _ _+ + _ negatively charged faces
+ _ _ _ __
_
+ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _ _

Clay Particle with Net negative Charge

Cation Exchange Capacity (c.e.c)

known as exchangeable
cations
 capacity to attract cations from the water (i.e.,
measure of the net negative charge of the clay
particle)
 measured in meq/100g (net negative charge per 100 g of
clay)
milliequivalents

 The replacement power is greater for higher valence

and larger cations.
Al3+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ >> NH4+ > K+ > H+ > Na+ > Li+

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A Comparison

Mineral Specific surface C.E.C

(m2/g) (meq/100g)
Kaolinite 10-20 3-10
Illite 80-100 20-30
Montmorillonite 800 80-120
Chlorite 80 20-30

Cation Concentration in Water

 cation concentration drops with distance from clay particle
+ clay particle +
+- - + cations
+ + +
+ + - - ++ +
+ ++
+ +
+ + + + +
+ + + + - - + +
+ + + + +- - ++ + + + +
+
+ +
+ + + + + - - + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +- -+ + +
+
+ + +- -+ + + +
+ +
+ +

+ double layer + free water

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Adsorbed Water
 A thin layer of water tightly held to particle; like a
skin
 1-4 molecules of water (1 nm) thick

 more viscous than free water

- - adsorbed
- - water
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -

Clay Particle in Water

adsorbed water

- -
1nm
- -
- - 50 nm
- - free water
- -
- - double layer
- - water

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Clay minerals

Surface charge and diffuse double layer

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Clay Morphology
Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM)
Shows that clay
particles consist of
stacks of plate-like
layers

Soil fabric

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Essential points

Phase Relations

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Volume-weight properties

Soil comprises three constituent phases:

Solid: rock fragments, mineral grains or flakes,
organic matter.
Liquid: water, with some dissolved compounds (e.g.
salts).
Gas: air or water vapour.

Three Phases in Soils

S: Solid Soil particle
W: Liquid Water (electrolytes)
A: Air Air

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Three Phase System

Va Air Wa~0
Vv
Vw
Water Ww
WT
VT

Vs Solid Ws

Volume Weight

Weight Relationships

Weight Components:
• Weight of Solids = Ws
• Weight of Water = Ww
• Weight of Air ~ 0

Ww
Water Content , w(%) = × 100%
Ws

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Volumetric Relationships
Volume Components:
• Volume of Solids = Vs
• Volume of Water = Vw
• Volume of Air = Va
• Volume of Voids = Va + Vw = Vv

Vv
Void Ratio, e =
Vs

Vv
Porosity , n(%) = × 100%
VT

Soil mass-volume properties

V = Vs + Vw + Va
Note also that:
n = e / (1 + e)
e = n / (1 - n)
v = 1 / (1 - n)

Typical void ratios might be 0.3 (e.g. for a dense, well graded granular soil) or 1.5 (e.g. for a soft
clay).

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Relative Density
The relative density is the parameter that compare the volume
reduction achieved from compaction to the maximum possible
volume reduction
The relative density Dr, also called density index is commonly
used to indicate the IN SITU denseness or looseness of
granular soil.

Volume reduction from compaction of granular soil

Relative Density
Dr can be expressed either in terms of void ratios or
dry densities.

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Relative Density
Remarks
The relative density of a natural soil very strongly affect its
engineering behavior.

The range of values of Dr may vary from a minimum of zero for very
LOOSE soil to a maximum of 100% for a very DENSE soil.

Because of the irregular size and shape of granular particles, it is

not possible to obtain a ZERO volume of voids. (remember well-
graded vs. poorly-graded)

ASTM test designations D-4253 and D-4254 (2007) provide

procedure for determining maximum and minimum dry unit
weights of granular soils.

Granular soils are qualitatively described according to their

relative densities as shown below

The use of relative density has been restricted to granular soils

because of the difficulty of determining emax in clayey soils.

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Volumetric Relationships

Volume Components:
• Volume of Solids = Vs
• Volume of Water = Vw
• Volume of Air = Va
• Volume of Voids = Va + Vw = Vv

Vw
Degree of Saturation , S (%) = × 100%
VV

Degree of Saturation (S or Sr)

Total volume of voids contains water (Vw )

S= ×100%
Total volume of voids (Vv )

Completely dry soil S = 0 %

Completely saturated soil S = 100%
Unsaturated soil (partially saturated soil) 0% < S < 100%

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Specific Gravity
Weight of a Substance
Specific Gravity =
Weight of an Equal Volume of Water

Unit Weight of a Substance

Specific Gravity =
Unit Weight of Water

Unit weight of Water, γw

• γw = 1.0 g/cm3 (strictly accurate at 4° C)
• γw = 62.4 pcf
• γw = 9.81 kN/m3

Determination of Specific Gravity

Specific gravity (Gs) is a property of the mineral or rock

material forming soil grains.
It is defined as

[The range of Gs for common soils is 2.58 to 2.72]

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Standards for determination of

Specific Gravity of Soils
Standards
• ASTM D854-92 Standard Test Method for Specific
Gravity of Soils

• ASTM C127-88 (Reapproved 1993) Test Methods for

Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate.

• BS 1377: Part 2:1990

Alternatives
• If the soil contains soluble salts or can react with water,
an alternative liquid should be used such as kerosene
(paraffin) or white spirit. Note that the density of oil is not
equal to 1 g/cm3, ρL≠1 g/cm3 (Head, 1992).

( m 2 − m1 )
Gs =
( m 4 − m1 ) − ( m3 − m 2 ) Weight of liquid displaced
ρL by the soil solid.

ρ L ( m 2 − m1 )
=
( m 4 − m1 ) − ( m3 − m 2 )

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Specific Gravity of common minerals

Iron 7.86
Aluminum 2.55-2.80
Lead 11.34
Mercury 13.55

Granite 2.69
Marble 2.69
Quartz 2.60
Feldspar 2.54-2.62

Specific Gravity, Gs

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Soil Unit weight (kN/m3)

Bulk (or Total) Unit weight

γ = WT / VT
Dry unit weight
γd = Ws / VT
Buoyant (submerged) unit weight
γb = γ- γw

Density and Unit Weight

• Mass is a measure of a body's
inertia, or its "quantity of Density, ρ =
Mass
matter". Mass is not changed Volume
at different places. Weight Mass ⋅ g
Unit weight , γ = =
Volume Volume
• Weight is force, the force of
gravity acting on a body. The g : acceleration due to gravity
value is different at various γ = ρ ⋅ g = ρ ⋅ 9.8 m
places (Newton's second law F sec 2
= ma) (Giancoli, 1998) Water , γ = 9.8 kN
m3

• The unit weight is frequently ρs ρ ⋅ g γs

Gs = = s =
used than the density is (e.g. ρw ρw ⋅ g γ w
in calculating the overburden
pressure).

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Weight Relationships
(1)Water Content w (100%)
Mass of water ( M w )
w= ⋅100%
Mass of soil solids ( M s )
For some organic soils w>100%, up to 500
%
For quick clays, w>100%
(2)Density of water (slightly varied with
temperatures)
ρw = 1g / cm3 = 1000 kg / m3 = 1Mg / m3
(3) Density of soil
a. Dry density
Mass of soil solids(M s )
ρ =
d
Total volume of soil sample (Vt )
b. Total, Wet, or Moist density (0%<S<100%,
Unsaturated)
Mass of soil sample(M s + M w )
ρ=
Total volume of soil sample (Vt )
c. Saturated density (S=100%, Va =0)
Mass of soil solids + water (M s + M w )
ρsat =
Total volume of soil sample (Vt )

d. Submerged density (Buoyant density)

ρ' = ρsat − ρ w

Weight Relationships (Cont.)

Submerged unit weight: γ ' = γ sat − γ w

Consider the buoyant force Ws − Vs ⋅ γ w Ws − (Vt − Vw ) ⋅ γ w

= (S = 100%)
acting on the soil solids: Vt Vt
Ws − Vt ⋅ γ w + Ww
=
Vt
Ws + Ww − Vt ⋅ γ w
=
Vt
Archimede’s principle: = γ sat − γ w
The buoyant force on a body immersed
in a fluid is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by that object.

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Other Relationships

(1) Specific gravity Proof:

ρs γ s S ⋅ e = w ⋅ Gs
Gs = =
ρw γ w Vw Vv Vw
S ⋅e = ⋅ =
Vv Vs Vs
Ms
(2) M w ρs M w Vs Vw
ρw ⋅ S ⋅ e = w ⋅ ρs w ⋅ Gs = ⋅ = ⋅ =
M s ρw M s M w Vs
S ⋅ e = w ⋅ Gs Vw

Solution of Phase Problems

Remember the following simple rules (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981):

1.Remember the basic definitions of w, e, ρs, S, etc.

2.Draw a phase diagram.
3.Assume either Vs=1 or Vt=1, if not given.
4.Often use ρwSe=wρs, Se = wGs

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Examples

Example 1:
A 125.6 g sample of soil was obtained from the site
and its volume was found to be 65.34 cm3. The
sample was then oven dried to a constant mass of
102.5 g. If a specific gravity test determined that the
soil has a specific gravity of solids of 2.672, find the:
water content,
density and dry density,
void ratio,
porosity,
saturation rate and
percent air content.

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Example 2:
A saturated soil has a moisture content of 25.7% and
a void ratio of 0.668. Determine the density and
specific gravity of solids.

Example 3:
A sample of soil has a total volume of 0.0282 m3, a
saturation rate of 56% and a water content of 18.5%.
If the specific gravity of the soil is 2.529, determine
the values of the wet and dry densities and void ratio
of the soil.

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Classwork:
1. A chunk of moist soil has a volume of 0.02135 m3 and has a mass of 41.54 kg.
The specific gravity of the solids is 2.722 and the moisture content is 23.2%.
Determine the void ratio and the degree of saturation.
2. A chunk of moist soil has a volume of 0.3020 m3 and a mass of 634.2 kg. A
250.6 g sample from it was dried in the oven and its mass found to be 225.8 g. The
specific gravity of the solids was 2.663. Determine the moisture content, dry
density, wet density, void ratio and degree of saturation.

HW:
1. A chunk of moist soil has a volume of 0.02135 m3 and has a mass of 41.54 kg.
The specific gravity of the solids is 2.722 and the moisture content is 23.2%.
Determine the void ratio and the degree of saturation.
2. A chunk of moist soil has a volume of 0.3020 m3 and a mass of 634.2 kg. A 250.6
g sample from it was dried in the oven and its mass found to be 225.8 g. The
specific gravity of the solids was 2.663. Determine the moisture content, dry
density, wet density, void ratio and degree of saturation.
3. A soil sample has a volume of 1.354 L and a mass of 2.565 kg. A 185.2 g sample
was dried in the oven to a constant dry mass of 171.3 g. The specific gravity of the
solids was 2.668. What was the void ratio and degree of saturation.
4. A cylindrical sample of clay 50.8 mm in diameter by 102 mm long has a mass of
400.3 g in its natural state. It is dried in an oven and found to weigh 304.0 g. Since
the soil came from below the water table it is assumed to be saturated.
a) Determine the void ratio and the specific gravity of the soil.
b) If the soil was only 95% saturated what are the void ratio and specific gravity?
5. A saturated soil has a wet density of 2050 kg/m3 and a dry density of 1650
kg/m3. Find the specific gravity of the solids and the water content of the soil.

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HW:
Phase Relationship Problem Answers

Q e Gs S w ρ ρd
1 0.723 87.3%
2 0.408 71.9% 11.0% 2.10g/cm3 1.89g/cm3
3 0.522 41.3%
4a 0.872 2.754
4b 0.963 2.887
5 2.750 24.2%

Soil Classification

 Twokinds of soil in this

world…
–COARSE
–FINE

 Basis for division is...

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Fine Grained vs.

Coarse Grained Soils
 U.S. Standard
Sieve - No. 200
– 0.0029 inches
– 0.074 mm

 “No. 200”
means...

Sieve Analysis
(Mechanical Analysis)

This procedure is
suitable for coarse
grained soils
e.g. No.10 sieve ….
has 10 apertures per
linear inch

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Coarse graines soils

Determination of grain size

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Hydrometer Analysis
for fine soils

• Also called Sedimentation

Analysis
• Stoke’s Law

D: the diameter (cm) of the particle at time tD

(seconds)
µ: the viscosity of water [0.01 g/(cm.s) at 20oC],
z: the depth (cm),
ρw : the density of water (1 g/cm3),
g: the acceleration due to gravity (981 cm/s2),
Gs : the specific gravity of the soil particles.

Hydrometer Analysis for fine soils

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Particle size tests

Grading characteristics
•Effective size
d10

•Uniformity coefficient
Cu = d60 / d10

•Coefficient of gradation
Cr = d30² / d60 d10
•For Gravels;
Cu ≥ 4 and 3≥ Cr ≥1 indicates a well-graded Gravel
Cu < 4 and/or and 1>Cr>3 indicates a uniform Gravel

•For Sands;
Cu ≥ 6 and 3≥ Cr ≥1 indicates a well-graded Sand
Cu < 6 and/or and 1>Cr>3 indicates a uniform Sand

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100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 100
P a r ti c l e s i ze ( m m )

W Well graded

100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 100
P a r ti c l e s i ze ( m m )

W Well graded
U Uniform

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100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 100
P a r ti c l e s i ze ( m m )

W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poor graded

100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 100
P a r ti c l e s i ze ( m m )

W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poor graded
C Well graded (clayey)

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100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 100
P a r ti c l e s i ze ( m m )
W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poor graded
C Well graded (clayey)
F Well graded (very fine)

Typical grading curves

A - a poorly-graded medium SAND

B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND
C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
D - a sandy SILT
E - a typical silty CLAY

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Fine soils

Fine soils

Consistency (Atterberg) limits and plasticity

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Fine grained soils (consistency limits)

If a fine grained soil in liquid state is dried in stages, it becomes
plastic, then semi-plastic and eventually solid consequently while
the volume decreases. The water content at which soil behaves
in different phases are stated by Atterberg (consistency) limits.
These are named as: Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Shrinkage
limit.

•Albert
Albert Atterberg (1846-1916) Swedish soil
scientist who developed test schemes to
determine consistency limits (1911).

•Arthur
Arthur Casagrande (1902-1981) US
geotechnical engineer who adopted these
test for geotechnical purposes.
• Derived soil plasticity and classification of fine soils (1932)
1932)

Fine soils
Plasticity index
The range of water content over which a soil has a plastic
consistency is termed the Plasticity Index (IP or PI).
IP = liquid limit - plastic limit = wL - wP

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Liquid Limit (LL or wL)

Empirical Definition
The moisture content at which a 2 mm-wide
groove in a soil pat will close for a distance of 0.5
in when dropped 25 times in a standard brass cup
falling 1 cm each time at a rate of 2 drops/sec in a
standard liquid limit device

Determination of Liquid limit by

Casagrande Device

Specimen sieved at #40 sieve

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Determination of Liquid limit

by Casagrande Device

Determination of Liquid limit

by Fall cone
Cone penetration, d (mm)

Water content, w (%)

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Determination of plastic limit

Plastic Limit (PL, wP)

The moisture content at which a thread of soil just

begins to crack and crumble when rolled to a
diameter of 3 mm (1/8 inches)

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Determination of plastic limit

Plastic Limit (PL, wP)

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Plasticity Index ( PI, IP )

PI = LL – PL
or
IP=wL-wP
Note: These are water contents, but the
percentage sign is not typically shown.

Plasticity Chart

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Engineering Characterization of Soils

Soil Properties that Control its Engineering Behavior

Particle Size

coarse-grained fine-grained

Particle/Grain Size  Soil Plasticity

Distribution
Particle Shape

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