Structural Geology

Folds, Faults, and Joints

Dr. AMKB Abeysinghe

Department of Earth Resources Engineering
University of Moratuwa
 Structural geology
• Structural geology is the study of the
deformation of rocks (folds and faults)
and other structural features of rocks.

• Folds and Faults are geologic structures

formed due to the deformation of rocks
 Small-scale Folds
Phil Dombrowski
Small-scale Faults
 Geological Structures
1-D (line) 2-D (Plane) 3-D
Strike Fault Fold
Lineation Foliation Dyke/s
Fold axis Bedding Sil/s
Joints/fractures Veins
Axial plane of
the fold
Unconformity
 Geological Structures
• Bedding/ Foliation
• Folds
• Faults
• Joints
• Unconformities
Sedimentary Rocks - Bedding

Metamorphic Rocks - Foliation

Attitude/ Orientation of Rocks
Attitude of a planer (2-D) geological feature is
defined by strike and dip.

Strike: A plane (bedding, foliation, joint etc) is cut by

a horizontal plane, a line of intersection will be
obtained at the surface. This direction is known as
strike
Dip: Angle of inclination between the plane and the
horizontal plane, measured perpendicular to strike.
090°/45°S
Strike and dip of a rock layer
 Sedimentary Rocks (Bedding)

Chris Pellant
 Strike

Dip

P.L. Kresan
Cockscomb Ridge, S. Utah
Geologic structures are identified based on:
– rock type (lithology)
– strike and dip
– age of rock units
Geologic
Map and
Cross
Section
Metamorphic Rocks - Foliation

• any planar arrangement of

mineral grains or structural
features (segregation of
minerals) within a rock
 Foliation
• any planar arrangement of mineral
grains or structural features within a
rock
• Parallel alignment of platy and/or
elongated minerals
• Parallel alignment of flattened
mineral grains and pebbles
• Compositional banding
• Slaty cleavage where rocks can
be easily split into thin, tabular
sheets
 Foliation

• can form in various ways including:

– Rotation of platy and/or elongated minerals

– Recrystallization of minerals in the direction

of preferred orientation

– Changing the shape of equidimensional grains

into elongated shapes that are aligned
Foliation due to directed pressure
 Gneissic Foliation
• During higher grades of
metamorphism, ion migration
results in the segregation of
minerals

• Gneissic rocks exhibit a distinctive

banded appearance
 HIGH GRADE

LOW GRADE
 Deformation of Rocks
Ductile (plastic) deformation Brittle deformation (rupture)
 Stress
(force per unit area)

Types of directed stresses include:

• Compression
• Extension
• Shear
 Compression
Action of coincident oppositely directed forces
acting towards each other
 Tension
Action of coincident oppositely directed
forces acting away from each other
 Shear
Action of coincident oppositely directed
forces acting parallel to each other
across a surface in a couple
 Stress in Rock
• force per unit area
-2
( psi kg m MPa bars or kb)

• Compressional – shortens a rock body

• Tensional – tends to elongate or pull apart

a rock unit

• Shear stress – produces a motion similar

to slippage that occurs between individual
playing cards when the top of the stack is
moved relative to the bottom
 Strain
Any change in original shape or size
of an object in response to stress
acting on the object
 Strain in Rock
• changes in the shape or size of a
rock body caused by stress

• Rocks subjected to stresses

greater than their own strength
begin to deform usually by
folding or fracturing
• Elastic deformation – the rock returns
to nearly its original size and shape
when the stress is removed

• Once the elastic limit (strength) of a

rock is surpassed, it either;
folding (ductile deformation)
or
fractures (brittle deformation)
 Strength
• Ability of an object to resist deformation by
• stress
Types of deformation
• Elastic
• Ductile (plastic)
• Brittle (rupture)
 Elastic deformation

Temporary change in shape or

size that is recovered when the
deforming force is removed
 Ductile (plastic) deformation

• Permanent change in
shape or size that is not
recovered when the stress
is removed

• Occurs by the deforming

material, without loss of
cohesion (folding)
 Brittle deformation (rupture)

• Loss of cohesion of a
body under the
influence of deforming
stress (faulting)
Ductile or brittle failure of
rocks?
• Depend on the factors that
influence the deformation of rock
– Temperature
– Confining pressure
– Rock type (composition)
– Fluid or gas phases, particularly H2O
– Time
 Effects of rock type on deformation
Some rocks are
stronger than others.
competent: rocks that
deform only under
great stresses
incompetent: r
that deform under
moderate to low
stresses
Tectonic forces and resulting
deformation
Experimental Deformation of Marble
Brittle Deformation
Ductile Deformation
Folds
 Fold/s
• Folds may be defined as undulations or bends
that are developed in the rocks of the Earth
crust as a result of the stresses.
• Folds may be in different shapes starting from
simple (up and down) to complicated
geometrical patterns.
• Also they may range from several km to few m
or even a few cm.
 Types of folds
(bent planar structures)
anticline: older rocks on the inside
syncline: older rocks on the outside
(scale - from mm to tens of km)
Syncline

Fig. 10.18
Fold terminology
 Fold terminology
• Limb/s: side of the fold
• Axial Plane: immerging plane bisecting
between the two limbs of the fold
• Axis: line of intersection of axial plane
with any bed of the fold plane and a
• Angle of Plunging: when the fold is
inclined the angle which is makes with
the horizontal
 Axial plane
Anticline

Bill Evarts
Symmetrical, Asymmetrical
and Overturned Folds
Symmetrical Fold
 Asymmetrical Folds

Antiform Synform
Breck Kent
 Overturned Folds

Phil Dombrowski
 Horizontal and plunging folds

(a) Horizontal fold: where the fold axis is horizontal

(b) Plunging fold: where the fold axis is not horizontal
Non-plunging and plunging

Axis - Horizontal
(non-plunging)
Anticline
- - the oldest beds
will be in the center

Axis – not horizontal

(plunging)
Plunging Anticline
- - the oldest beds
will be in the center
 Map View of
Plunging Folds
 Axial Trace of
Plunging
Anticline*

Kurt N. Coonstenius
 Valley and Ridge Province
example of a Fold Belt

P. L. Kresan
 Plunging Folds in the
Valley and Ridge

J. Shelton, Geology illustrated

 Valley and
Ridge
Province of
the
Appalachian
Mountains
Raplee Anticline, S.E. Utah
 Domes and Basins

Double plunging anticline Double plunging syncline

Double plunging anticline Double plunging syncline
 Sinclair Dome, Wyoming

Double plunging anticline - Dome

 Fold Classification
(i)based on the position of axial plane
 Fold Classification
(ii)based on the degree of compression of the beds
 Fold Classification
(ii)based on their mode of occurrence

Anticlinorium and synclinorium

Faults
 Faults
• Fault is a fracture surface or zone along which
appreciable displacement has taken place.
• Due to the stresses developed within the
Earth crust, the rock formation may get
fractured (brittle failure)
• Development of fracture and occurrence of
the relative displacement of blocks is known
faulting
• Faulting is a result of earthquakes in the Earth
 Faults may be "reactivated"
History of a fault may be very long.
Previously developed weakness is the
most likely place to break.
Reactivation may have opposite sense
as before.
Active = 10,000 to 100,000 years
Very important for dams and reservoirs
Fault Terminology
 Classification of Faults
(i) Based on the apparent movements

hanging wall

footwall

cross section
(a) Normal Fault
 Classification of Faults
Based on the apparent movements

hanging wall

footwall

cross section
(b-i) Reverse Fault (angle more than 45)
 (b-ii) Thrust Fault (angle less than 45)

(b-iii) Over thrust Fault (angle less than 10)

(c) Transcurrent /Tear /Transverse Fault

(d) Vertical Fault

Fault plane is
vertical
 Classification of Faults
(ii) Based on the attitude of the fault
 Dip-slip faults
Motion of the fault blocks,
parallel to the dip direction.
Normal Dip Slip Fault
Reverse Dip-slip Fault
Strike-slip faults

Motion of the fault

blocks, parallel to
the strike
direction.
 Strike Slip Faults

Left-lateral Right-lateral

map view
Strike Slip Faults
 Strike-slip Fault
(Right Lateral)

Gudmundar E. Sigvaldason
 Keystone Thrust Fault, S. Nevada

Cambrian Limestone

Jurassic
Sandstone

John S..Shelton
Large-scale Overthrust Sheet
 French Thrust, Wyoming

Mississippian
Limestone

Cretaceous Shale

Kurt N. Coonstenius
Rift Valley Formed by Extension
Wildrose Graben, Southern California
1872 Fault Scarp, Southern California
 1988 Armenian Earthquake Fault Scarp

Armando Cisternas
 1992
Landers
Earthquake
Fault Scarp
Moragahakanda dam site
Joints
 Joints
• Joints may be defined as cracks or fractures
present in the body of a rock , along which
there has been no relative movements.
• Joins may be either open or closed.
• Commonly the joints in the rock developed on
regular patterns (joint sets/Joint system).
• Joints enhance the rock weathering
Jointing in rock enhances
weathering of rock
Geometrical classification of joints
 Genetic classification of joints
• Depend on the cause of their origin and may
be divided in to;
1. Tension Joints
They are formed due to tensile forces or
stresses produced in the rocks.
2. Shear Joints
They are formed by the shearing stresses,
which tend to slide and associated with limbs
of the folds.
 Tension joints

• Columnar Joints

• Mud cracks

• Sheet joints

• Mural joints
Columnar Joints
Mud cracks
Sheet joints
Mural joints
Shear Joints
Unconformity
Disconformity
Disconformity
Non Conformity
Non Conformity
Angular unconformity
Angular unconformity
 The End
Dr. AMKB Abeysinghe
Department of Earth Resources Engineering
University of Moratuwa