1. There are four main states of matter: solids, liquids, gases and plasma.

 Solids – have definite shapes and definite volumes and are not compressible to any
extent. There are two main categories of solids, crystalline solids and amorphous solids.
Molecules are held close together in an orderly fashion with little freedom of motion.
 Liquids – have no definite shape but have a definite volume, and they are not easily
compressible. Molecules are close together, but are not held so rigidly in position and can
move past one another.
 Gases – a gas has no definite shape, it takes the shape of the container that holds it. Gases
are easily compressible. Molecules are separated by distances that are large compared
with the size of the molecules.
 Plasma - This state of matter makes up 99% of the visible universe.
Each of these states is also known as a phase. Phase describes a physical state of matter.
The key word is physical, because things only move from one phase to another by
physical means. We speak of physical changes if energy is added (like increasing the
temperature or increasing pressure) or if energy is taken away (like freezing something
or decreasing pressure). These kinds of forces change states of matter.

2. A chemical reaction is a process leading to chemical change in matter, it usually

involves the making and / or breaking of chemical bonds. It is the process by which
one or more substances are changed into one or more new substances, for example when
compounds are broken down into elements or other compounds. In any chemical
reaction, the original substances are known as the reactants and the resulting substances
are known as the products. According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass
of reactants must equal the total mass of products for any given chemical reaction. Some
reactions occur only under certain conditions (e.g., supply of heat; presence of light or
electricity). Some reactions are accompanied by certain external indications (e.g., colour
change; evolution of gas, heat or light).

3. A chemical equation represents, with symbols and formulae, the identities and relative
molecular or molar amounts of the reactants and products in a chemical reaction. It is a
 shorthand description of a chemical reaction. It can be read in several ways, for example:
2C + O2 → 2 CO
Carbon combines with oxygen to produce carbon monoxide.
Carbon and / plus oxygen react to yield carbon monoxide.
Carbon reacts with / interacts with oxygen to yield / produce / form carbon monoxide.
The reactants carbon and oxygen yield the product carbon monoxide.

4. Atom is the smallest possible units of a substance (elements or compounds). Each

element is made from its own type of atom. Although there are many different types of
atom, they all have some important features in common:

Atoms have a small centre called a nucleus. The nucleus contains two types of particles,
positively charged particles called protons and neutral particles called neutrons.
Atoms have particles called electrons which move around the nucleus. Electrons have a
negative charge. The electrons in an atom are arranged in atomic orbitals. Each orbital
represents a different energy level/ shell. The way an atom reacts depends on the number
of electrons in its valence layer.
Atoms in pure elements are electrically neutral; it means an atom must always contain
the same number of protons and electrons. Protons and electrons have equal and opposite
electric charges. The number of neutrons in atoms of a specific element varies somewhat
from atom to atom. Atoms of the same element but with different number of neutrons are
called isotopes.

5. A covalent bond is a strong bond between two non-metal atoms. It consists of a shared
pair of electrons. The atoms of non-metals generally need to gain electrons to achieve
stable outer energy levels. When they react together, neither atom can give away
electrons, so they share them. A covalent bond can be represented by a straight line.

Hydrogen and chlorine can each form one covalent bond, oxygen two bonds, nitrogen
three, while carbon can form four bonds. Important examples of covalent bonds are
 hydrogen H2, chlorine Cl2, hydrogen chlorine HCl, ammonia NH3, methane CH4 and
water H2O.

6. Titration (also called titrimetry[1] and volumetric analysis) is a common laboratory

method of quantitative chemical analysis to determine the concentration of an
identified analyte (a substance to be analyzed). A reagent, called
the titrant or titrator,[2] is prepared as a standard solution of known concentration and
volume. The titrant reacts with a solution of analyte (which may also be called
the titrand[3]) to determine the analyte's concentration. The volume of titrant that reacted
with the analyte is called the titration volume.

7. Compound – A pure substance that can be broken down into smaller parts using
chemical properties; water and carbon dioxide are both examples of compounds; all parts
of a compound will contain identical molecules; in distilled water, all parts will contain
identical H2O molecules.

8. Period – A horizontal row of elements in the periodic table; for example, sodium,
magnesium, aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, and argon make up period 3
of the periodic table.

9. Element – A pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler parts by chemical
methods; all the elements are listed on the Periodic Table; all of the particles in an
element are identical, as shown in the element aluminum.

10. Periodic Table – A system for organizing the elements into columns and rows, so that
elements with similar properties are in the same column.

11. An anode is an electrode through which the conventional current enters into a polarized
electrical device. This contrasts with a cathode, an electrode through which conventional
current leaves an electrical device. A common mnemonic is ACID for "anode current into
device".[1]The direction of conventional current (the flow of positive charges) in a circuit
 is opposite to the direction of electron flow, so (negatively charged) electrons flow out
the anode into the outside circuit. In a galvanic cell, the anode is the electrode at which
the oxidation reactionoccurs.

12. In chemistry, a carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid (H2CO3),characterized by the

presence of the carbonate ion, a polyatomic ionwith the formula of CO2−
The name may also refer to a carbonate ester, an organic compound containing
the carbonate group C(=O)(O–)2

The term is also used as a verb, to describe carbonation: the process of raising the
concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water to produce carbonated
water and other carbonated beverages – either by the addition of carbon dioxide gas
under pressure, or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water.

13. electrolysis is a technique that uses a direct electric current (DC) to drive an otherwise
non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in
the separation of elements from naturally occurring sources such as ores using
an electrolytic cell. The voltage that is needed for electrolysis to occur is called
the decomposition potential.

The word "electrolysis" was introduced by Michael Faraday in the 19th century, on the
suggestion of the Rev. William Whewell, using
the Greek words ἤλεκτρον [ɛ̌ːlektron] "amber", which since the 17th century was
associated with electric phenomena, and λύσις [lýsis] meaning "dissolution".
Nevertheless, electrolysis, as a tool to study chemical reactions and obtain pure elements,
precedes the coinage of the term and formal description by Faraday.

HISTORY

 1785 – Martinus van Marum's electrostatic generator was used to reduce tin, zinc,
and antimony from their salts using electrolysis.
 1800 – William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle (view also Johann Ritter),
decomposed water into hydrogen and oxygen.
 1808 – Potassium (1807), sodium (1807), barium, calcium and magnesium were discovered
by Sir Humphry Davy using electrolysis.
 1821 – Lithium was discovered by the English chemist William Thomas Brande, who
obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide.
 1833 – Michael Faraday develops his two laws of electrolysis, and provides a mathematical
explanation of his laws.
 1875 – Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran discovered gallium using electrolysis.
 1886 – Fluorine was discovered by Henri Moissan using electrolysis.
 1886 – Hall–Héroult process developed for making aluminium
 1890 – Castner–Kellner process developed for making sodium hydroxide