Fuel 180 (2016) 90–96

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

Full Length Article

An investigation on the effects of using DEE additive in a DI diesel engine

fuelled with waste plastic oil
Viswanath K. Kaimal ⇑, P. Vijayabalan
Department of Mechanical Sciences, Hindustan University, Chennai, India

h i g h l i g h t s

Analysis of DEE addition in a diesel engine fuelled with plastic oil.

Comparison of Plastic Oil-DEE blends against diesel fuel.

PD15 gave better performance characteristics than other blends.

NOx, Smoke and CO decreases and UHC increases with blend ratio.

Ignition delay increased with addition of DEE.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: An experimental investigation was performed to assess the effects using diethyl ether additive in a diesel
Received 17 August 2015 engine fuelled with waste plastic oil. The variations in the performance, combustion and emission char-
Received in revised form 24 February 2016 acteristics of the engine using plastic oil and its 5%, 10% and 15% blends with DEE were examined and
Accepted 6 April 2016
compared with reference fuel. The experimental results show that the brake thermal efficiency increases
with increasing percentage of DEE in the blends and also BSEC reduced considerably while using blended
fuels. The combustion was delayed for DEE blends when compared to neat plastic oil and diesel. A drastic
Keywords:
reduction in the levels of smoke and NOX was noted for blends at maximum brake power. There was an
Waste plastic oil
Diethyl ether
improvement in the CO emissions while operating with PO-DEE blends, however the UHC emissions were
Combustion slightly higher. PD15 showed better performance and combustion characteristics with cleaner emissions.
Emission Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Diesel engine

1. Introduction
Fossil fuels play a vital role in the expansion of industrial, trans-
portation and agricultural sectors. Because of the high demand for
energy, the petroleum resources are depleting rapidly. Further-
more the environmental issues due to the emissions from the
use of fossil fuels are increasing at an alarming rate. In this context,
the notion of alternative energy has gained its significance and a lot
of researches are going on around the globe, in the field of biodiesel
and bioenergy, for finding an alternative for the petroleum fuels
[1–4]. Among the different fuels available, plastic oil produced by
pyrolysis process has become the centre of attention because of
its availability and environmental effects. Plastics have become
an unavoidable material both in industrial and household sectors.
⇑ Corresponding author at: Hindustan University, Chennai 603103, India.
E-mail addresses: viswanathk89@gmail.com (V.K. Kaimal), pvijayabalan.
mech@gmail.com (P. Vijayabalan).
The demand for plastic is increasing day by day because of its
highly desirable qualities and easy handling.
Despite these advantages, the plastic waste generated is creat-
ing so many environmental complications. The huge demand for
plastic has created a large amount of waste plastic and it has
become a common material in all landfills. It creates so many prob-
lems in disposing because of their non-degradable nature [5,6].
According to a survey carried out in India in 2012 indicates approx-
imately 5.6 million tonnes of plastic waste is generated every year.
Out of this 60% is recycled that means 6500 tonnes of plastic waste
is going as landfills per day. For decreasing the harmful effects of
plastic waste most of the countries implement recycling and incin-
eration [7–9]. Of all the techniques used for recycling the waste
plastic pyrolysis (chemical recycling) has considered as the best
way since it recovers the energy content in usable liquid or gaseous
form [10]. Pyrolysis technique is used as an energy recovery
method and gives liquid fuel as major product similar to that of
petroleum fuels [11,12]. Recent studies suggest that plastic
oil can directly be used in diesel engines without any major

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.04.030
0016-2361/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 V.K. Kaimal, P. Vijayabalan / Fuel 180 (2016) 90–96
Nomenclature
PO 100% plastic oil
DEE diethyl ether
HDPE high density polyethylene
PD5 5% DEE blended with plastic oil
PD10 10% DEE blended with plastic oil
PD15 15% DEE blended with plastic oil
BSEC brake specific energy consumption
modifications. The literatures also suggest that the amount of UHC,
CO and NOX were higher than diesel fuel [13–15].
The major concern related to plastic oil is the higher density and
viscosity when compared to diesel. In order to reduce these down-
sides small quantities of oxygenated additives are used as combus-
tion enhancers [16–19]. Different types of oxygenated additives
such as Dimethyl ether (DME), ethanol, and n-butanol has been
investigated in the past [20–22] but Diethyl ether (DEE) is consid-
ered as a better additive because of its superlative qualities than
the others. DEE is a renewable oxygenated additive obtained from
ethanol [23]. It has high cetane number and oxygen content which
aids the combustion rate in diesel engines [24,25]. It also has better
energy density, wide flammability range and low auto ignition
temperature than other additives [26]. A lot of researchers have
tried adding DEE to diesel and biodiesel for improving the perfor-
mance and emission. Studies suggest that adding diethyl ether to
biodiesel enhances brake thermal efficiency and results in better-
ment of specific fuel consumption [27–29]. Current researches
show that adding DEE is an appropriate method for reducing the
emissions drastically, especially NOX and smoke [30–33]. There-
fore, in this investigation, the authors have tried to study the effect
of adding DEE in a diesel engine fuelled with plastic pyrolysis oil at
different loading conditions. Along with performance and emission
characteristics, an in-depth combustion analysis has also been
included in the paper for a better understanding of the effects on
engine operations.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Plastic oil synthesis
In this investigation, the waste plastic materials (HDPE) were
gathered from the city landfills and cut into small pieces (0.5–
1 cm2). The impurities in the plastic chips were removed by
repeated washing and the moisture content is completely dried
with the help of an oven. A custom made pyrolysis reactor of
40 cm diameter and 60 cm height was used for carrying out the
reaction. A 10% by weight of coal and 1% by weight of Silica catalyst
were fed into the reaction chamber along with the plastic chips.
The reaction temperature inside the chamber was maintained in
the range of 350–400 °C with the help of a temperature controller
and the reaction was allowed to carry out for 4 h continuously at
atmospheric pressure. Pyrolysis process yielded plastic oil (80%
by weight of input), solid coke residue (15% by weight) and gas-
eous fractions (5% by weight) which is a mixture of propylene,
iso-butane, ethane and small amounts of methane. All the gaseous
products from the process were either condensed to liquids and
non-condensable products are treated by passing it through the
water chamber before it is let out. The oil was also distilled, to
remove any of the remaining impurities, before using in the engine.
The properties of diesel, plastic oil, DEE and PO-DEE blends are
given in Table 1.
91
HRR Heat Release Rate
NOX oxides of nitrogen
UHC Unburned Hydrocarbons
CO carbon monoxide
SOC start of combustion
2.2. Combustion analysis
The nature of combustion of a fuel in a diesel engine is one of
the most important aspect which is to be analysed, as it directly
indicates the performance and affects the resilience and stability
of the engine. The essential parameters used to study the nature
of combustion are in-cylinder pressure, heat release rate and igni-
tion delay [15]. The cylinder pressure–crank angle data of the
engine was obtained directly and the remaining parameters were
determined from it. The first law of thermodynamics was used to
calculate the net heat release rate with Eq. (1) mentioned by Hey-
wood [42].
dQ =dh ¼ ðc=c  1ÞpðdV=dhÞ þ ð1=c  1ÞVðdp=dhÞ ð1Þ
where dQ=dh is the rate of heat release, J/°CA is the cylinder pres-
sure in Pa, c is the specific heat ratio, V is combustion chamber vol-
ume in m3, h is crank angle in degrees.
2.3. Experimental setup
The experimental investigation was conducted on a high speed
single cylinder direct injection diesel engine generating 3.7 kW at
1500 rated RPM. The graphical representation of test setup is
shown in Fig. 1. Engine specifications are listed in Table 2.
A rheostat was used to electrically load the engine. No modifi-
cations or adjustments were done in the test setup. A KISTLER pres-
sure transducer was mounted on the cylinder head to obtain the
pressure crank angle data. The crank angle data were acquired
using a TDC encoder. The amplified signals from charge amplifier
were collected with the help of a high precision data acquisition
system. The weight averaged smoothing method was used to
smooth out the curve and to eliminate any data loss during the
procedure. The mean of 100 (cylinder pressure–crank angle data)
working cycles was used to avoid errors and inaccuracies in the
test results. Based on previous studies [34–36], the cyclic irregular-
ity and unstable operation of the engine were kept to minimum by
limiting the DEE percentage below 15%. The gaseous emissions
(UHC, CO and NO) were measured using AVL DiGas 444 infrared
gas analyser and smoke density was measured with the help of
AVL 437C smoke metre. The specifications of the gas analyser
and the accuracies are given in Table 3. The analyser was calibrated
and smoke metre set to the null correction point before every read-
ing to reduce the errors. The engine tests were carried out by vary-
ing the load from 0% to 100%. The brake power and brake mean
effective pressure corresponding to each engine load are given in
Table 4. The rated RPM of 1500 was maintained at loading condi-
tions by adjusting the fuel flow rate. Five test fuels, diesel, PO (neat
plastic oil), PD5 (5% DEE blended with plastic oil), PD10 (10% DEE
blended with plastic oil), PD15 (15% DEE blended with plastic
oil) were used to perform the test on the engine. The fuel injector
was dismantled and cleaned after every test run. The fuel tank was
fully emptied by running the engine before using a new fuel.
92 V.K. Kaimal, P. Vijayabalan / Fuel 180 (2016) 90–96

Table 1
Properties of fuel.a

Properties ASTM test standard Diesel Plastic oil DEE PD5 PD10 PD15
Specific gravity ASTM D 1298 0.84 0.83 0.714 0.83 0.827 0.821
Kinematic viscosity (cSt) at 40 °C ASTM D 445 04e 2.15 2.64 0.22 2.52 2.4 2.37
Calorific value (kJ/kg) ASTM D 240 02 43,500 44,200 33,870 43,167 42,834 42,501
Cetane number ASTM D 613 05 54 50 125 – – –
Flash point (°C) ASTM D93 45 40 45 40 40 39
a
Values measured.

Fig. 1. Experimental setup.

Table 2 Table 4
Specifications of the engine. BP and BMEP values for each load step.

Type Single cylinder, 4 stroke, water cooled, naturally Load (%) Brake power (kW) Brake mean effective pressure (bar)
aspirated DI diesel engine
20 0.75 1.3
Bore (mm) 87.5 40 1.53 2.7
Stroke (mm) 110 60 2.29 3.8
Rated power at 1500 3.7 80 3.11 5.1
RPM (kW) 100 3.65 6.2
Compression ratio 16.5
Start of injection 23° before TDC
Number of Nozzle holes 3 holes of 0.28 mm (diameter)
and diameter
Injection pressure (bar) 200
Combustion chamber Hemispherical open chamber
shape

Table 3
Specifications of AVL DiGas 444 analyser.

Parameter Measuring principle/ Range Resolution/

measured technique accuracy
NOX Electrochemical 0– 1 ppm
5000 ppm
UHC NDIR 0– 2 ppm
20,000 ppm
CO NDIR 0–9.95 vol% 0.01 vol%

Fig. 2. Brake thermal efficiency Vs brake power.

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Brake thermal efficiency PO-DEE blends. At rated power, the maximum brake thermal effi-
ciency noted is 30.9% for diesel, whereas for plastic oil it is 27.5%. In
Fig. 2 shows the plot between brake thermal efficiency and the case of DEE blends the efficiency at full load are 27.9%, 29.4%
brake power of the engine while using diesel, neat plastic oil and and 30.03% for PD5, PD10 and PD15 respectively. The lower ther-
 V.K. Kaimal, P. Vijayabalan / Fuel 180 (2016) 90–96 93

mal efficiency of plastic oil is because of the high viscosity and poor
atomisation resulting in poor mixture formation during premixed
combustion phase. Also, more energy is required to break the
higher aromatic bonds in plastic oil, which causes the reduction
in thermal efficiency of the engine. Brake thermal efficiency
increases steadily with increase in the diethyl ether blend ratio.
The higher oxygen content, low viscosity, high cetane number
and high volatility of DEE aids the combustion rate and increases
the efficiency [37]. At higher loads, the temperature inside the
cylinder will be high which increases the rate of vaporisation of
fuel resulting in higher efficiency. The reason for lower brake ther-
mal efficiency for PO and DEE blends may be due to their higher
heat release during combustion causing higher heat losses [38].

3.2. In-cylinder pressure

Fig. 4. Cylinder pressure Vs crank angle.
For a diesel engine, the peak pressure depends mostly on the
premixed combustion rate and delay period of the fuel. Fig. 3 illus-
trates the peak cylinder pressure variations for all tested fuels. The
maximum peak pressure varies from 58 bar to 71 bar for plastic oil
and for diesel it increases from 56 bar to 67 bar. In the case of DEE
blends, the maximum peak pressure changes from 58 bar to 70 bar
for PD5, 57 bar to 69 bar for PD10 and 57 bar to 67 bar for PD15.
The peak pressure for all the test fuels increases with load, the rea-
son for this is at higher loads additional fuel is sprayed into the
cylinder causing a high rate of combustion. The cylinder pressure
variations with crank angle is given in Fig. 4. The higher peak pres-
sure for PO (5.9% more than diesel) is due to the high viscosity and
low volatility, which delays the fuel–air mixture preparation and
causes a sudden rise in cylinder pressure during premixed combus-
tion phase. The peak pressure of PO is higher at all loads because of
its higher ignition delay and higher calorific value [40] than the
other test fuels. It can be noted that the peak pressure reduces with
increase in the amount of DEE in the blends when compared to
neat plastic oil this is because of the low heating value DEE blends
compared to plastic oil. Also the high latent heat of vaporisation of
Fig. 5. Heat release rate Vs crank angle.
DEE reduces the in-cylinder temperature and increases the ignition
delay which is obvious from Fig. 4 as the start of combustion is
delayed. The delay increases with increase in the amount of DEE
128.57 J/°CA. The higher heat release for plastic compared to other
addition to plastic oil.
fuels is due to its higher calorific value and low atomisation during
premixed combustion. The negative region in the beginning of the
3.3. Heat Release Rate (HRR)
plot is because of the evaporation of injected fuel absorbing heat
from the combustion environment, which is followed by premixed
The net heat release rate at full load for diesel, PO and DEE
combustion, where most of the air fuel mixture undergoes rapid
blends are given in Fig. 5. The peak heat release for diesel is
burning releasing high amount of heat. It is evident from the plot
85.44 J/°CA, for plastic oil it is 147 J/°CA, whereas for PD5 it is
that the start of combustion is delayed for plastic oil when com-
141.48 J/°CA, for PD10 it is 135.03 J/°CA and for PD15 it is
pared to diesel and in the case of DEE blends it is even more
delayed. The higher delay period for plastic oil is due to the higher
viscosity which poses difficulty in preparing the fuel–air mixture
and the reason for the increment in ignition delay in the case of
DEE blends is because of the high latent heat of vaporisation of
DEE which reduces the temperature inside the cylinder. Some
researchers suggest that the increase in delay period is due to
the impeded dynamic injection timing [36] and some have
reported that the delay is caused by the interaction of DEE with
the aromatic chains in the fuel [43,44]. The high latent heat of
vaporisation reduces the gas temperature inside the cylinder
resulting in low heat release rate for the blends during premixed
combustion [16,24]. However, it can be noticed that during the
controlled combustion phase all the blends show higher heat
release than that of diesel, which indicates better atomisation
due to the presence of low viscous and highly volatile DEE
[19,39]. Also the high oxygen content and number of ignition cen-
tres created by DEE in combustion chamber increases the rate of
Fig. 3. Peak cylinder pressure Vs brake power. combustion [41].
94 V.K. Kaimal, P. Vijayabalan / Fuel 180 (2016) 90–96
Fig. 6. Smoke Vs brake power.
3.4. Smoke emissions
Smoke is a measure of the amount of soot particles present in
the exhaust and this is the major component of particulate matter.
The variation of smoke emission with the brake power of the
engine for all test fuels are illustrated in Fig. 6. The smoke emission
for diesel fuel varies from 0.5 BSU to 3.8 BSU whereas for plastic oil
it varies from 1.02 BSU to 5.7 BSU. The increased smoke in the
exhaust for plastic oil is due to the high aromatic content in plastic
oil, low volatility and high viscosity which causes poor spray char-
acterisation and mixture formation resulting in low combustion
efficiency. The smoke levels for DEE blends varies from 1.04 BSU
to 4.9 BSU for PD5, 1.3 BSU to 4.64 BSU for PD10 and 0.8 to 4 BSU
for PD15. It can be observed from the plot that the smoke levels
reduces drastically with increase in the amount of DEE in the
blends. Smoke levels at full load reduced by 9% for PD5, 14.2% for
PD10 and 25% for PD15 when compared to neat plastic oil. This
reduction in smoke is the result of formation of lean air–fuel mix-
ture inside the cylinder, due to the additional oxygen content pre-
sent in DEE. The extra oxygen content in DEE aids the rate of
combustion during diffused combustion period, resulting in better
thermal efficiency and reduced smoke emission.
3.5. Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of nitrogen (NOX) are the important component in the
diesel engine emissions. Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) are the two compounds that are commonly put together as
NOX. It is formed by the oxidation of nitrogen present in the atmo-
spheric air inside the combustion chamber and the mechanism is
Fig. 7. NOx Vs brake power.
known as Zeldovich mechanism [14,42,45]. The formation of NOX
depends on various factors such as in-cylinder temperature, oxy-
gen content and residence time [42]. Fig. 7 depicts the variation
of NOX emission against brake power for all fuels. The NOX emis-
sion for diesel at full load is 4.29 g/kW h and for plastic it is
6.18 g/kW h. This increment in the amount of NOX for neat plastic
oil is due to the high peak pressure and temperature which
increases the formation of NOX. Also the higher calorific value
and high delay period increases the peak temperature resulting
in higher NOx for PO compared to other test fuels. In the case of
blends the NOX emission is 4.95 g/kW h for PD5, 4.7 g/kW h for
PD10 and 4.01 g/kW h for PD15. As the percentage of DEE in the
blend increases the NOX emission reduces, as indicated in the plot.
A reduction of 20% is noted for PD5, for PD10 it is 22% and 29% for
PD15. Even though DEE is having high oxygen content the blends
showed reduced NOX emission. This is due to low auto ignition
temperature of DEE, hence less temperature is required to start
the combustion. Also the high latent heat of vaporisation of DEE
which reduces the temperature inside the cylinder during combus-
tion and this is evident from the low peak pressure and heat
release during premixed combustion period [28].
3.6. Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC)
The formation of unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust emis-
sion of a diesel engine is due to the trapping of fuel in the crevices
during combustion [25,39,42]. Some literatures [39,42] suggest
that quenching of reactions due to low temperature, incomplete
fuel evaporation and over lean mixture formation may also con-
tribute to hydrocarbon emissions. Fig. 8 illustrates the deviations
in UHC emission with brake power. The UHC emission for diesel
fuel at full load is 0.06 g/kW h and for PO it is 0.1 g/kW h, whereas
for PD5 it is 0.13 g/kW h, for PD10 it is 0.14 g/kW h and for PD15 it
is 0.17 g/kW h. It can be observed that the UHC emission is higher
for DEE blends when compared to plastic oil and diesel. This incre-
ment in the amount of UHC is because of the reduction in density
caused by the addition of DEE. Also the flame quenching due to
high latent heat of vaporisation of DEE and the lean flame out
region formed with the use of DEE [35].
3.7. Carbon monoxide (CO)
CO emissions in the exhaust of a diesel engine are generally
caused by the incomplete combustion of fuel due to lack of oxygen,
it also depends on the physical and chemical properties of the
fuels. Fig. 9 indicates the deviation of CO emissions with the brake
power of the engine. The concentration of CO for diesel at maxi-
mum brake power is 0.74 g/kW h and 1.17 g/kW h for plastic oil.
Fig. 8. UHC Vs brake power.
 V.K. Kaimal, P. Vijayabalan / Fuel 180 (2016) 90–96
Fig. 9. CO Vs brake power.
In the case of blends the CO concentration is 1.06 g/kW h, 0.88 g/
kW h and 0.79 g/kW h for PD5, PD10 and PD15 respectively. The
concentration of CO declines steadily with rise in the DEE percent-
age in the blends. The amount of CO reduced by 9%, 24% and 32%
respectively for PD5, PD10 and PD15 blends. The reason for the
drastic reduction in the CO concentration of the blends when com-
pared to plastic oil is because of the higher oxygen content and
volatility of DEE which promotes the complete combustion of the
air–fuel mixture.
4. Conclusions
An inclusive experimental investigation was carried out to anal-
yse the effects on the performance, combustion and emission char-
acteristics of a diesel engine fuelled with plastic oil and its blends
with DEE. The study revealed that the neat plastic oil and its blends
can be used directly in a diesel engine without any modifications.
The PO-DEE blends showed lower BSEC than plastic oil because
of the higher cetane number, low viscosity and density. The ther-
mal efficiency was also improved with DEE addition.
The peak pressure and heat release were reduced for DEE blends
when compared to plastic oil. There was an increase in delay per-
iod, which resulted in delayed start of combustion.
Emissions from the engine were improved considerably while
using DEE blends. Among all the blends and plastic oil, PD15
showed better emission characteristics. The smoke and NOX were
reduced by 25% and 29% respectively at maximum load for PD15.
The CO emissions for the blends were lower, but the HC emissions
were slightly higher when compared to neat plastic oil operations.
The addition of DEE to plastic oil has improved the engine char-
acteristics in every aspect. It gives better performance and cleaner
emissions when compared to plastic oil. Thus addition of DEE with
plastic oil can be considered as a viable solution to the problems
involved while using plastic oil as a fuel in diesel engines, without
any modifications.
References
[1] Pugazhvadivu M, Rajagopan S. Investigations on a diesel engine fuelled with
biodiesel blends and diethyl ether as an additive. Indian J Sci Technol 2009;2
(5):32–5.
[2] Arbab MI, Masjuki HH, Varman M, Kalam MA, Imtenan S, Sajjad H. Fuel,
properties, engine performance and emission characteristic of common
biodiesels as a renewable and sustainable source of fuel. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2013;22:133–47.
[3] Agarwal AK. Biofuels (alcohols and biodiesel) applications as fuels for internal
combustion engines. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2007;33:233–71.
[4] Basha AS, Gopal KR, Jebaraj S. A review on biodiesel production, combustion,
emissions and performance. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009;13:1628–34.
[5] Raja Antony, Murali Advaith. Conversion of plastic wastes into fuels. J Mater
Sci Eng 2011;B1:86–9.
95
[6] Sartorius I. Materials case study 4: plastics. OECD global forum on
environment. Mechelen, Belgium: OECD Environment Directorate, OECD;
2010.
[7] Phong Hai Vu, Osami Nishida, Hirotsugu Fujita, Wataru Harano, Norihiko
Toyoshima, Masami Iteya. Reduction of NOx and PM from diesel engines by
WPO emulsified fuel. SAE Technical Paper 2001-01-0152.
[8] Escola JM, Aguado J, Serrano DP, Briones L, Díaz de Tuesta JL, Calvo R, et al.
Conversion of polyethylene into transportation fuels by the combination of
thermal cracking and catalytic hydro reforming over Ni-supported hierarchical
beta zeolite. Energy Fuels 2012;26:3187–95.
[9] Serrano DP. The current status of plastics recycling in Europe. In: Proceedings
of ISFR (2007) September 16–20, Jeju, Korea.
[10] Wong SL, Ngadi N, Abdullah TAT, Inuwa IM. Current state and future prospects
of plastic waste as source of fuel: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2015;50:1167–80.
[11] Murugan S, Ramaswamy MC, Nagarajan G. Assessment of pyrolysis oil as an
energy source for diesel engines. Fuel Process Technol 2009;90:67–74.
[12] Aguado J, Serrano DP, Miguel GS, Castro MC. Feedstock recycling of
polyethylene and polypropylene. Part 1: Pyrol Kinetics Conserv Recy
1998;23:163–81.
[13] Mani M, Nagarajan G, Sampath S. Characterization and effect of using waste
plastic oil and diesel fuel blends in compression ignition engine. Energy
2011;36:212–9.
[14] Kumar Sachin, Prakash R, Murugan S, Singh RK. Performance and emission
analysis of blends of waste plastic oil obtained by catalytic pyrolysis of waste
HDPE with diesel in a CI engine. Energy Convers Manage 2013;74:
323–31.
[15] Kaimal Viswanath K, Vijayabalan P. A detailed study of combustion
characteristics of a DI diesel engine using waste plastic oil and its blends.
Energy Convers Manage 2015;105:951–6.
[16] Rakopoulos DC, Rakopoulos CD, Giakoumis EG, Dimaratos AM. Characteristics
of performance and emissions in high-speed direct injection diesel engine
fuelled with diethyl ether/diesel fuel blends. Energy 2012;43:214–24.
[17] Altun Se, Öner C, Yasar F, Adin H. Effect of n-butanol blending with a blend of
diesel and biodiesel on performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel engine.
Ind Eng Chem Res 2011;50:9425–30.
[18] Rakopoulos C, Antonopoulos K, Rakopoulos D. Experimental heat release
analysis and emissions of a HSDI diesel engine fuelled with ethanol–diesel fuel
blends. Energy 2007;32:1791–808.
[19] Chotwichien A, Luengnaruemitchai A, Jai-In S. Utilization of palm oil alkyl
esters as an additive in ethanol–diesel and butanol–diesel blends. Fuel
2009;88:1618–24.
[20] Parka Su Han, Kima Hyung Jun, Lee Chang Sik. Effects of dimethyl-ether (DME)
spray behavior in the cylinder on the combustion and exhaust emissions
characteristics of a high speed diesel engine. Fuel Process Technol
2010;91:504–13.
[21] Yilmaz Nadir, Vigil Francisco M, Benalil Kyle, Davis Stephen M, Calva Antonio.
Effect of biodiesel–butanol fuel blends on emissions and performance
characteristics of a diesel engine. Fuel 2014;135:46–50.
[22] Rakopoulos DC, Rakopoulos CD, Giakoumis EG. Impact of properties of
vegetable oil, bio-diesel, ethanol and n-butanol on the combustion and
emissions of turbocharged HDDI diesel engine operating under steady and
transient conditions. Fuel 2015;156:1–19.
[23] Ni Z, YaGe D, ZuoHua H, ZhiYuan Z. Flame instability analysis of diethyl Ether
air premixed mixtures at elevated pressures. Eng Thermo Phys 2010;55
(3):314–20.
[24] Rakopoulos DC. Combustion and emissions of cottonseed oil and its bio-diesel
in blends with either n-butanol or diethyl ether in HSDI diesel engine. Fuel
2013;105:603–13.
[25] Cinar Can, Can Ozer, Sahin Fatih, Yucesu H Serdar. Effects of premixed diethyl
ether (DEE) on combustion and exhaust emissions in an HCCI-DI diesel engine.
Appl Therm Eng 2010;30:360–5.
[26] Rakopoulos DC, Rakopoulos CD, Giakoumis EG, Papagiannakis RG, Kyritsis DC.
Influence of properties of various common bio-fuels on the combustion and
emission characteristics of high-speed DI (direct injection) diesel engine:
vegetable oil, bio-diesel, ethanol, n-butanol, diethyl ether. Energy
2014;73:354–66.
[27] Qi DH, Chen H, Geng LM, Bian YZ. Effect of diethyl ether and ethanol additives
on the combustion and emission characteristics of biodiesel-diesel blended
fuel engine. Renewable Energy 2011;36:1252–8.
[28] Sivalakshmi S, Balusamy T. Effect of biodiesel and its blends with diethyl ether
on the combustion, performance and emissions from a diesel engine. Fuel
2013;106:106–10.
[29] Mallikarjun M, Mamilla VR, Rao GLN. NOx emission control techniques when
CI engine is fuelled with blends of Mahua methyl esters and diesel. Int J Eng Sci
Emerg Technol 2013;4:96–104.
[30] Subramanian M, Rajesh M. Use of diethyl ether along with water–diesel
emulsion in a Di diesel engine. SAE Paper 2002-01-2720.
[31] Subramanian KA, Ramesh A. Operation of a compression ignition engine on
diesel–diethyl ether blends. ASME Int Combust Eng 2002;39:353–60.
[32] Anand R, Mahalakshmi NV. Simultaneous reduction of NOx and smoke from a
direct injection diesel engine with exhaust gas recirculation and diethyl ether.
Proc Instit Mech Eng Part D: J Automob Eng 2007;221.
[33] Gorski K, Przedlacki M. Evaluation of the Influence of diethyl ether (DEE)
addition on selected physicochemical properties of diesel oil and ignition
delay period. Energy Fuels 2014;28:2608–16.
96 V.K. Kaimal, P. Vijayabalan / Fuel 180 (2016) 90–96
[34] Mohanan P, Kapilan N, Reddy RP. Effect of diethyl ether on the performance
and emission of a 4-S DI diesel engine. SAE paper no. 2003-01-0760; 2003.
[35] Rakopoulos DC, Rakopoulos CD, Giakoumis EG, Dimaratos AM. Studying [40]
combustion and cyclic irregularity of diethyl ether as supplement fuel in diesel
engine. Fuel 2013;109:325–35.
[36] Iranmanesh M, Subrahmanyam JP, Babu MKG. Application of diethyl ether to [41]
reduce smoke and NOx emissions simultaneously with diesel and biodiesel
fuelled engines. In: Proceedings of 2008 ASME international mechanical
engineering congress and exposition (IMECE2008). Boston, MA; October 31– [42]
November 6, 2008. p. 77–83 [Paper no. IMECE2008-69255].
[37] Jawre Sandip S, Lawankar SM. Performance analysis of Kusim methyl ester as [43]
alternative bio fuel in diesel engine with diethyl ether as additive. Int J Innov
Res 2014;3:139–44. [44]
[38] Raheman H, Phadatare AG. Diesel engine emissions and performance from
blends of karanja methyl ester and diesel. Biomass Bioenergy 2004;27:393–7.
[39] Imtenan S, Masjuki HH, Varman M, Rizwanul Fattah IM, Sajjad H, Arbab MI. [45]
Effect of n-butanol and diethyl ether as oxygenated additives on combustion–
emission-performance characteristics of a multiple cylinder diesel engine
fuelled with diesel–jatropha biodiesel blend. Energy Convers Manage
2015;94:84–94.
Mani M, Subash C, Nagarajan G. Performance, emission and combustion
characteristics of a DI diesel engine using waste plastic oil. Appl Therm Eng
2009;29:2738–44.
Edwin Geo V, Nagarajan G, Nagalingam B. Studies on improving the
performance of rubber seed oil fuel for diesel engine with DEE port
injection. Fuel 2010;89(11):3559–67.
Heywood JB. Internal combustion engine fundamentals. USA: McGraw-Hill;
1984.
Bailey B, Guguen S, Erwin J. Diethyl ether (DEE) as a renewable fuel. SAE Paper;
1997. p. 972–78.
Clothier PQE, Moise A, Pritchard HO. Effect of free-radical release on diesel
ignition delay under simulated cold-starting conditions. Combust Flame
1990;81:242–50.
Turns SR. An introduction to combustion: concepts and applications. 2nd
ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill; 2000.