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Analysis of Integration of Plug-in Hybrid
Electric Vehicles in the Distribution Grid
Ahmad Karnama
Master of Science Thesis

Stockholm, Sweden 2009
Analysis of Integration of
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles in the
Distribution Grid
Ahmad Karnama
Thesis for rewarding Master of Science Degree in Electric Power

Engineering from School of Electrical Engineering at Royal Institute of
Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden.
Involved Academic Divisions: Electric Power Systems

Electrical Machines and Power
Electronics
Academic Supervisors: Professor Lennart Söder
Professor Stefan Östlund
Industrial Partner: Fortum Distribution AB
Industrial Supervisors: Mr. Olle Hansson
Mr. Jonas Tosting
Examiner: Professor Lennart Söder
[II]
‫در كارگه كوزه گری رفتم دوش‬
‫ديدم دو ھزار كوزه گويا و خموش‬
‫ناگه يكي كوزه برآورد خروش‬
‫كو كوزه گر و كوزه خر و كوزه فروش‬
Once, in a potter's shop, a company

Of cups in converse did I chance to see,
And lo! One lifted up his voice, and cried,
"Who made, who sells, who buys this crockery? "1
1
From Omar Khayyam (Persian: ‫)عمر خيام‬, (born 1048 AD, Neyshapur, Iran—1123 AD, Neyshapur,
Iran), a Persian polymath, mathematician, philosopher, astronomer and poet.
[III]
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Abstract
The new generation of cars are so-called Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs)
which has the grid connection capability. By the introduction of these vehicles, the
grid issues will be connected to the private car transportation sector for the first
time. The cars from the gird perspective can be considered as a regular load with
certain power factor. The effects of this type of new load in distribution grid are
studied in this thesis.
By modelling the cars as regular load, the effects of the cars in three distinct areas in
Stockholm are investigated. The car number in each area is estimated based on the
population and commercial density of electricity consumption in the three areas.
Afterward, the average electricity consumption by the cars in one day is distributed
among 24 hours of the day with peak load in the studied year. This distribution is
done by two regulated and unregulated methods.
The regulated method is based on the desired pattern of electricity consumption of

PHEVs by vehicle owners. On the other hand, the regulated pattern is designed
based on encouragement of the car owners to consume electricity for charging their
car batteries at low-power hours of day (usually midnight hours).
The power system from high voltage lines in Sweden down to 11 kV substations in
Stockholm simulated in PSS/E software has been used in this study. The automation
program (written in Python) is run in order to get the output report (voltage
variation and losses) of the load flow calculations for different hours of day by
adding the required power for PHEVs both by regulated and unregulated patterns.
The results show the possibility of introducing growing number of cars till year 2050
in each area with existing grid infrastructures. Moreover, the number of cars, yearly
and daily electric consumption for PHEVs in pure electric mode are shown in this
project and the effects of regulated electricity consumption are investigated.
It is concluded that since the car number is estimated based on the population, the
areas with higher residential characteristics are more problematic for integration of
PHEVs from capacity point of view. Moreover, by regulating the charging pattern of
PHEVs, the higher number of PHEVs can be integrated to the grid with the existing
infrastructures. In addition, the losses have been decreased in regulated pattern in
comparison with unregulated pattern with the same power consumption. The
voltage in different substations is within the standard boundaries by adding 100
percent of PHEVs load for both regulated and unregulated patterns in all three areas.
Keywords
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs), grid integration, voltage variation, PSS/E, program
automation in PSS/E by Python, valley filling, demand side management
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Acknowledgements
This thesis was performed in cooperation with Fortum Distribution AB and divisions
of Electric Power Systems and Electrical Machines and Power Electronics in School of
Electrical Engineering at Royal Institute of Technology (KTH). My special thanks go to
my academic supervisors; Professor Stefan Östlund and Professor Lennart Söder. The
idea of the thesis was initiated during the summer internship which I did with
supervision of Professor Östlund. Moreover, his valuable comments and positive
energy despite of his busy schedule was always the greatest assistance for me. From
the power system side, I have to confess that I was fortunate that I had Professor
Söder’s supervision. He was always welcome to answer my questions and his
comments formed my way of thinking to do the thesis. I want to kindly appreciate
Dr. Valerijs Knazkins my former supervisor who is now in ABB in Switzerland and Dr.
Mehrdad Ghandhari for his comments and assistants.
I really enjoyed the friendly environment in Fortum Distribution AB together with

nice place and enough facilities to do my thesis. My special thank go to my industrial
supervisors in Fortum; Mr. Olle Hansson and Mr. Jonas Tosting. Thank you so much
Mr. Hansson for trusting me, for productive discussions and meetings and for
invaluable comments. Thanks you Mr. Tosting for practical comments and
discussions on business side of my thesis. I learned a lot with exceptional assistance
from my industrial supervisors in Fortum’s nice work environment.
I would like to kindly appreciate Fortum employees for their kind behavior and their
undeniable help during my thesis. I want to specially thank Mr. Anders Ekberg, Ms.
Marie Fossum, Mr. Daniel Terranova, Mr. Oskar Engblom, Ms. Emilia Käck, Mr.
Christer Bergerland, Mr. Stefan Råstrom, Mr. Jan-Rune Thun, Mr. Thomas Josefsson
and Mr. Åke Norman for productive discussions and invaluable assistance during my
thesis.
At last but not the least I want to thank my great family and specially my beloved
parents in Iran for all their supports and understandings. Although I am physically far
from them but their positive energy is continuously passing the 4535 km of distance
between Kerman and Stockholm.
Ahmad Karnama
‫احمد کارنما‬
August 2009
[VII]
[VIII]
Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................ V
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. VII
Table of Contents ................................................................................................. IX
List of Figures ...................................................................................................... XII
List of Tables ...................................................................................................... XIV
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................ 1
Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ..................................................................................................... 1
1.2 How did the thesis get started? ........................................................................ 1
1.3 Thesis Description ............................................................................................ 3
1.4 Report Outline ................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................ 6
Transition from conventional vehicles to PHEVs ..................................................... 6
2.1 History............................................................................................................. 6
2.2 Introduction..................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Different types of vehicles ................................................................................ 8
2.3.1 Conventional vehicles ................................................................................ 8
2.3.2 Hybrid electric vehicles .............................................................................. 9
2.3.3 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles .................................................................. 9
CHAPTER 3 .......................................................................................................... 11
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles ............................................................................ 11
3.1 Why PHEV? .................................................................................................... 11
3.2 Comparison between a HEV and a PHEV ........................................................ 12
3.3.2 Available EV and PHEVs in the market ..................................................... 14
CHAPTER 4 .......................................................................................................... 17
PSS/E and Simulation Automation in PSS/E.......................................................... 17
4.1 PSS/E introduction ......................................................................................... 17
4.2 Static analysis of the power system in PSS/E .................................................. 19
4.3 Automation tools in PSS/E ............................................................................. 21
4.4 Automation program for the case study ......................................................... 22
CHAPTER 5 .......................................................................................................... 25
Defining Scenarios for Penetration of PHEVs ........................................................ 25
5.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 25
5.1.1 Scenarios ................................................................................................. 25
5.1.2 Scenario Planning .................................................................................... 26
5.2 Scenario Planning Method ............................................................................. 27
Step 1 - Decide assumptions/drivers for change ........................................................................... 28
Step 2 - Bring drivers together into a viable framework ............................................................... 28
Step 3 - Produce initial mini-scenarios .......................................................................................... 29
Step 4 - Reduce number of scenarios ............................................................................................ 29
Testing ........................................................................................................................................... 30
Step 5 - Write the scenarios .......................................................................................................... 30
Step 6 - Identify issues arising ....................................................................................................... 30
5.3 Scenario planning for penetration of PHEVs in Stockholm ............................... 30
5.3.1 Geographical Area Selection .................................................................... 32
5.3.1.1 Nockeby ............................................................................................................................. 36
5.3.1.2 Brunkeberg ........................................................................................................................ 38
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5.3.1.3 Gärdet ................................................................................................................................ 40
5.3.2 Selection of a Day in Year ........................................................................ 41
5.3.3 Estimation of total number of cars in each area ....................................... 42
5.3.4 Penetration growth of PHEVs in the city................................................... 43
5.3.5 Average Electricity Consumption of a PHEV .............................................. 44
5.3.6 Charging Infrastructure ............................................................................ 45
5.4 Output Results from Scenario Planning .......................................................... 47
5.4.1 Stockholm ............................................................................................... 48
5.4.1.1 Nockeby ............................................................................................................................. 49
5.4.1.2 Brunkeberg ........................................................................................................................ 50
5.4.1.3 Gärdet ................................................................................................................................ 51
5.4.2 Comparison ............................................................................................. 52
Chapter 6 ............................................................................................................ 54
Implementation of Scenarios in PSS/E Automation; Results and Conclusions ........ 54
6.1 Hourly Charging Pattern for a Day ................................................................. 54
6.1.1 Unregulated charging .............................................................................. 54
6.1.2 Regulated charging .................................................................................. 55
6.2 Nockeby Area ................................................................................................ 57
6.2.1 Load increment and Voltage variation...................................................... 58
6.2.2 Possible expansion in the capacity ........................................................... 61
6.3 Brunkeberg Area ............................................................................................ 61
6.4 Gärdet ........................................................................................................... 65
6.5 Losses ............................................................................................................ 68
6.6 Conclusions .................................................................................................... 69
Future Works....................................................................................................... 71
Power system technical issues ....................................................................................................... 71
Electricity market issues ................................................................................................................ 71
References........................................................................................................... 72
Appendix 1 .......................................................................................................... 75
Python code for bus voltages report..................................................................... 75
Python code for losses report ............................................................................... 78
Appendix 2 .......................................................................................................... 83
A2.1 Nockeby ...................................................................................................... 83
A2.1.1 Penetration of 20 Percent of the PHEVs ................................................. 83
A2.1.1.1 Load curve ....................................................................................................................... 83
A2.1.1.2 Voltage curve with unregulated distribution of the PHEVs load ..................................... 83
A2.1.1.3 Voltage curve with regulated distribution of the PHEVs load ......................................... 84
A2.1.2.1 Load curve ....................................................................................................................... 84
A2.2 Brunkeberg.................................................................................................. 86
A2.2.1.1 Load curve ....................................................................................................................... 86
A2.2.2.1 Load curve ....................................................................................................................... 87
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A2.3 Gärdet ......................................................................................................... 89
A2.3.1.1 Load curve ....................................................................................................................... 89
A2.3.2.1 Load curve ....................................................................................................................... 90
A2.4 PSS/E .sld files ............................................................................................. 92
A2.4.1 Nockeby .............................................................................................................................. 92
A2.4.1 Gärdet and Brunkeberg ...................................................................................................... 92
[XI]
List of Figures
Figure 1 Defining process of the thesis .......................................................................... 2
Figure 2 Thesis milestones ............................................................................................. 3
Figure 3 Schematic on development in car industry ..................................................... 7
Figure 4 Energy losses in a typical ICE (3) ...................................................................... 8
Figure 5 Series and Parallel Hybrid configurations (Left: Series- Right: Parallel) (3) ..... 9
Figure 6 Incentives to introduce PHEV ........................................................................ 11
Figure 7 Global Green house gasses emissions (5) ...................................................... 12
Figure 10 PHEV and EV pictures ................................................................................... 16
Figure 11 PSS/E interface with key elements (7) ......................................................... 18
Figure 12 Automation procedure in Python ................................................................ 23
Figure 13 Sample load variation in substation 38274 and ID number 1 ..................... 24
Figure 14 Focuses and purposes of scenario planning (reproduced from (8))............ 27
Figure 15 Six steps to make scenarios ......................................................................... 28
Figure 16 Outline of the scenario planning ................................................................. 31
Figure 17 Stockholm’s city districts ............................................................................. 32
Figure 18 Electricity consumption density in Stockholm area (11) ............................. 32
Figure 19 Geographical locations of selected areas in Stockholm .............................. 33
Figure 20 Substation is Stockholm area ....................................................................... 36
Figure 21 Active power consumption in Nockeby substation for peak days .............. 37
Figure 22 Percent of electricity consumption in 2 different sectors in Nockeby ........ 38
Figure 23 Active power consumption in Tegner substation for peak days in ............. 39
Figure 24 Percent of electricity consumption in 2 different sectors in Brunkeberg ... 39
Figure 25 Active power consumption in Gärdet substation for peak days ................. 40
Figure 26 Percent of electricity consumption in 2 different sectors in Gärdet ........... 41
Figure 27 Penetration growth of PHEVs in Stockholm ................................................ 43
Figure 28 Driving distance of cars ................................................................................ 44
Figure 29 Required energy to run electric cars in Stockholm...................................... 48
Figure 30 Percentage of required electricity for PHEVs in Stockholm ....................... 48
Figure 31 Car number in Nockeby Number of cars in Nockeby till 2050 .................... 49
Figure 32 Percentage of required electricity for PHEVs in Nockeby ........................... 50
Figure 33 Number of cars in Brunkeberg ..................................................................... 50
Figure 34 Percentage of required electricity for PHEVs in Brunkeberg ...................... 51
Figure 35 Car number in Gärdet .................................................................................. 51
Figure 36 Percentage of required electricity for PHEVs in Gärdet .............................. 52
Figure 37 Percentage of charging per day in unregulated charging............................ 55
Figure 38 Demand side management in a typical daily load curve ............................. 56
Figure 39 Percentage of charging per day in regulated charging ................................ 57
Figure 40 Load curve with 100 percent of PHEVs in Nockeby ..................................... 58
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Figure 41 Voltage variation without of PHEV Nockeby ............................................... 59
Figure 42 Voltage variation with unregulated charging pattern in Nockeby .............. 60
Figure 43 Voltage variation with regulated charging pattern in Nockeby .................. 60
Figure 44 Load curve with 100 percent of PHEVs in Brunkeberg ................................ 62
Figure 45 Voltage variation without PHEV in Brunkeberg........................................... 63
Figure 46 Voltage variation with unregulated charging pattern in Brunkeberg ......... 63
Figure 47 Voltage variation with regulated charging pattern in Brunkeberg ............. 64
Figure 48 Load curve with 100 percent of PHEVs in Gärdet........................................ 66
Figure 49 Active and reactive power and voltage in Gärdet without cars .................. 66
Figure 50 Active and reactive power distributed unregulated and voltage in Gärdet 67
Figure 54 Active and reactive power distributed regulated and voltage in Gärdet .... 67
[XIII]
List of Tables
Table 1 Different pure electric vehicles and PHEVs (data from different company
websites) ...................................................................................................................... 15
Table 2 Data for studied power system ....................................................................... 20
Table 3 Python and IPLAN differences......................................................................... 22
Table 4 Comparison between Scenario, forecast and Vision (8) ................................. 26
Table 5 Selected areas in Stockholm (10) .................................................................... 34
Table 6 Private cars and population in Stockholm and Sweden ................................. 34
Table 7 Electricity consumption in areas per year....................................................... 35
Table 8 Selected substations in the case study ........................................................... 35
Table 9 Selection of a sample day ............................................................................... 41
Table 10 Estimated number of cars in each area in year 2007 ................................... 42
Table 11 Average distance and electricity consumption for a typical PHEV ............... 45
Table 12 charging type and time (15) (16)................................................................... 45
Table 13 Battery chargers ............................................................................................ 46
Table 14 Required power and energy for PHEVs in Sweden ....................................... 47
Table 15 Yearly required electricity for PHEVs ............................................................ 52
Table 16 Average daily needed energy for PHEVs ....................................................... 53
Table 17 Peak load in Nockeby .................................................................................... 61
Table 18 Peak load in Brunkeberg ............................................................................... 64
Table 19 Peak load ....................................................................................................... 68
Table 20 losses in Fortum distribution area and whole network ................................ 69
[XIV]
Analysis of Integration of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles in the Distribution Grid
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) can be considered as new generation of
vehicles. Apart from their high battery capacity, the new feature of PHEV in
comparison with existing hybrid vehicles is their grid connection capability.
Nowadays increasing amount of electricity is produced by renewable sources like
wind and solar. This clean electricity can be consumed by vehicles which now has a
great share of the total emissions. Moreover, due to the increasing fossil fuel cost,
driving PHEV annually can save a lot from fuel cost.
The recharging capability of PHEVs from power grid needs to be investigated from
Power System point of view. Although the size of the energy storage on each vehicle
is not considerable for the power system but due to increasing number of private
and public vehicles converting to PHEVs, the total stored energy can be even
considered as a Distributed Generation resource for power system. This thesis has
mainly aimed to investigate the effects of the PHEVs as new type of load on
distribution grid with different penetration scenarios of the vehicles.
1.2 How did the thesis get started?

The first incentives to define the thesis were the writer’s familiarization with hybrid
vehicles in summer 2008 while he did a summer internship with supervision of
Professor Stefan Östlund at KTH. This directs to a proposal on the investigation of
the effects of the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles from the power grid perspective. In
the following figure, the steps to start the thesis are shown.
1|Page
Figure 1 Defining process of the thesis
In November 2008, a proposal about the integration of Plug-in Hybrid Electric

Vehicles to the power system was written. The proposal was divided to the three
main areas which a power system engineer can deal within the integration of PHEVs.
The main areas are as following:
• Modeling of PHEVs for investigation of their effects in power system.

• Dynamic and static effects of integration of the PHEVs in the power system.
• Effects of the integration of PHEVS on the electricity market.
The scope of the thesis was extremely wide in the beginning and it was quite clear
that the whole scope could not be covered within a five-month master thesis.
Therefore, with the Dr. Valerijs Knazkins guidelines, the scope of the thesis
shortened to a reasonable amount of tasks in order to be done during 5 months. The
other tasks regarding the integration of PHEVs to the grid are left as future works or
possible continuation of the thesis. Finally, thanks to Fortum Distribution AB, the
thesis got started officially there in January 2009.
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1.3 Thesis Description

The penetration of PHEVs is still under assessment from both technical and business
perspective. Technically, the battery and charging infrastructure are the key
challenges in the penetration of these type vehicles. Moreover, from power system
perspective, the vehicles are interesting to be studied as they are considered as new
type of load with different behavior as other types of loads. Their power injection
capability (V2G, Vehicle to Grid concept) makes them more interesting and
challenging.
In this thesis, the power system effects without implementation of Vehicle-to-Grid

concept are investigated. The question that needs to be answered is the number of
PHEVs that can be integrated to the power system (Stockholm area) with existing
power system facilities. This is done by considering different penetration scenarios of
PHEVs, different areas of the power system with different electricity consumption
pattern and different consumption pattern of PHEVs. The effects of the integration
of PHEVs in losses in distribution grid and voltage profile at 11 kV substations are
investigated in this thesis.
The thesis is defined in the following milestones as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Thesis milestones
After thesis approval by Fortum and literature study stages, the thesis goes to its
main stages. For the purpose of power system simulation, Fortum is using the
software called PSS/E2. The whole Sweden’s power grid down to 11 kV substations is
2
Power System Simulation for Engineering
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simulated in PSS/E. As the primary stages of the work, the writer got familiar with
the software and necessary data were collected.
In the next stage, in order to see the effects of the PHEVs with high load variation,
the simulations in PSS/E are automated. The purpose of automation is to run the
power flow with different load values in a day. On the other word, the simulations
are to run for 24 times with different loads values. This is done by extra tool in the
PSS/E called Python. This will be described more chapter 4.
The different scenarios for the penetration of PHEVs are defined in the Stockholm
area. Three areas in Stockholm are investigated as the sample areas. These areas are
decided wisely in order to be enough distinctive from the ratio of commercial to
residential buildings point of view and show extreme cases. The important issue in
this stage is the estimation of the total number of cars in each area in each hour of
day. This estimation is done based on some assumptions and some measurements
which are used from other resources.
The output of the scenario planning which is the power needed in each area per day
is distributed among the 24-hour of a day with peak yearly load. These loads are
imported to the Python simulation to get output report about voltage and losses in
different buses and areas.
In this study, the number of cars in each area and the penetration percentage of the
cars until 2050 have to be estimated. The penetration percentage of the cars in the
city is assumed to get to 100 % till 2050. This rate is based on the Fortum’s uptake
model till 2030 and linearly distributed from 2030 till 2050. In addition, the number
of cars is estimated based on the population in each area.
By introducing two regulated (based on valley filling techniques) and unregulated

(the desired pattern by consumers) charging habits for the cars in 24-hour, the
effects of the penetration of the cars in the three different areas with focus on
voltage variation and losses are investigated and then feasibility, advantages and
disadvantages of introducing of the electric cars are discussed in further details.
1.4 Thesis Report Outline

The report is written in 6 chapters with the following descriptions:
Chapter 1: This chapter has been specified to describe the thesis. This includes how
the thesis has been started and a description of different thesis steps.
4|Page
Chapter 2: In this chapter, developments on car industry from the ICE based cars to
PHEVs are described. Conventional vehicles and HEVs are explained in more details
in this chapter.
Chapter 3: In the next chapter, the necessity for introduction of PHEVs is explained
in more details. Moreover, available PHEVs in the market by their detailed
specifications are shown.
Chapter 4: The software PSS/E and automation tool Python that are used in this
thesis for the simulation of the power system are introduced in this chapter.
Moreover, the automation program which is planned for the analysis of the effects
of PHEVs on power system is illustrated in this chapter.
Chapter 5: In this chapter, scenario and scenario planning are defined. Moreover,
different scenarios for penetration of PHEVs for the purpose of investigation of
effects of PHEVs in the grid are formulated.
Chapter 6: The results from the implementation of the scenarios in PSS/E simulation
and output from automation program are shown in this chapter. Discussions around
the result and suggestions for the penetration of PHEVs and possible substation
expansion are shown in this chapter.
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CHAPTER 2
Transition from conventional vehicles

to PHEVs
2.1 History
Making transportation easier and more efficient is one of the common human beings
efforts from the creation-day. This effort comes to new stages of development by
the invention of wheel when pushing or pulling carriage on wheels makes it much
easier for people to carry their goods. Therefore, the invention of wheel can be
considered as the first revolution in transportation industry. The second revolution
occurs by the invention of the first self-propelled vehicle. There are two different
stories about the inventors which none has been proved. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot,
French inventor, is often recognized as the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle
(adapted horse-drawn vehicle) designer in about 1769. This claim is uncertain while
the other groups believe that Ferdinand Verbiest built the first steam-powered
vehicle around 1672 which was originally designed as a toy for the Chinese Emperor
(1).
The steam-powered vehicles gradually converted to vehicles with ICE (Internal

Combustion Engines) which are still the most common type of vehicle. The main
purpose of the vehicle designer at that time was to convert chemical potential
energy in fuel to mechanical propulsion energy. This was the most interesting
expectation from a vehicle while efficiency and environmental aspects were not
actually the highlighted design factors. This type of design strategy leads to serious
fossil fuel shortage (due to high consumption) and environmental problems (due to
high emissions production) from transportation system.
6|Page
After the serious oil crises in 1973 and 1979, the industrial, oil-dependent countries
change to invest on other energy alternatives not only for their power plants but also
in transportation sector. Moreover, severe environmental impacts of inefficient ICEs
such as high emissions, was the other incentive to invest on environmentally-friendly
energy convertors.
In fact, electricity is the most interesting and flexible energy carrier from efficiency
and capability perspectives. This makes the scientists to look for solutions for using
electricity in transportation sector.
2.2 Introduction
For the first time it was German inventor, Nikolaus Otto, who made it possible to use
combustions engines in cars for the first time by the invention of the first four-stroke
internal combustion engine in 1862. These types of engines are continuously being
used in so-called conventional vehicles. The low-efficiency of ICE (Internal
Combustion Engines) and high emission production are the most negative points
about these types of vehicles. In the following figure, the recent development in car
industry is been shown.
Figure 3 Schematic on development in car industry
As it can be seen from the figure, the first important breakthrough in car industry
after the implementation of ICE in vehicles is the transfer from conventional vehicles
to hybrid electric vehicles. These types of vehicles are first commenced in 1997 in
Japan by the introduction of Toyota Prius (2). The main specification of this type of
vehicle is the operation of the ICE on its efficient interval by means of a regenerative
7|Page
braking system. The internal systems of this type of vehicles will be discussed more
in the next sections in this chapter.
The latest generation of the vehicle is not introduced in the market yet. They are
mostly called PHEVs (Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles) with additional capability to be
charged from the grid. More detailed specifications of this type of vehicle will come
on the next chapter.
2.3 Different types of vehicles

In this section three types of vehicles described above generally, are extensively
explained.
2.3.1 Conventional vehicles

They are primary type of vehicles which their efficiency is around 30 percent which
means that 70 percent of the energy is being wasted in the process of energy
conversion in an ICE. Figure 1 shows the major losses in a typical ICE.
Figure 4 Energy losses in a typical ICE (3)
As can be seen from the figure, the total energy that is actually being used by an ICE
is approximately 13 percent of the total input energy. There are several technologies
existed to improve the efficiency; such as variable valve timing and lift, turbo
charging, direct fuel injection, and cylinder deactivation (4). But by introduction of
hybrid vehicles, these losses have been decreased significantly.
8|Page
2.3.2 Hybrid electric vehicles

Saving braking energy in battery by means of regenerative braking system, the ICE
can be adjusted to work on its efficient velocity and torque. This can be done by
extracting additional required energy from the battery when higher torque or
velocity than the ICE production is needed. In contrast, the excess of energy while
lower torque or velocity that the ICE production is needed can be saved in the
battery. This will lead to more efficient operation of the ICE and consequently less
emissions production.
The ICE and the electric machine can be connected to each other in different
configurations. The basic configurations are series and parallel hybrid as shown in
Figure 5.
Figure 5 Series and Parallel Hybrid configurations (Left: Series- Right: Parallel) (3)
As a matter of fact, series and parallel refer to the orientation of the two power
sources in the propulsion system (3). The presented configurations in Figure 5 are
actually the basic ones in which more advanced configurations with the combination
of the series and parallel designs are used for different types of recent vehicles. For
example, in Toyota Prius, by using the planetary gear, a configuration has been
implemented which has both advantages of parallel and series hybrid. For more
information regarding the different hybrid configuration please refer to (3).
2.3.3 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

The new generation of the vehicle which are not still in the market are Plug-in Hybrid
Electric Vehicles (PHEVs). A PHEV is basically has the same structure as a HEV but the
grid charging capability is additional feature which consequently result in the
necessity of higher battery capacity.
Grid connection capability in PHEVs will make it possible to coordinate energy

resources for domestic consumption and also will lead to lower emission production
from private cars in the business and residential areas.
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Larger battery capacity is always a challenge from weight, cost and viability
perspectives. Battery industry has grown fast during the last years and the price and
weight had dropped off significantly while the efficiency and capacity have improved
a lot. In the next chapter a study about PHEVs has been presented.
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CHAPTER 3
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Higher battery capacity in comparison with HEVs is the most important specification
of PHEVs. However, the grid charging is additional feature of PHEVs. In this chapter
the necessity of introduction of PHEVs is described and existing brand of PHEVs are
shown and explained.
3.1 Why PHEV?

The large percentage of the total emissions production is from the low-duty cars
which are private and company cars. Reducing emission production is a big challenge
for both developed and developing countries. On the other hand, the other major
challenge in today’s world in the high consumption of fossil fuels with increasing
price and diminishing number of resources.
Figure 6 Incentives to introduce PHEV
Low-duty cars are one of the major sources of fossil fuel consumption. Therefore,
high fuel consumption and emission production are the major incentives to make
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changes in the low-duty

duty car sector. Moreover, the new ways of electricity generation
can be considered as an incentive for introduction of PHEVs. These problems and the
incentives are shown graphically in Figure 6.
Global green house gas emissions from the different sectors are show graphically in
Figure 7. These gases are included Carbon Dioxide (72% in total), Methane (72% in
total) and Nitrous oxide (26% in total) (5).
Transportation fuel
Idustrial process
13% 14%
Power station
11%
17%
Waste disposal and treatment
10%
Land use and biomass burning
10%
22% Residential, commercial and othe
sources
Fossil fuel retrieval, processing and
distribution
3%
Agricultural byproducts
Figure 7 Global
lobal Green house gasses emissions (5)
As shown in the above figure, 14 percent of the emissions are produced by

transportation sector which is close to the industrial sector. This means that by
removing the emissions from the transportation sector, the total
total emissions can be
reduced approximately as much as industrial sector. The introduction of PHVs can be
even more interesting when the emissions from power station are low and the
electricity is generated from clean resources (like Sweden).
Conversion of the cars from the ones with fossil fuel consumption to the ones with
electricity consumption is not just interesting from the car sector but also it is
interesting from the grid point of view. The high intermittency of the electricity from
renewable resources
rces can be synchronized with the intermittency of consumption of
electric cars. However, new generation is needed in order to charge the electric cars.
3.2 Comparison between a HEV and a PHEV

In Figure 8 the percentage of the battery running of a vehicle with its type is shown.
12 | P a g e
Figure 8 Percentage of battery running and type of vehicle (27)
As it can be seen from the figure, the vehicle is called micro hybrid with less than 10
percent of the electric driving time. The electric motor of micro hybrid vehicles
doesn't add thrust to the combustion engine, but in contrast acts as a
starter/generator in order to allow the combustion engine to stop and restart
instantly to avoid idling, and to enable regenerative braking. It is common to call
micro hybrid a "stop/start hybrid" or a "hollow hybrid". The last name is used due to
the fact that a micro hybrid drivetrain doesn't improve fuel economy as much as a
mild or full hybrid drivetrain. The ICE has to provide almost 90 percent of required
power for driving the car.
Mild hybrid is a type of hybrid whose electric motor cannot turn the drive wheels.
Therefore the electric motor only assists the combustion engine, in contrast to a full
hybrid. In mild hybrid, near to 70 percent of the power has to be taken from the ICE.
The difference between a mild and micro hybrid is the smaller ICE in a mild hybrid
with the same performance.
Full hybrid vehicles are mostly used for the cars which their electric motor is directly
assisting the ICE and also the electric motor and the battery have enough power to
turn the drive wheels independently. Therefore, the ICE has nearly 50 percent of the
required power of the vehicle.
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) with more 50 percent of the battery driving
power have additional capability to get their charging energy from the power grid.
HEVs have also larger battery size which literally called range extending. On the
other word, the distance that the car can drive on electric mode has been extended
by larger battery size.
Increasing battery capacity will make it possible to decrease the ICE size. This can be
also done in a HEV by extending the range (implementing larger battery). Generally,
usage of larger batteries has resulted in introduction of full electric vehicles with ICE
independent driving cycle. In Figure 9 a comparison between different vehicles
described above is shown.
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Figure 9 Comparison between different vehicle types (27)
As described above, the smaller ICE is the only difference between Mild and Micro
Hybrid. On the other hand, a PHEV is a full hybrid vehicle with larger battery size and
capability of grid charging.
Implementing new capability in order to charge the batteries from the grid, new
generation of vehicles called PHEVs are come to the existence. Although the ICE has
been implemented in these types of vehicles but the energy usage preference is
electricity which can be generated from environmental-friendly energy resources.
Even if it is not the case, the transition from HEVs to PHEVs will make it possible to
manage the emission production from numerous car exhausts to fewer power plants
chimneys.
3.3.2 Available EV and PHEVs in the market

The automobile companies especially those companies which were active in HEV
market are vigorously increasing their investment on a full electric or plug-in hybrid
electric vehicle. For example both Toyota (with Prius hybrid car) and GM in NAIAS
2009 (North American International Auto Show) has announced for soon market
release of the PHEVs. Other company like Think in Norway has specifically focused
on Electric Vehicles. In Table 1 some available PHEVs with their characteristics are
shown.
Toyota is the company which introduced the first HEV in 1997. By having a lot of
experience in HEV industry, the expectations are higher than the other companies
for the introduction of PHEVs. But Toyota is waiting for progress in battery industry
in order to introduce its PHEV model. But unofficially the battery size for the Prius
PHEV is estimated to be 10 kWh with new generation of lithium-ion batteries.
General Motors and Chevrolet have close cooperation for the development of new
series PHEV called Volt. Volt with 16 kWh lithium-ion batteries has the electric range
of 64 kilometers. The price of the Volt is expected to be around US$ 40K. The price is
subject to decrease with government approved subsidies to around US$ 32.5K.
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Table 1 Different pure electric vehicles and PHEVs (data from different company’s websites)
Full Electric
Battery Electric
Charging Motor
Car model Manufacturer Capacity Battery Type Range
time Power
(kWh) (km)
(hour) (kW)
Prius (PHEV) Toyota 10 lithium-ion 48 8 N/A
Volt (EV3) Chevrolet/GM 16 lithium-ion 64 N/A 111
Tesla
Tesla Motors 53 (6) Lithium ion 362 3.5 185
Roadster(EV)
Think City 28.3 (MES MES DEA-Zebra
Think 170-203 9.5-13 30
(EV) DEA-Zebra) Enerdel, Li-ion
ReCharge C30 Lithium-
Volvo 12 100 3 N/A
(PHEV) polymer
iMiev (EV) Mitsubishi 16 Lithium ion 160 7-14 47
BYD Auto lithium iron
F3DM 16 100 7 50
(PHEV) phosphate
Tesla Motors has delivered more than 250 full Electric cars till March 2009. They
have the capability to be charged in 3.5 hours with 70 Amps home charging station
(3-phase). A 375 volt AC induction air-cooled electric motor with variable frequency
drive has been implemented in this car to cover all required power to run at
maximum speed of 200 km/h.
Norwegian company, Think has manufactured the modern urban car TH!NK city
since July 2008. A rack of sodium or lithium batteries with capacity of near to 30 kWh
have made it possible to travel up to 180 kilometers in one charge, with a top speed
of 100km/h. With US$ 5.69 million load the company is now recovering from a
financial distress in December 2008 which had been led to all vehicle production and
laid off 50% of its staff pending.
ReCharge is called to the Plug-in Hybrid Concept which has been introduced by
Volvo. The car is more fuel efficient and is producing fewer emissions in comparison
with the other hybrid electric models. ReCharge Concept has used series hybrid
technology where there is no mechanical connection between the engine and the
wheels (refer to section 2.3.2). Moreover, four electric motors, one at each wheel,
provide independent traction power for the vehicle, acceleration from 0-100 km/h
takes 9 seconds and top speed is 160 km/h.
iMiev is Electric Vehicle produced by Japanese company called Mitsubishi. The highly
efficient permanent magnet synchronous motor has been implemented on this
vehicle which has led to quiet car with higher efficiency. The car can be charged in
3
Electric Vehicle
15 | P a g e
half an hour with fast charging stations (e-phase 200v 50 kW) while both 100 V with
15 A power supply in 14 hours and 200 V with 15 A power supply in 7 hours can
charge the battery.
Figure 10 shows the pictures of different PHEV and EV discussed in the preceding
paragraphs.
Toyota Prius PHEV Volt GM/Chevrolet Tesla Roadster
Think City ReCharge Volvo iMiev Mitsubishi
BYD F3DM
Figure 10 PHEV and EV pictures
BYD Auto is Chinese company which basically produces 65% of the world’s nickel-
cadmium batteries and 30% of the world's lithium-ion mobile phone batteries has
focused on PHEV and EV manufacturing. F3DM model which is a dual mode car is
mostly called as first mass produced plug-in hybrid which has entered the market in
December 2008. The gasoline engine of this vehicle is a 2.4 liter engine and its
battery can be recharged by normal household power outlet.
16 | P a g e
CHAPTER 4
PSS/E and Simulation Automation in

PSS/E
Power System Simulation for Engineering (PSS/E) is a powerful tool both for steady
state and dynamic simulation of power system. In this chapter after an introduction
to PSS/E, different ways to automate the simulations in PSS/E are analyzed.
Afterward a comparison between different automation tools in PSS/E has been done
and it has been clarified why Python has been chosen for the automation of the
simulation in PSS/E for the study case.
4.1 PSS/E introduction

PSS/E is recognized software for the power system analysis from transmission and
distribution perspectives. The software was first introduced in 1976 and it has been
used in 115 countries (7). The software is developed by Power Technologies Inc (PTI),
Siemens. The probabilistic analyses and dynamic modeling capabilities included in
PSS/E provide transmission planning and operations more reliable.
PSS/E is an integrated, interactive program for simulating, analyzing, and optimizing

power system performance. It provides methods to do the following applications in
the power system, including:
• Power Flow
• Optimal Power Flow
• Balanced or Unbalanced Fault Analysis
• Dynamic Simulation
In this thesis, the power flow capability of the PSS/E is mostly used. The main
interface of the software is shown in Figure 11. The different components of the
PSS/E Interface include the following:
17 | P a g e
• Tree View: All network items are represented as selectable elements in a

hierarchical list. Items in the list are organized by data type and reside in
expandable/collapsible folders.
• Spreadsheet View: All network data is presented in the Spreadsheet View.
Tabs along the bottom of the Spreadsheet View allow selection and editing of
the various data categories. The Spreadsheet View only appears when a case
is opened.
• Output Bar: All progress and report output is directed toward this
expandable window. Tabs along the bottom allow selection of reports and
progress output.
• Diagram View: Facilitates the creation and display of one-line diagrams in the
new Slider format. In addition to the display of power flow results, the
Diagram View facilitates the building of new diagrams and networks bus by
bus. Further, for existing power flow cases, this view enables the "growing" of
one-line diagrams by automatically drawing selected buses and all their
equipment and connected buses. The Diagram View appears only when a
diagram is opened or created.
Figure 11 PSS/E interface with key elements (7)
• Toolbars: Allows convenient selection of analytical tools, creation of one-line

diagrams, generation of reports, selection of subsystems, and view
management.
18 | P a g e
• Main Menu: Provides access to file handling, interface views, analytical

functions, automation tools, I/O formatting, toolbar organization and online
help.
• Status Bar: Provides information related to the diagram status and operating
mode (7).
In order to simulate power system in PSS/E for static analysis, it is needed to define
number of files. The raw data files which contain power flow system specification
data for the establishment of an initial working case. This file is saved by .raw
extension and its presence is essential for the power system simulation in PSS/E.
The other essential file is saved case file with .sav extension which is the binary
image of the existing load flow. The file is created to optimize the disk space usage in
the sense that unoccupied part of the data structure are not stored when the
capacity limits of the program are larger than system model.
The slider format files are to show the graphical view of the simulated case. The file
is saved with .sld extension and can be run with different saved cases (.sav files). The
files which described before are made from Sweden’s high voltage level (400 kV)
down to Stockholm regional network with 11 to 33 kV bus bars. The raw data file and
part of slider format files are made by Fortum’s experts.
4.2 Static analysis of the power system in PSS/E

Running power flow is one of the applications of PSS/E. The software has the
following capabilities within the area of Power Flow applications.
• Load flow study and short circuit calculations.

• Modeling of different transformer types.
• Fault analysis applications.
• Modeling of FACTS devices.
• Voltage analysis like PV and QV analyses.
• Optimal Power flow.
• Contingency analysis.
• Program automation in PSS/E.
In this study by using the load flow capability and by taking the advantages of
automation program, the effects of PHEVs on different hours of a day with different
load values are investigated. Since load flow analysis shows the state of the power
system with certain load values while in real power system the load is changing
continuously. Therefore, the power system simulation is automated in Python in
19 | P a g e
such a way that the loads are changed automatically with predefined values and the
power flow is run for each series of different load values.
The load flow (power flow) analyzes the power system in normal steady state
operation. Planning the future expansion of the power system as well as determining
the best operation of existing systems is the most important issue related to the load
flow studies. The principal information obtained from the power flow study is the
magnitude and phase angle of the voltage at each bus and the real and reactive
power flowing in each line.
In the power flow study, the buses can be distinguished by connected or not
connected generators to them. The PQ buses which are so-called load buses are the
ones with at least one connected load and no generator. The load values (reactive
and active power) are known while voltage value and angle are unknown values in a
PQ buses. On the other hand, those buses which are connected to at least one
generator are so-called PU or slack buses. The PU buses are carrying the unknown
values of reactive power and voltage angle whereas the active power and voltage
value are known in these types of buses. The slack bus with known voltage value and
phase has been selected arbitrarily. The generated active and reactive power in this
bus is found based on the power flow calculations. The excess or lack of power is
compensated by this bus.
The load flow in the PSS/E can be run with three solution methods as below:
• Fixed slope decoupled Newton-Raphson

• Full Newton-Raphson
• Decoupled Newton-Raphson
In this thesis the first method (Fixed slope decoupled Newton-Raphson) is used for
the power flow simulation in PSS/E due to rapid convergence and small bus
mismatches.
The power system used in this study contains Sweden’s high voltage power
components (400 kV) down to regional network substations (11 kV). The residential
loads are connected to 11 kV substations in this study. Table 2 shows the number of
load and buses for studied case.
Table 2 Data for studied power system
Number of in service buses 1912
Number of in service loads 852
Number of in service load buses 828
Number of areas 50
20 | P a g e
The slack bus in the system is the 400 kV bus which is connected to a hydro power
plant called Kilforsens in Sollefteå in Västernorrland County.
4.3 Automation tools in PSS/E

There are two different types of programs used for automation in PSS/E which are
based on the Application Program Interface (API) processor (BAT_commands). They
are as below:
• The Python interpreter (Python programs)

• The IPLAN simulator (IPLAN programs)
Application Program Interface (API) is a set of routines, data structures and object
classes provided by libraries services in order to support the building of applications
in the PSS/E program. Both IPLAN and Python are based on the API.
Although IPLAN and Python have great level of similarities but there are some
differences as well. In Python, the routines are directly accessible while a push
statement is needed in IPLAN in order to run programs. This can be considered as
the basic difference between Python and IPLAN.
IPLAN can control the PSS/E progress or the variable from a separated file written in
Fortran programming language. The IPLAN file needs to be compiled before being
used as an input in PSS/E. Moreover, IPLAN program tests the load flow solution and
extracts summary results into text files. The compilation necessity and push
statement are the negative points about IPLAN
Python is an interpreter, interactive, object-oriented programming language which is

extensively used for software development. The programming language is first
appeared in 1991 by the Dutch computer programmer Guido van Rossum. Python
programming language has vast area of application from web and internet
development to database access and Game and 3D Graphics applications. This is due
to its very clear, readable syntax, intuitive object orientation and very high level
dynamic data types.
In PSS/E the API batch files for Python are available and they are used by the PSS/E
users extensively. Unlike IPLAN, Python is more users friendly and the compilation is
done in Python environment. Python and IPLAN are compared briefly in the
following table.
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Table 3 Python and IPLAN differences

Python IPLAN
Has its own environment The code has to be written in a word possessor.
Interpreted, interactive, object-oriented Fortran base program (old one).
PSS/E APIs are direct access ’PUSH’ statements are required
No compilation needed Compiled program will be the input to PSS/E
As shown in the table, Python has its own programming environment which the
color text has made it easier to write the programs. Moreover, the Python program
will be compiled itself in the PSS/E environment and unlike IPLAN no compilation is
needed.
4.4 Automation program for the case study

By the introduction of PHEVs, the cars will get their required energy from the power
grid instead of the gas station. The car batteries are charged with different charging
patterns which causes the load in the different substations to change more than
before by the introduction of PHEVs. The purpose of automation program is to
investigate the effects of these hourly changes of the load on the power system.
Therefore, it is needed to run the power flow for different load values at each hour
in order to see the voltage variation and losses caused by different charging
patterns.
By selecting Python as automation tool for the study case, the following flowchart
shown in Figure 12 is designed as the framework of the automation procedure.
In the first step, as shown in the flow chart, of the automation procedure the power
flow is run automatically from the Python environment. This is done by API
commands saved in the PSSPY library. This library has all API commands related to
PSS/E application and has to be imported in the beginning of the code.
In the second step, the load flow results are saved in a library variable in Python.
Voltage angle, voltage value in different buses and losses in different areas are the
outputs of the load flow calculations. The buses voltages are kept within the
permitted tolerance values by voltage regulation devices (VAR compensations).
22 | P a g e
Figure 12 Automation process in Python
The output results from the load flow calculations in Python are sent to a .csv
(Comma Separated Values) file in excel. This has been done by existing functions in
Python written particularly for this purpose. There is a special library with all APIs
related to .csv interactions with Python that has to be imported in the beginning of
coding procedure which is called .csv library.
The reason that the library variable values in Python are sent to .csv file is due to the
fact that dealing with data for plotting purposes is easier in Excel. Moreover, the
capability of converting the data from the .csv file to MATLAB4 for more flexibility
purposes is higher.
On the same step, the .csv file values are sent to a variable in MATLAB. Once more,
this has been done for the purpose of easier and more flexible interaction with the
data for plotting purposes. Moreover, the writers MATLAB skills can be considered as
the other reason in this step.
Each load in PSS/E simulations is known by its bus number and an ID number. In fact,
there is just one load in the system with unique bus number and ID. Therefore, in the
load data Excel sheet (.csv file), each column shows a load in the system which is
labeled with the bus number and ID number of the load in the first two rows. The
4
Matrix Library, The language of Technical Computing
23 | P a g e
remaining rows for each load are the hourly load of the system for one day. The
reason for using ID number in addition to bus number is the fact that some buses
have more than one load so the bus number cannot show a unique load in the
system.
On the third step, the new load data, saved in .csv file, are read by Python and kept
in a library variable. This library will be used to change the load for each hour in the
next steps in the automation procedure.
Forth step is assigned to change the load in PSS/E simulation. The bus number and ID
from hourly load data, read from the .csv file, are compared with existing data in
PSS/E saved case. The load which its value has to be changed in the simulation is
found. At that time, the load is changed in the .sav file (described above) and the
load flow is run for the second time. Like before, the results from the load flow are
then saved in a .csv file and sent to MATLAB. By continuing this procedure, the load
value can be changed repeatedly and the voltage with each load is found and saved
in a .csv file. With the same procedure, the losses in each area with different load
values is calculated and saved in a .csv file in Excel. The corresponded .csv files are
shown in Appendix 1.
In the following figures, as a sample for the automation program, the load variation
and corresponded voltage variation is shown. The load variation is as in the Figure
13.
60 10.938
55 10.936
50
10.934
45
Volatge (kV)
10.932
Load MW
40
10.93
35
10.928
30
25 10.926
20 10.924
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of a day) Time (Hours of a day)
Figure 13 Sample load variation in substation 38274 and ID number 1
The corresponded voltage value variation for the bus number 38274 and ID number
1 is shown in Figure 13. As shown the figures above, the voltage is decreased when
the load is increased and the voltage is grown by reduced load values. In the top
figure, the reactive power is kept constant. More results will come in Chapter 6 of
this report.
24 | P a g e
CHAPTER 5
Defining Scenarios for Penetration of

PHEVs
In this chapter different scenarios for investigation of the effects of PHEVs in the
power system are defined. These scenarios are characterized by considering all
different areas of the power system and various penetration rates of the PHEVs in
the city of Stockholm.
5.1 Introduction
Before starting with the business and technical related issues of scenario planning
for penetration of PHEVs, a description about the principles of scenario and scenario
planning can be useful. Therefore, in this section scenario is defined and the
methods that are being used for scenario planning are illustrated.
5.1.1 Scenarios
There is no unique definition for scenario but different theorists have made different
definitions as following (8):
• A disciplined method for imaging possible futures in which organizational

decisions may be played out (Paul Shoemaker, 1995).
• The part of strategic planning which relates the tool and technologies for
managing uncertainties for the future (Gill Ringland, 1998).
• A tool [for] ordering one’s perception about alternative future environment
in which ones decision might be played out right (Peter Schwartz, 1991).
• An internally consistent view of what future might run out to be (Michael
Porter, 1985).
Focusing more on the definitions, more distinct differences between forecast and
scenario can be vividly seen. A scenario is more like to have its base in present and
25 | P a g e
can be imagined as the future possible cases of a technology, company or even a

thought based on present conditions and assumptions. Unlike a forecast or a vision,
scenario is a group of anticipations of the future behaviour of an ongoing activity. In
fact, a forecast is a single prediction of probable case while scenario shows wider
area of possible futures while vision is the desired future. Thus, the scenario has to
be based on present conditions and with high degree of uncertainty will show the
possible situation if some of the assumptions may come true. Table 4 shows a
comparison between scenario, vision and forecast.
Table 4 Comparison between Scenario, forecast and Vision (8)
Scenario Forecast Vision
Possible future Probable future Desired future
Uncertainty based Based on certain relations Value based
Illustrates risk Hides risk Hides risk
Needed to know what we decide Need to dare to decide Energizing
Rarely used Daily used Relatively often used
Long term perspective Long term perspective For voluntary change
As shown in the table above, by planning scenario, the risk for long term planning
with high level of uncertainty can be investigated. The scope of a scenario is
generally wider than a forecast while it gets its inspiration from the defined visions.
Scenarios are mostly generated for long term strategic planning. By knowing about
scenarios, in the next section, scenario planning is described in more details.
5.1.2 Scenario Planning

Traditionally the strategic planning methods have been used for the future planning
purposes while now scenario planning methods are being used. The outputs of the
scenario planning which are the generated scenarios are being used as an input for
the strategic planning purposes. On the other hand, the scenario planning is
continuously being used for the other purposes with different focuses as shown in
Figure 14.
As shown in the figure, scenario planning can be used for four distinct purposes as
below:
• Innovation.
• Strategy and planning.
• Scenario learning.
• Evaluation.
26 | P a g e
The scenarios can be generated in order to inspire new ideas which are called
innovation purposes. By the innovation purpose, the focus will be on new business in
which new ideas can be generated and out of them new acceptable ideas can be
passed by scenario planning techniques.
Focus: New business
Business Development /
Innovation New thinking / Paradigm shift
Concept development
Focus: Strategy/ Scenario Scenario Focus: old

Action Planning Planning learning Prerequisite
for change
Strategy development / Evaluation Risk consciousness/

Organizational development Need for renewal
Focus: old business

Figure 14 Focuses and purposes of scenario planning (reproduced from (8))
Explicit planning and strategic purposes are the most common purpose of scenario
planning. The result has to be decisions on concrete action which are within the
visions of the organization.
The action of scenario planning can be also be used for learning and drive changes.
The outputs which are scenarios are powerful for the purpose of testing the existing
paradigm and assumptions.
Evaluation purposes are the key factor for scenario planning. This happens when
testing of an existing business concept, strategy or technology is of the interest.
5.2 Scenario Planning Method

The actual production of the scenarios is radically different from most other forms of
long-term planning. Even this, though, is relatively simple, at its most basic level. As
derived from the approach most commonly used by Shell, it follows six steps:
27 | P a g e
1. Decide drivers for change/assumptions.

2. Bring drivers together into a viable framework.
3. Produce initial mini-scenarios.
4. Reduce the number of scenarios.
5. Write the scenarios.
6. Identify the issues arising.
These six steps are shown graphically in Figure 15.
Find Make a Initial Reduce Write Identify
Drivers Work Scenarios Scenarios Scenarios Effects

frame
Figure 15 Six steps to make scenarios
Step 1 - Decide assumptions/drivers for change

Observing the results of environmental analysis is the first stage to determine the
most important factors in the nature of the future environment within the operation
area of the organization. These factors are sometimes called variables or drivers. The
main issue is that these variables (drivers or factors) will form the assumptions.
These variables may be derived partly from the previous studies in the same area.
However, in the ideal approach, the assumptions on which the scenarios will be
based have to be carefully decided in the first stage. Only then, as a second stage,
should the various drivers be specifically defined.
In any case, the brainstorming which should then take place, to guarantee that the
list is complete, may unearth more variables - and, in particular, the combination of
factors may suggest yet others. Moreover, the important and uncertain factors have
to be differentiated in the first stage of scenario planning. The drivers for effects of
penetration of PHEVs in a city are found and are written in section 5.3 and also
shown graphically in Figure 16.
Step 2 - Bring drivers together into a viable framework

In the next step the drivers will be put together in order to make a viable framework
to make the scenarios. This has to be made easily since the relations of the different
factors are by some means obvious for the last stage. For instance, a technological
parameter may lead to market changes, but may be constrained by legislative
parameter.
On the other hand, some of the factors may need to keep artificial at this stage. This
is due to the fact that at a later stage more meaningful links may be found, or the
28 | P a g e
factors may then be rejected from the scenarios. In the most theoretical approaches
to the subject, probabilities are considered in the event strings. This is extremely
difficult to achieve, however, and generally adds little - except complexity - to the
outcomes. Conceptually, this stage is probably the most difficult one. It is where
intuition will be helpful tool in order to make sense of complex patterns for analyzing
important effects. This viable framework for the case study is shown in Figure 16.
Step 3 - Produce initial mini-scenarios

The results of the previous step usually make logical groupings of drivers. This is
usually easy to achieve. Having placed the factors in these groups, the next action is
to make some initial scenarios.
The scenarios are produced based on the initiated drivers in section 5.3. Some of the
scenarios are basically redundant due to similarities of some scenarios which will be
discussed more in next section.
Step 4 - Reduce number of scenarios

Knowing about the initial scenarios and by having a fairly apparent picture of the
scenarios, the next action is to reduce the number of the scenarios which are bigger
in size but less in number. The challenge in practice is to come down to as few as
possible containers into which all the topics can be sensibly fitted. This usually
requires a considerable amount of discussions.
There is no theoretical reason for reducing to as few as possible scenarios, only a

practical one. It has been found that the managers who will be asked to use the final
scenarios can only cope efficiently with a maximum of three versions! Shell started,
more than three decades ago, by building half a dozen or more scenarios - but found
that the result was that the managers selected just one of these to concentrate on.
Moreover, there are few distinct differences between the planned scenarios when
the number of them is more than five. Therefore, the planners decreased the
number to three, which managers could handle easily and more distinct. In most of
the literature, this is the number now recommended most frequently.
In this thesis, the number of initial scenarios has been reduced. For example for the
selection of a typical day for investigation of penetration of PHEVs, in the beginning,
four days with peak load as typical days for each season were selected. But due to
the fact that main purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of the PHEVs in
the extreme case, the peak winter day (peak day of year) was selected. Therefore
the number of scenarios was reduced by removing these redundant scenarios.
29 | P a g e
Testing
Having grouped the factors into these two scenarios, the next step is to test them,
again, for viability if they make sense. This can be done by logical analysis, but it may
also be in terms of intuitive gut-feel. Once more, intuition often may offer a useful -
if academically less respectable – feeling of the complex matters. If the scenarios do
not intuitively hang together, the usual problem is that one or more of the
assumptions turns out to be unrealistic. If this is the case then you need to return to
the first step - the whole scenario planning process has to be repeated in order to
return outcome which makes the best sense.
Step 5 - Write the scenarios

This step is really easy in terms of describing but in practice can be even considered
as the most difficult part. Simply in this part, by considering the aim group, the
scenarios have to be written up. The scenarios have to be written in the simplest
way in order to be easy to follow up the text. They may also include numeric data
and/or diagrams. The scenarios for the case of penetration of PHEVs are written in
section 5.4.
Step 6 - Identify issues arising

The final stage of the scenario planning process is to scrutinize these scenarios to
determine the most critical outcomes. The subsequent approach will have to address
these effects. The effects of the scenarios are investigated in Chapter 6 of this
report.
5.3 Scenario planning for penetration of PHEVs in Stockholm

The scenarios have to be defined by considering most possible effective factors in
such a way that they cover all possible cases of integration of PHEVs to the power
grid. Moreover, as the cars are not yet introduced in large scale in the city, it is
needed to make some assumptions.
In this section, in order to get the final daily electric energy consumption by the
PHEVs, numbers of assumptions are made. Then the estimated energy is divided
equally among 365 days of a year. The results of this chapter are the daily estimated
required energy for the private car transportation sector (in pure electric mode).The
different stages of the of scenario planning for the estimation of required energy per
day for the private car sector in Stockholm are shown graphically in Figure 16.
As shown in the Figure, for the purpose of scenario planning for the penetration of
PHEVs in the Stockholm, the following steps have been done:
30 | P a g e
1. Area Selection: In this study, three distinct areas are selected in Stockholm as
the baseline of the study.
2. Selection of a Day in Year: In order to investigate the most extreme case, the
day in the year with highest load level is selected.
3. Estimation of Number of Cars in each Area: Base on the population in each
area and estimated persons per car coefficient, number of cars in each area is
estimated.
4. Estimation of Penetration Growth Rate of PHEVs in the city till 2050: This
estimation is based on the Fortum’s uptake rate of the PHEVs till 2030 and
estimated rate by writer from 2030 to 2050.
5. Estimation of Average Electricity Consumption by a PHEV: This estimation is
based on the energy consumption per kilometer and average travelling
distance of the cars in one day.
6. Selection of Valid Charging Infrastructure: Normal sockets are decided to be
the only available infrastructure for charging of the PHEVs. In addition, the
power factor of the consumed power is decided in this section.
Figure 16 Outline of the scenario planning
31 | P a g e
5.3.1 Geographical Area Selection

Stockholm is divided to 12 districts as shown in Figure 17. The population of the city
is 814,418 persons in year 2008 and the total area of 21,592 hectares (10).
Figure 17 Stockholm’s city districts
The downtown area (Kungsholm, Norrmalm and Södermalm) has high penetration of
company offices, shopping and commercial centers. The farther from the city center,
the more residential areas are located. For example in Bromma, there are few offices
and shopping centers while mainly lots of housings are located.
Basically, the electricity consumption in downtown area is higher as shown in Figure

18. In this type of area, although the density of local residents is lower, due to high
penetration of shopping centres and company offices, more people are travelling for
shopping and working. This makes the total electricity consumption higher in
comparison with residential areas. These are shown in the following figure.
Figure 18 Electricity consumption density in Stockholm area (11)
32 | P a g e
Considering different geographical areas will make it possible to investigate the

effects of integration of plug-in vehicles with different electricity consumption
profile. For example power system in business areas with the high penetration of
shops, markets and offices and low number of private houses and apartments has
certainly different behaviour than a residential area with large number of private
houses and apartments. Therefore, three distinct areas with different load profile
are considered as below:
• Nockeby
• Brunkeberg
• Gärdet
These three areas are shown geographically in the following map and will be
described in more details in the following sections.
Figure 19 Geographical locations of selected areas in Stockholm
As the 11 kV substations in these three areas are planned to be investigated, the

wider areas need to be considered to cover all electricity injection from the 11 kV
substation. Therefore, the three areas are shown in more details in Table 5.
As shown in the table and as it was expected, the population density in area with
characteristics of residential areas (Gärdet and Nockeby) is lower than the business
area (Brunkeberg). Nockeby is a pure residential area with the least population
density and Gärdet is semi-residential area which leads to population density in the
region of while Nockeby. On the other hand, Brunkeberg, as commercial area, has
double population density as Nockeby and Gärdet.
33 | P a g e
Table 5 Selected areas in Stockholm (10)

Area type Residential Commercial Residential-Commercial
Area given
Nockeby Brunkeberg Gärdet
name
City’s main
Bromma Norrmalm Östermalm
district
Nockeby, Gärdet, Stureplan-
Nockebyhov, Lärkstaden, Djurgården,
Included Klara/Jakob/Johannes
Höglandet, Olovslund, Universitet, Oscars
districts(s) (Södra and Norra)
Smedslätten, Ålsten, Kyrka, Hjorthagen
Äppelviken Värtahamnen
Total land area
917 214 1586
(ha)
Population 15436 12852 47677
Population
1 0.2 0.5
growth (%)
Population
density
31 60 30
(persons per
ha)
Assumed
number of
2 3 2.5
person per
registered car
The last row in Table 5 shows the assumed number of persons per registered car in
these three areas. These numbers are attained based on the number of cars and
population in Stockholm and Sweden. Table 6 shows these numbers for year 2007
(10).
Table 6 Private cars and population in Stockholm and Sweden
Sweden Stockholm
Personal car number 4,258,463 296,207
Population 9,113,257 795,163
Number of person
2.14 2.68
per registered car
As can be seen from the table, the average number of person per registered car is
2.68 in Stockholm and 2.14 in total Sweden. It is assumed that this ratio is even less
in Nockeby area with more wealthy residents and more cars. Similarly, it is presumed
this ratio is more in Gärdet and Brunkeberg with apartments and more shopping
centres. It can be generally said that the lower the population density, the higher
density of residential buildings and the lower persons per car ratio.
34 | P a g e
The total electricity consumption per year in each area is calculated based on the
available data in Fortum in each district. The results are as in Table 7.
Table 7 Electricity consumption in areas per year
Area (substation)
(Nockeby) (Tegner) (Gärdet)
Estimated yearly electricity consumption per person (MWh) 6 30 9
Calculated total consumption in substation (GWh) 93.60 402.53 440.14
Calculated electricity consumption in area (GWh) 92.616 385.56 429.093
As shown in the table, the average electricity consumption per person is much lower
in Nockeby than in other areas. This is due to less penetration of commercial centres.
The extra power of the substation is used in the other neighbour areas and vice
versa lack of power in the area is fed by neighbour substations. The electricity
consumption in the substations is considered for the purpose of this study.
For each area one substation is selected for the investigation of the penetration of
PHEVs. The following substations are selected for the case study for the investigation
of the effects of PHEVs.
Table 8 Selected substations in the case study
Area Name Nockeby Brunkeberg Gärdet
Substation name Nockeby Tegner Gärdet
Voltage level 11 kV 11 kV 11 kV
Each transformer capacity
20 80 (each 3-winding) 80 (each 3-winding)
(MVA)5
Number of transformer in
2 two 3-winding two 3-winding
substation
Transformer voltages 33/11 kV 220/11 kV 220/11 kV
38136, 38711, 38712, 38273, 38274,
PSS/E bus numbers6
38137 38714, 38715 38276, 38277
The substations are shown in Figure 20 with their geographical situations and
connected higher voltage substations.
The substation in Nockeby is connected to 33 kV substation while Tegner and Gärdet

are connected to 110 kV. As the result, the capacity of transformer in Tegner and
Gärdet is higher. This is due to Tegner and Gärdet’s higher load. Nockeby substation
has a transformer with approximately half capacity as the other substation in this
study.
5
The nominal capacity of transformer is considered in this case which the capacity for 25 °C of
temperature without overloading possibility.
6
This is specified for each substation in PSS/E program.
35 | P a g e
Figure 20 Substation is Stockholm area
The available load data for the case study is from 25 October 2006 till 25 October
2007. Due to low energy consumption growth and technical problems for load data
collection after this time, these data are considered for the case study.
5.3.1.1 Nockeby Area

The first area is selected as a residential area with high density of villa houses in
which mainly people with higher financial ability are living. Nockeby has the required
characteristics from a residential area. It is located in North West of Stockholm with
long sea border.
The electricity consumption is high soon in the morning when people mostly have
their breakfast and get ready to go to work. But in the remaining hours of the day
low electricity consumption is expected while in the afternoon when people come
back home from the work, more electricity consumption is expected. The active
power consumption profile for the Nockeby 11 kV substation is shown in Figure 21.
36 | P a g e
In this study, January, February and March are considered as winter; April, May and
June as spring; July, August and September are summer and October, November and
December are fall Months.
Power (MW) For Nockeby in Winter
Power (MW) For Nockeby in Spring

20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time of a day (Hour) Time of a day (Hour)
Power (MW) For Nockeby in Summer
Power (MW) For Nockeby in Fall

20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 21 Active power consumption in Nockeby substation for peak days in 4 seasons
It is assumed that the demand of electricity for the PHEVs is high during the night
while people are mostly at home and want to charge their cars for the following day.
On the other hand, low demand for charging of PHEVs is expected during the day
when people are mostly at work.
The same as the last area, the electricity consumption is much higher in cold weather
than in warm spring and summer days. As shown the above figure, the peak
electricity is about double in winter as in summer. The reason, as mentioned before,
is electric heating instruments.
Due to the lower price of land in comparison with downtown area, deployment of
fast charging stations can be an option in this and similar areas among the city.
The area in mostly surrounded with residential buildings which as the result the
electricity consumption from the residential sector is far more than the commercial
consumption. Figure 22 shows the percentage of electricity consumption in each
sector.
37 | P a g e
80.00% 75.24%
60.00%
40.00%
24.76%
20.00%
0.00%
Residential Commercial
Figure 22 Percent of electricity consumption in 2 different sectors in Nockeby
The electricity consumption in commercial sector is almost one third of consumption

from residential sector. This shows the high density of residential consumer and
consequently building in this area.
5.3.1.2 Brunkeberg Area

Brunkeberg is located in downtown area in Stockholm. Although it is not known as
the main district or parish in Stockholm area but in this study, it is considered as
integration of three city parishes. Klara, Jakob, Johannes Södra and Johannes Norra
are the districts which are considered as Brunkeberg in this study.
Electricity Demand in this business area is high during the day when people are
mostly at work. The high demand for electricity can be continued till evening when
people usually go shopping. Due to low penetration of private houses and
apartments in the downtown area, the electricity demand drops significantly during
the night till soon in the morning. Figure 23 shows the electricity consumption
profile for the Tegner substation located in the Brunkeberg area. The hourly active
load profile is shown for four days with the highest consumption hour in four
seasons.
A shown in the figure and as it was expected, the load is low in the morning but
increase during the day. The peak of the load is in the afternoon when large group of
people are at work or go out for shopping.
There is a distinct difference between the load in cold days (autumn) and summer
days. The peak load in a cold day in autumn is approximately 2 times more than peak
load in summer. This is due to electric heating devices in cold Stockholm.
The demand of electricity for PHEVs is apparently high during the day when people
like to charge their cars for the way back to home in the afternoon while this
demand plunges dramatically during the night when people have left their work
place to home.
38 | P a g e
Power (MW) For Tegner in Winter
Power (MW) For Tegner in Spring

80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (MW) For Tegner in Summer
80 80
Power (MW) For Tegner in Fall

70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 23 Active power consumption in Tegner substation for peak days in 4 seasons
The area in mostly surrounded with commercial buildings. Therefore, the electricity
consumption from the commercial sector is far more than the residential
consumption. Figure 24 shows the percentage of electricity consumption in each
sector (residential and commercial).
100.00% 94.79%
80.00%
60.00%
40.00%
20.00%
5.21%
0.00%
Figure 24 Percent of electricity consumption in 2 different sectors in Brunkeberg
As shown in the figure above, the total electricity consumption from commercial
sector is about 19 times more than residential sector. This area has probably low
39 | P a g e
capability of installation of fast charging poles. This can be due to dense congestion
of buildings, high price of land, low possibility for cars to stay and traffic issues.
5.3.1.3 Gärdet Area

The third area is Gärdet in Stockholm with the combination characteristic of
residential and commercial areas. This area is surrounded by high density of
apartments and fair amount of business offices. The area has a lot of open-air and
on-street parking lots.
The electricity consumption in this area is shown in Figure 25. As can be seen from
the figure, the electricity consumption is high near to the evening when people start
to use their illumination and heating instruments both at work and home. Generally
the electricity consumption is higher during the cold days (winter and fall) and less in
warmer days (spring and summer). The active power consumption in Gärdet
substation for peak days in 4 seasons is shown in the following figure.
Power (MW) For Gardet in Winter
Power (MW) For Gardet in Spring
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Power (MW) For Gardet in Summer
Power (MW) For Gardet in Fall
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 25 Active power consumption in Gärdet substation for peak days in 4 seasons
Due to fair the penetration of company offices, almost 72 percent of electricity in

consumed in commercial sector as shown in Figure 26.
40 | P a g e
80.00%
72.01%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
27.99%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Figure 26 Percent of electricity consumption in 2 different sectors in Gärdet
This area can be considered as the area with highest possibility of installation of fast
charging facilities. The reason is the higher penetration of existing gas stations which
can be enhanced to electric charging stations.
5.3.2 Selection of a Day in Year

It is favorable to study the most extreme case for the grid impact of PHEVs.
Therefore, the day with the peak load of the year (25 October 2006 till 25 October
2007) has been considered as the base study. As the peak load is different in
different areas, therefore, different days are selected. Table 9 shows the selected
days in each area.
Table 9 Selection of a sample day

Area Nockeby Brunkeberg Gärdet
Supply Substation name (11 kV) Nockeby Tegner Gärdet
Peak load (MW) 23.5 73.95 81.97
Season with peak load Winter Winter Winter
Date with peak load 21-Feb-2007 23-Feb-2007 22-Feb-2007
Hour with peak load 21:00 & 22:00 13:00 13:00
As shown in Table 9 and Figures 21, 23 and 25 the peak load power is occurred in fall
for Gärdet and Brunkeberg and in winter for Nockeby. The peak load is in cold winter
night in Nockeby when all people were using their heating devices and at noon for
Gärdet and Brunkeberg when people are at work or at shopping centres.
The total electricity consumption in each area is not the same as the consumption in
each substation since the substation is feeding the other areas as well.
41 | P a g e
5.3.3 Estimation of total number of cars in each area

As the next step, the total number of cars in each area has to be estimated. For this
purpose, the cars situated in each area are assumed to be in any of the following
groups:
• Registered cars in certain area

• Passing cars in a certain area
The assumed number of registered cars located in each area is calculated based on
the population and number of persons per car ratio. The calculations are based the
assumptions and statistics in Table 6 in section 5.3.1.
The passing cars are considered in order to cover the electricity consumption by cars
which are outside of the investigated area but travelling to that area. The numbers
of passing cars is directly correlated with the commercial coefficient (density of
electricity consumption in commercial sector) and number of registered cars in the
area. This relation is shown in equation 1.
= × Equation 1
Therefore, it is assumed that the number of passing car is a percentage of registered

cars. This percentage is derived directly from the portion of electricity consumption
in commercial sector in the area. The total number of cars is calculated as following:
= + Equation 2
By estimating the number of cars in this way, the number of registered, passing and
total cars in each area are summarised as in Table 10. The yearly population growth
as shown in Table 10 is also considered as the growth rate of cars in each area till
2050.
Table 10 Estimated number of cars in each area in year 2007
Population 15436 12852 47677
Persons per car coefficient 2 3 2.5
Calculated number of registered cars 7718 4284 19071
Assumed coefficient for passing cars 0.25 0.95 0.72
Number of passing cars 1930 4070 13731
Total number of cars 9648 8354 32802
Population growth (%) 1 0.2 0.5
In order to find the total electricity consumption by PHEVs, the total travelling
distance per day and electricity consumption per kilometer is estimated in section
5.3.5. Then by finding total electricity consumption per day by a PHEV, the total
42 | P a g e
electricity consumption by PHEVs in each area is found by multiplying the total

consumption per day by number of PHEVs.
5.3.4 Penetration growth of PHEVs in the city

The introduction of PHEVs as described before has double advantage for Sweden
due to their high electricity generation from clean resources and the high
dependency on foreign oil. Therefore, the major energy companies in Sweden have
planned to prepare enough infrastructures for the introduction of PHEVs. The
planning for new infrastructures is following the estimated growth rate of PHEVs in
each city.
Fortum Distribution AB as the distribution system owner and operator in Stockholm

is playing the key role in providing facilities for the introduction of PHEVs. In order to
keep track of introduction of PHEVs, Fortum has its own growth rate for the PHEVs in
Stockholm. Figure 27 shows the assumed penetration growth of PHEVs in Stockholm
till 2050.
120.00%
Percentage of penetration of
100.00%
PHEVs in Stockholm
80.00%
60.00%
40.00%
20.00%
0.00%
2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060
Year
Figure 27 Penetration growth of PHEVs in Stockholm
From 2007 till 2050, the growth rate has been considered to be base on the Fortum’s
model and assumptions but from 2030 till 2050, the growth rate is assumed to be
linear worth the same slope as the last years of the previous period.
As can be seen from the figure, the PHEVs penetration percentage reaches to 1
percent in Stockholm for the first time in 2012. The growth rate is slower in the
primary stages of the introduction of PHEVs. But by the development of technology,
reduction of the cost (especially battery) and attraction of people interest, the
growth rate will increase significantly. In this study, it is assumed that 40 percent of
the cars will change to PHEVs till 2030 and optimistically has been assumed that 100
percent of the cars will be converted to PHEVs by the end of 2050.
43 | P a g e
As the grid development till 2050 in this study has been disregarded, the growth rate
does not affect the final results. This means that the final results of the study are not
affected by slower or faster growth rate. In fact, this corresponds the purpose of the
study which is investigation of effects of each percentage of PHEVs in the existing
power grid.
5.3.5 Average Electricity Consumption of a PHEV

With the today’s technology, typical PHEVs are consuming 0.2-0.25 kWh electricity
per kilometer (12) (13) in its electric mode. This extensively depends on the
environment temperature, type of the electric motor inside the car and car brand. In
this study, it is assumed the PHEVs are consuming in average 0.25 kWh per
kilometer.
According to the study done by KAIROS FUTURE in 2009 (14) the distance that cars in
Stockholm are run in average during a day is estimated. Their estimation is based on
research at Swedish Institute for Transport and Communications Analysis (SIKA). The
result is shown in Figure 28.
18.0
16.0
Percentage of the cars
14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0 1 to 5 6 to 10 11 to 21 to 31 t0 41 to 50 to 61 to 71 to 81 to 91 to More
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 than
100
Driving Distance per day, work travels are included (km)
Figure 28 Driving distance of cars
The figure shows that 15 percent of the cars travel more than 70 kilometer in total
per day which means that 85 percent of the cars travel less than 70 kilometers per
day. Nevertheless, more that 30 percent of the cars travel between 6-20 kilometers
per day.
There is little number of cars which are traveling more that 100 km per day (around
5 percent). By assuming the last division in distance axis (more than 100 km) as 170
km and considering the average distance for the other section, it can be concluded
that each car in average is run 32.7 km per day. By considering the average 0.25 kWh
44 | P a g e
per kilometer of electricity consumption, each car needs 8.2 kWh of electricity per
day to drive for the distance of 32.7 km. These numbers are summarized in Table 11.
Table 11 Average distance and electricity consumption for a typical PHEV
Required electricity Average running Average required
per kilometer (kWh) distance per day (km) electricity per day (kWh)
0.25 32.7 8.2
In this study the average electricity consumption for the PHEVs is considered as the
base case for the study of PHEVs in the grid. In fact, in order to avoid complexity, it is
assumed that battery size for the cars in average is the same as their consumption
per day. On the other word, each car in average consumes 8.2 kWh electricity from
the power grid. It is worth mentioning that it is assumed that the cars are driving the
same distance in all three areas and the cars are consuming the same amount of
electricity per kilometre.
5.3.6 Charging Infrastructure

The car batteries will mainly charge at stationary position. Therefore, the charging
infrastructures have to be implemented in the places where cars will stay for long
enough time. The cars are staying in garages, beside the street, the company parking
lots, parking lots for commercial buildings or at deployed fast charging stations.
Table 12 shows different charging infrastructures.
Table 12 charging type and time (15) (16)
Power Charging
Name Voltage Current (A)
(KW) time1
Normal socket 240V AC 16 3 2.7 h
3-phase connection 400V 3-phase AC 16 10 0.82 h
High DC off-board charging 600 V dc 110-165 50-75 7-10 min
Ultra high DC off-board
600V dc 550 250 2 min
charging
1
charging time is calculated for 8.2 kWh
As shown in the above table, the cars can be charged from a normal 1-phase plug. As
discussed before, in average each car needs 8.2 kWh electricity for daily driving.
Therefore, battery charging will take 2.7 h in average per day with this type of
charging infrastructure. Nevertheless, due to slow expected growth rate of the cars,
it is considered as the primary solution for charging of the PHEVs batteries. Although
this charging method is the easiest way due to it high availability but it has its own
disadvantages.
The major problem with this method is that the regulation of car charging can be
implemented with more difficulty. Since the sockets are available everywhere, the
45 | P a g e
car itself has to be known by the socket in order to regulate the charging.
Furthermore, long waiting time is not desirable for drivers and planning for car
owners to charge their cars is extremely difficult when they are on trip private car.
Three phase sockets are rarely available in the residential and commercial areas. The
changing time is one third of the 1-phase method and charging power is three times
more. Due to complexity and high cost of providing three phase sockets and the
shorter achieved time of fast charging facilities, this method has low priority among
the other charging methods.
By increasing the supply voltage, more power can be injected to the battery and
consequently the car battery can be charged quicker. This is done by high DC off-
board charging where the converter is located in the charging pole (15). In Europe,
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 61851 is working in application of
equipment for charging electric road vehicles. They try to standardize AC supply
voltages (IEC 60038) up to 690 V and at DC voltages up to 1,000 V. Moreover,
providing electrical power for any additional services on the vehicle in case of
necessity from the supply network is the other main filed of effort (15).
In this study, it is assumed that the required charging is provided by 1-phase normal
socket which can be used from house and parking lots. The capacity of installing fast
charging infrastructures in each area is investigated but no fast charging is assumed
to be available in the defined areas. This also corresponds the fact that at primary
stages of introduction of PHEVs, fast charging stations due to their high cost, low
demand and not commercially available battery racks adaptable with fast charging
stations, are not feasible to be introduced.
The power factor of the battery load is specified by the connected battery charger
which can be installed in the car or alternatively in the charging pole. In the following
table, some available battery chargers are introduced.
Table 13 Battery chargers
Manufacturer AC Input Output power AC Input AC Power
Efficiency
(Model) Voltage range Frequency Factor
delta-q
85-265VAC 0.84-1.3kW 45-65 Hz >0.99 90 %
(QuiQ HF/PFC)
HZTC
90 - 260VAC 1.5-3 kW 45 - 65 Hz > 0.98 92%
(TCCH)
Deltran 120 or 240
0.3-0.7 kW 50/60 Hz 0.95 -
(HF-SmartCharge) VAC
The purpose of the preceding table is to clarify that the power factor which has been
assumed in this study is 0.95.
46 | P a g e
Therefore, the average active power consumption by the PHEVs per day is calculated
by the following equation:
, = × × !" # ! $ Equation 3
&'()*
%, = , × )
Equation 4
Where P, Q and PF are active power, reactive power and power factor respectively
and d refers to daily required energy.
5.4 Output Results from Scenario Planning

In this part, output results from scenario planning are shown separately for
Stockholm for each previously defined areas. At the end of this chapter, the results
are compared.
5.4.1 PHEVs in Sweden

As described before, for driving distance of 32.7 km per day and by assuming 0.25
kWh per kilometre of electricity consumption, each car will need 8.2 kWh of
electricity per day to drive on pure electric mode.
Sweden has around 4.3 million personal cars in 2007 (22). In Table 14, it is
considered that all the cars in Sweden are converted to PHEVs. As the result, the
required energy and power for PHEVs are shown.
As shown in the table, in total, 8.9 percent of the generated electricity is needed to
run all the cars in electric mode in Sweden. Moreover, it 1.47 GW installed capacity
with capacity factor of 100% in needed for running all the cars in pure electric mode.
This capacity is approximately equal to average installed capacity of two nuclear
power plants with capacity factor of 85 percent (average capacity of a nuclear power
plant is 0.8 GW in (23))
Table 14 Required power and energy for PHEVs in Sweden
Number of cars in Sweden 4.3 million
Energy needed for each car per day (refer to section 5.3.5) 8.2 kWh
Required electricity per year for 100% of PHEVs 12.87 Twh
Total electricity consumption in Sweden 145 Twh
The required energy for PHEV on total energy consumption 8.9 %
Total installed capacity in Sweden 34.1
Required power for cars 1.47 GW
The required power for PHEV on installed capacity 4.31 %
47 | P a g e
5.4.1 Stockholm
Stockholm has population of about 795,163 persons in 2007. The number of private
cars on that year was about 296,207. By considering the growth rate of PHEVs shown
in Figure 27 and average 8.2 kWh of electricity consumption per day, the required
electricity for the cars is shown in Figure 29.
1.4
Required energy for PHEVs (TWh
1.2
1
0.8
per year)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
2021
2023
2025
2027
2029
2031
2033
2035
2037
2039
2041
2043
2045
2047
2049
Year
Figure 29 Required energy to run electric cars in Stockholm
At most 1.145 TWh of electricity per year is needed in case of 100 percent of the
PHEVs running on pure electric mode in Stockholm. The total electricity consumption
in Stockholm area is 6.944 GWh in 2007 (data from Fortum AB). By considering
growth rate of 2 percent for electricity consumption in Stockholm, the percentage of
required electricity for the PHEVs from the total consumption is shown in Figure 30.
2047
2043
2039
2035
2031
Year
2027
2023
2019
2015
2011
2007
0.00% 2.00% 4.00% 6.00% 8.00% 10.00% 12.00% 14.00%
Percentage of required electricty for PHEVs in Stockholm
Figure 30 Percentage of required electricity for PHEVs of total consumption in Stockholm
48 | P a g e
As shown in the figure by converting 100 percent of the cars to PHEVs in 2050 and in
order to run in pure electric mode, at most around 7 percent of the total
consumption in Stockholm needs to be added for running the cars. In the next
section the case for three areas in Stockholm are investigated.
5.4.1.1 Nockeby Area

In this residential area, the number of passing cars is extremely lower than
registered cars due to low penetration of commercial centres. Therefore, it is
assumed that 25 percent (share of electricity consumption in commercial sector) of
registered cars are added to registered cars to make the final number of cars in
Nockeby. Figure 31 shows the passing, registered and total number of cars and also
number of PHEVs in Nockeby till 2050.
Passing Cars Registered Cars Total Cars Number of PHEV
16000
Number of PHEVs in Nockeby
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
2021
2023
2025
2027
2029
2031
2033
2035
2037
2039
2041
2043
2045
2047
2049
Year
Figure 31 Car number in Nockeby Number of cars in Nockeby till 2050
The growth rate of the cars is based on population growth (1%) (10) (refer to section
5.3.3). Based on the assumption of the PHEVs electricity consumption (8.2 kWh per
day) and the the growth rate of PHEVs in the city based on figure 27, the percatage
of required eletricty to feed PHEVs from the total consumption is shown in Figure 32.
At most 13.28 percent of electricity consumption is needed to feed PHEVs in

Nockeby. This percentage is for the time that 100 percent of the cars are converted
to PHEVs which will require 44.3 GWh of additional electricity.
49 | P a g e
2047
2043
2039
2035
2031
Year
2027
2023
2019
2015
2011
2007
0.00% 5.00% 10.00% 15.00% 20.00% 25.00% 30.00% 35.00% 40.00% 45.00%
Percentage of required electricty for PHEVs in Nockeby
Figure 32 Percentage of required electricity for PHEVs of total consumption in Nockeby
5.4.1.2 Brunkeberg Area

The number of cars in this area is estimated with same method as in section 5.3.3. In
this area the number of passing cars is considered to be 95 percent of registered
cars. Therefore, the number of passing cars and registered cars are near to each
other and there are as double cars as registered car in Brunkeberg. The car number
in different sectors in Brunkeberg is shown in Figure 33.
Passing Cars Registered Cars Total Cars Number of PHEV
10000
Number of PHEVs in Brunkeberg
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
2021
2023
2025
2027
2029
2031
2033
2035
2037
2039
2041
2043
2045
2047
2049
Year
Figure 33 Number of cars in Brunkeberg
With the same method as in previous section, required electricity for PHEVs to run in
pure electric mode in the future years in Brunkeberg is shown in Figure 34.
50 | P a g e
2047
2042
2037
2032
Year
2027
2022
2017
2012
2007
0.00% 1.00% 2.00% 3.00% 4.00% 5.00% 6.00%
Percentage of required electricty for PHEVs in Brunkeberg
Figure 34 Percentage of required electricity for PHEVs of total consumption in Brunkeberg
As shown in the figure, at most (for 100 percent of PHEVs in pure electric mode) 4.41
percent of electric consumption in Brunkeberg has to be increased in order to supply
PHEVs. This is equals to 27.2 GWh of electricity.
As shown in the above figure, even by considering 95 percent of passing cars in

Brunkeberg (25 percent in Nockeby), the ratio required electricity for PHEVs to total
electricity consumption is more than double in Nockeby. This shows that the
required energy for PHEVs in Nockeby is far more than in Brunkeberg in comparison
with existing electricity consumption.
5.4.1.3 Gärdet Area

The same as the past two sections, the number of cars in three sectors is shown in
Figure 35.
Passing cars Registered Cars Total Cars Number of PHEV
45000
Number of PHEVs in Gärdet
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
2021
2023
2025
2027
2029
2031
2033
2035
2037
2039
2041
2043
2045
2047
2049
Year
Figure 35 Car number in Gärdet
51 | P a g e
By considering 72 percent of passing cars, the ratio of required electricity for PHEVs
on the total area electricity consumption is as blow.
2047
2043
2039
2035
2031
Year
2027
2023
2019
2015
2011
2007
0.00% 5.00% 10.00% 15.00% 20.00% 25.00%
Percentage of required electricty for PHEVs in Gärdet
Figure 36 Percentage of required electricity for PHEVs of total consumption in Gärdet
As shown in the figure, at most (for 100 percent of PHEVs in pure electric mode) 11.8
percent of electric consumption in Gärdet has to be increased in order to supply
PHEVs. This is equals to 121 GWh of electricity.
5.4.2 Comparison
As it was considered that the only charging facility is the normal sockets and the car
number is calculated base on the population, the areas with the higher population
will need more capacity than the areas with lower population. Table 15 shows the
yearly required energy for the different percentage of the PHEVs in three areas in
Stockholm.
Table 15 Yearly required electricity for PHEVs
Electricity needed for 20 % of PHEVs (GWh) 6.4 4.9 20.2
Electricity needed for 40 % of PHEVs (GWh) 21 14.5 62.1
Electricity needed for 100 % of PHEVs (GWh) 44.3 27.2 121.7
As shown in the table, although substations in Gärdet and Brunkeberg have the same
nominal capacity but the required energy for PHEVs in Brunkeberg is a quarter of
required energy in Gärdet. This is due to the fact the area covered by Gärdet
substation is much larger than Brunkeberg because of lower population density in
Gärdet and consequently the total assumed population is higher in Gärdet.
Therefore, since the model for the prediction of the car number in each area is
52 | P a g e
directly correlated with population, the number cars will be higher in Gärdet and
consequently the higher amount of energy is needed.
On the other word, the total population who getting their electricity from Gärdet
substation is much higher due to lower consumption per person in Gärdet.
Therefore, the total car number and consequently the PHEVs number and required
electricity for them will be higher in Gärdet.
The total electricity consumption is increased with higher rate in Brunkeberg than in
Gärdet due to the penetration of commercial and business centers. Nonetheless, the
average daily required energy in three areas for PHEVs is summarized in Table 16.
Table 16 Average daily needed energy for PHEVs
Required energy per day with 20 % of PHEVs (kWh) 17624.80 13438.01 55350.53
Required energy per day with 40 % of PHEVs (kWh) 57489.66 39843.43 170107.56
Required energy per day with 100 % of PHEVs(kWh) 121352.21 74646.58 333312.70
As shown in the above table, since the model is based on the population, the more
residential areas are more problematic for the integration of PHEVs by this model.
These numbers in table 16 are as the input to the next stage of thesis to see the
effects of PHEVs with different charging distribution pattern.
53 | P a g e
Chapter 6
Implementation of Scenarios in PSS/E

Automation; Results and Conclusions
In this chapter the daily required energy for PHEVs is distributed by two different
charging patterns among 24 hours of a day. The peak hour load in the year (25
October 2006 till 25 October) is included in the selected day. The results which are
voltage and losses in the system are analysed and possible required developments
are discussed.
As described in chapter 4, in order to get the voltage variation in different buses and
losses in different areas, the load flow calculations are automated to run for 24 times
for different value of the load in 24 hours. The other loads than the loads in
investigated substations (Nockeby, Brunkeberg and Gärdet) are kept constant. This
means that the other loads have their average value (the average value of the load
on that substation) while loads in three investigated substations are changing hourly.
6.1 Hourly Charging Pattern of PHEVs for a Day

In this study the effects of PHEVs on the grid is investigated based on two charging
habit of the car drivers. They are called as following:
• Unregulated charging habit

• Regulated charging habit
6.1.1 Unregulated charging

The unregulated charging habit is based on the people’s interest to connect their
cars to electricity when they don’t have enough information about electricity price at
each hour and limited number of charging infrastructures are available. This has
been measured by putting measurement devices on nine Toyota Prius cars (17).
54 | P a g e
The effect of limited charging infrastructure can be seen in the charging trends for
PHEVs operated in five different states in USA during the months of January and
February 2008, which was very early in the adoption cycle of PHEVs and prior to the
development of a rich charging infrastructure to support PHEV charging (17). These
vehicles are designed with a charge depleting range of approximately 30 miles. The
result is shown in Figure 37.
As can be seen from the figure, it is assumed that people like to charge their cars as
soon as they get home when they don’t know about electricity price and no
incentives are defined to make them consume on the other times. According to the
above figure near to 60 percent of the charging is happened between 14:00 -20:00.
Moreover, it is worth to mention that the same unregulated pattern has been
considered for three different areas.
12
Percent of charging
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Hour of day
Figure 37 Percentage of charging per day in unregulated charging (for Nockeby, Brunkeberg and Gärdet)
6.1.2 Regulated charging

On the other hand, regulated charging is defined based on the incentives and/or
information which make the people charging their cars in the hours when the
electricity consumption from the other sectors is minimum (demand-side
management methods).
The method which is used in this thesis is called valley filling which is different from
load shifting. In valley filling, the new loads (in this study, PHEVs) are managed by
demand-side management programs in order to fill the valleys (hours with low
energy consumption) in load curve. On the other hand, load shifting is to manage the
existing load in the system by shifting the peak load to the low consumption hours.
The described DSM (Demand Side Management) methods are shown graphically in
Figure 38.
55 | P a g e
Valley Filling Load Shifting

Figure 38 Demand side management in a typical daily load curve
In this thesis since new load has been introduced in the power system (PHEVs), the
valley filling method has been implemented to define the regulated charging
pattern.
As can be seen in Figures 21, 23 and 25, the electricity consumption is minimum
during night hours for all three areas. Therefore, in order to fill the valleys of the
daily load curve, the maximum consumption for PHEVs should be managed to be on
night hours.
In this study for each area, as described before, average daily required electricity for
PHEVs is estimated. Then different percentage (limited between 1 to 12 percent) of
daily required charging is added to different hourly load in each area as following:
, = , + , + = ', *, … , *- Equation 5
Where h in the above equation shows the hourly power and area refers to the
power in three defined areas (Nockeby, Brunkeberg and Gärdet). Ph,PHEV is defined as
below(Pd,PHEV is daily electricity consumption charging PHEVs, refer to section 5.4.3):
, = × , . = ', *, … , '* % , + = ', *, … , *- Equation 6
Where
∑*-
1' = '22 % Equation 7
In that case, the variance of the daily load curve with PHEVs is calculated as below:
'
= 3*- ∑*- 5 *
1' , − $ Equation 8
Where Ph,total is the power with adding a percentage of the required daily power of
PHEVs and 5 is the average power.
The optimum distribution of daily load from system operator point of view is when
the variance is minimum. Moreover, it is assumed that in each hour, the specified
load is not more than 12 percent and less than 1 percent of the daily load. This is due
56 | P a g e
to existence of the least charging at each hour even though the electricity price is
high. In addition, the upper boundary is defined based on maximum demand by
knowing all about the electricity price and defining the incentives for regulated
charging. The calculated percentage of daily required power of PHEVs in each hour
for regulated electricity consumption for PHEVs in each area is shown in Figure 39.
The figure shows that the near to 50 percent of charging is done between 12-5 AM in
all three areas when the electricity consumption from the other sectors is the
lowest. The regulated method is beneficial for grid operators since the peak load is
managed and consequently the voltage variations in the substations are less and the
necessity for expansion in the substation has been reduced.
14
Specified charging percentage for
12
10
8
PHEVs (%)
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time of day
Figure 39 Percentage of charging per day in regulated charging
6.2 Nockeby Area

The substation in Nockeby has two 20 MVA transformers which both can be
operated in maximum load of 28 MVA (40 percent more than nominal capacity). But
one of the transformers is always out of service due to reliability purposes in case
there is no fault in the system. In fact, the capacity of one transformer shows the
capacity shows the capacity of the substation. In order to satisfy the reliability (N-1
criteria) of the power system operation, the same capacity as the operating capacity
in substation is needed as reserve capacity. This means that in Nockeby, although
the installed capacity is 40 MVA but 20 MVA has to keep unused for the case of fault
in the power system.
As shown in Figure 23, the maximum load in Nockeby substation is around 23 MW in

winter which is more than 20 MW. This is due to the fact that the transformer can be
operated with higher capacity than nominal capacity for some short hours in the
57 | P a g e
peak load (extra 40 percent of the nominal capacity which is up to 28 MVA).

Nevertheless, the load is much less during the remaining hours of the year.
6.2.1 Load increment and Voltage variation

As described before, in this area the day with peak load is selected in order to
investigate the extreme case. On the other hand, the average daily required energy
to run 20, 40 and 100 percent of electric cars in pure electric mode is calculated in
the last chapter and shown in Table 16. The daily required energy is distributed
among 24 hours with two different patterns. The first pattern is desired by drivers
and shown in the figure 37 and the second one is base on minimum variance of the
load curve in 24 hours shown in figure 39. Figure 40 shows the load curve for the
peak day without PHEVs and with PHEVs by regulated and unregulated patterns with
100 percent of PHEVs.
As the reactive power is extremely smaller than reactive power, it can be neglected
in comparison with active power. Therefore, only active power curve is shown in the
following load curves.
As shown in the figure, in the regulated pattern, the load from PHEVs is distributed
in 24 hours in order to make the load curve as flat as possible. Therefore, the peak
load has reduced noticeably in comparison with unregulated mode. Instead the
demanded energy from PHEVs is consumed in low power hours like night time and
soon in the morning. This is beneficial for grid operator since the peak load has been
managed and the operation of the grid is less costly.
Regulated Unregulated Without PHEVs
40000.00
35000.00
30000.00
KWh per hour
25000.00
20000.00
15000.00
10000.00
5000.00
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time of day
Figure 40 Load curve with 100 percent of PHEVs in Nockeby
In the unregulated pattern maximum 64.84 percent of the average load (without
PHEVs) is added to base load for PHEVs at 12 PM while in the regulated pattern
58 | P a g e
maximum 53.05 percent of the average load in added to the base load for charging
the PHEVs at 3 AM.
According to Standard SS-EN50160 (Voltage Characteristics in Public Distribution

Systems) (26), the supply voltage magnitude variation has to be within ±10% for 95%
of week in mean 10 minutes rms values for low and high voltage buses.
The load in Nockeby substation is divided equally between two available

transformers. The voltage in one of the buses (connected to one of the transformers)
in Nockeby substation is shown in Figure 41, 42 and 43. First, the voltage variation,
active power and reactive power in the primary power system without PHEVs is
shown in Figure 41.
24
LoadMWinNockeby
22
20
18
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Reactivepower MVAr inNockeby
5.1
4.9
4.8
4.7
4.6
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
11.34
Voltage(kV) inNockeby
11.32
11.3
11.28
11.26
11.24
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Figure 41 Voltage variation without of PHEV Nockeby
As shown in the above figure, the voltage is within the allowed tolerance (±10%) in
Standard SS-EN50160. This is due to reasonable reactive power consumption and
load level in Nockeby substation. The voltage variation included with active and
reactive power consumption in the substation by distribution the load from 100
percent of PHEVs in unregulated pattern described in section 6.1.1 is shown in Figure
42.
59 | P a g e
35
ockeby
30
WinN
25
LoadM
20
15
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
ockeby
10
Ar inN
8
eactivepowerMV
4
0 5 10 15 20 25
R
Time (Hours of day)
11.4
)inNockeby
11.2
oltage(kV
11
V
10.8
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Figure 42 Voltage variation with 100 percent of PHEV with unregulated charging pattern in Nockeby
As shown in the above figure, the voltage variation is within the standard values
according to SS-EN50160 voltage standard. The minimum voltage in the 11 kV
substation is 10.84 kV and the maximum voltage is 11.31 kV which are both within
the limits. However, the maximum load is 34.61 MW which is high enough to make
the substation development necessary in case of 100 percent of PHEVs in pure
electric mode. In the next figure, the voltage variation in 24 hour with regulated
charging pattern (refer to section 6.1.2) is shown.
29
28
LoadMWinNockeby
27
26
25
24
23
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Reactivepower MVAr inNockeby
7.5
6.5
5.5
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
11.25
Voltage(kV) inNockeby
11.2
11.15
11.1
11.05
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Figure 43 Voltage variation with 100 percent of PHEV with regulated charging pattern in Nockeby
60 | P a g e
The minimum voltage in this case is 11.251kV and maximum voltage of 11.38 kV. The
voltage variation within 24-hour has been decreased. Moreover, the peak load has
decreased from 17.3 MW to 14.89 MW by regulating the electricity demand from
the PHEVs. The same figures with 20 and 40 percent of PHEVs together with Slider
Diagram files of the PSS/E simulation are shown in the Appendix 2.
6.2.2 Possible expansion in the substation capacity

The 20 MVA transformer in Nockeby can be operated for some hours by the capacity
of 28 MVA. The peak load in one transformer in Nockeby by adding PHEVs load with
different percentages and without adding the vehicles are shown in Table 17.
Table 17 Peak load in Nockeby
Maximum hourly load
Penetration case of PHEVs
per transformer (MW)
Without PHEVs 23.05
Unregulated with 20 % of PHEVs 24.23
Regulated with 20 % of PHEVs 23.4
If regulated charging pattern is used, the capacity of the substation is enough even
for integration of near to 100 percent of PHEVs. This is shown in table 17 where the
peak load with unregulated charging pattern is about 34.61 MW in Nockeby while by
regulating the charging of PHEVs the peak load has decreased to 28.56 MW.
Moreover, in unregulated charging pattern, the capacity of the substation in violated
for the first time in 2023 when about 40 percent of the cars are converted to PHEVs
whereas in regulated pattern the substation can handle around 100 percent of
PHEVs in Nockeby.
6.3 Brunkeberg Area

The selected substations in Brunkeberg is called Tegner which has two 3-winding
transformers. Both transformers have the capacity of 80 MVA. This means that total
installed capacity of the substation is 160 MVA (two 40 MVA transformers in each
there winding transformer). But the substation can be operated with maximum 112
MVA of capacity since the N-1 criteria has to be satisfied with one unused
transformer. In fact, in case of fault in one transformer, there should be one unused
transformer to handle the load.
61 | P a g e

The same as the last part, the average daily required electricity for PHEVs is
distributed among 24 hours of the day with peak hour load in Brunkeberg with two
regulated and unregulated charging patterns. The load curve with PHEVs load in
regulated and unregulated pattern and without load from PHEVs is as in Figure 44.
Unregulated Regulated Without PHEVs
90000.00
80000.00
70000.00
KWh per hour
60000.00
50000.00
40000.00
30000.00
20000.00
10000.00
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time of day
Figure 44 Load curve with 100 percent of PHEVs in Brunkeberg
In this area, the lower percentage of required electricity from the total load is
required to feed PHEVs that in Nockeby.
In the unregulated pattern maximum 13.90 percent of the peak load is added to
base load for PHEVs at 12 PM while in the regulated pattern maximum 16.67 percent
of the peak load in added to the base load for charging the PHEVs at 3 AM.
The voltage variation in one of the 40 MVA transformers in Tegner substation is

shown in Figure 45, 46 and 47; figure 45 shows the voltage variation without electric
cars, figure 49 shows the voltage variation with unregulated charging pattern of
PHEVs and figure 47 shows the regulated charging pattern.
62 | P a g e
WinBrunkeberg
80
70
60
erM
50
runkeberg Activepow
40
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
ArinB
0
erMV
-2
eactivepow
-4
-6
0 5 10 15 20 25
R
Time (Hours of a day)

runkeberg
11.1
11.05
)inB
11
Voltage(kV
10.95
10.9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Figure 45 Voltage variation without PHEV in Brunkeberg
In Brunkeberg, the voltage is kept within the 10 percent of permitted tolerance with
installed 6 MVAr capacitor bank in the substation.
As shown in figure 46, the minimum voltage in this substation is 10.93 kV. In fact the
voltage is kept within permitted tolerance with installed capacitor banks in Tegner
substation. By implementing the regulated electricity consumption by PHEVs, the
voltage, active and reactive power will be as in Figure 47.
Activepower MWinBrunkeberg
80
70
60
50
40
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Reactivepower MVAr inBrunkeberg
-2
-4
0 5 10 15 20 25
11.1
Voltage(kV) inBrunkeberg
11.05
11
10.95
10.9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Figure 46 Voltage variation with 100 percent of PHEV with unregulated charging pattern in Brunkeberg
63 | P a g e
And for case of regulated charging patter, the active, reactive and voltage variation is
as in Figure 47.
Reactive power MVAr in Brunkeberg Active power MW in Brunkeberg
80
70
60
50
40
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
-2
-4
0 5 10 15 20 25
Voltage (kV) in Brunkeberg
11.1
11.05
11
10.95
10.9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Figure 47 Voltage variation with 100 percent of PHEV with regulated charging pattern in Brunkeberg
The minimum voltage in case of regulated charging pattern is 11.95 and maximum
voltage of 11.07 kV. The voltage variation within 24-hour has been decreased in
comparison with unregulated form. Moreover, the peak load has from 76.58 MW to
72.42 MW by regulating the electricity demand from the PHEVs. The same figures
with 20 and 40 percent of PHEVs together with Slider Diagram files of PSS/E
simulation are shown in the Appendix 2.

The necessity for possible expansions in the substation directly depends on the peak
load in the system. The peak loads by adding and without adding PHEVs for three
different percentage of the PHEVs penetration by two different charging patterns is
shown in Table 18.
Table 18 Peak load in Brunkeberg
Penetration case of PHEVs Maximum hourly load (MW)
Without PHEVs 71.68
64 | P a g e
The capacity of the substation is enough even for integration of to 100 percent of
PHEVs if regulated charging pattern is used. This is shown in table 20 where the peak
load with unregulated charging pattern is about 76.58 MW in Brunkeberg while by
Moreover, in both regulated and unregulated charging pattern, the capacity of the
substation has never violated. This is due to low required energy for the cars in
Brunkeberg area. This is because of the fact that only normal sockets are considered
as the only charging infrastructure. Therefore, no additional power is added from
other charging infrastructure. On the other hand, the number of cars in the area is
estimated based on the population. Therefore, due to commercial characteristics of
Brunkeberg area and even though reasonable number of passing cars are added to
the registered cars, but the required energy for PHEVs is low in comparison with
total energy consumption.
6.4 Gärdet
The selected substations in Gärdet area is also called Gärdet which has two 3-
winding transformers. Both transformers have the capacity of 80 MVA. This means
that total installed capacity of the substation is 160 MVA (two 40 MVA transformers
in each there winding transformer). But the substation can be operated with
maximum 112 MVA (40 percent more that nominal capacity) of capacity since the N-
1 criteria has to be satisfied with one unused transformer. In fact, in case of fault in
one transformer, there should be one unused transformer to handle the load.

The same as the last areas, the day with the peak load is selected in Gärdet for the
investigation of effects of PHEVs. The calculated daily required energy to drive the
100 of PHEVs in pure electric mode in Gärdet is distributed among 24 hours of the
selected day with two charging pattern. The load curves with regulated and
unregulated charging pattern and without electric cars are shown in Figure 48.
65 | P a g e
140000.00
120000.00
100000.00
KWh per hour
80000.00
60000.00
40000.00
20000.00
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time of day
Figure 48 Load curve with 100 percent of PHEVs in Gärdet
The valleys in the primary load curve without PHEVs are filled with the PHEVs load in
regulated mode. This is due to the fact that in regulated mode, the regulation
method is to minimize the variance of the load curve by distribution of PHEVs load
among 24 hours. Moreover, in the unregulated mode, the desired charging demand
is considered.
80
Load MW in Gärdet
70
60
50
40
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Reactive power MVAr in Gärdet
10
-5
0 5 10 15 20 25
11.1
Voltage (kV) in Gärdet
11.05
11
10.95
10.9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Figure 49 Active and reactive power and voltage in Gärdet without cars
66 | P a g e
Thanks to the reactive power injection in the peak load, the voltage is kept within
the allowed values. By distributing the daily required power for PHEVs among 24
hours by unregulated pattern, the voltage is as shown in Figure 50.
120
ärdet
100
LoadMWinG 80
60
40
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
ärdet
20
VAr inG
10
Reactivepower M
-10
0 5 10 15 20 25
11.1
Voltage(kV) inGärdet
11.05
11
10.95
10.9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Figure 50 Active and reactive power distributed unregulated and voltage in Gärdet with 100 percent PHEVs
The voltage variation, thank to enough reactive power compensation is within the
permitted values. In the next figure, the voltage with regulated charging pattern
together with active and reactive power in Gärdet substation is shown.
90
Load MWin Gärdet
80
70
60
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
15
10
-5
0 5 10 15 20 25
11.1
11.05
11
10.95
10.9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Figure 51 Active and reactive power distributed regulated and voltage in Gärdet with 100 percent PHEVs
67 | P a g e
The minimum voltage in this case is 11.93 and maximum voltage of 11.07 kV. The
voltage variation within 24-hour has been decreased in comparison with unregulated
pattern. Moreover, the peak load has from 114.7 MW to 82.62 MW by regulating the
electricity demand from the PHEVs. The same figures with 20 and 40 percent of
PHEVs together with Slider Diagram files of PSS/E simulation are shown in the
Appendix 2.

The necessity for possible expansions in the substation directly depends on the peak
load in the system. The peak loads by adding and without adding PHEVs for three
different percentage of the PHEVs penetration by two different charging patterns is
shown in Table 19.
Table 19 Peak load
Penetration case of PHEVs Maximum hourly load (MW)
Without PHEVs 79.3
Regulated with 40 % of PHEVs 81
The capacity of the substation is enough even for integration of to 100 percent of
PHEVs if regulated charging pattern is used. This is shown in table 19 where the peak
load with unregulated charging pattern is about 114.7 MW in Gärdet while by
Moreover, in both regulated and unregulated charging pattern, the capacity of the
substation has never violated.
6.5 Losses
The whole transmission system in Sweden included the distribution system down to
11 kV substation is simulated in this thesis. In this study, the losses are calculated for
the day that the whole study has been performed (the day with peak hourly load).
The losses in the Fortum distribution area and whole simulated area are shown in
Table 20.
68 | P a g e
Table 20 losses in Fortum distribution area and whole network

Sweden
Penetration rate and charging pattern of PHEVs FD1 area
area
Without PHEVs (MWh per day) 141.87 21538
Regulated charging pattern of 20 % of PHEVs (MWh per day) 142.38 21549
Unregulated charging pattern of 20 % of PHEVs (MWh per day) 142.5 21550
Regulated charging pattern 40 % of PHEVs (MWh per day) 143.55 21574
Unregulated charging pattern 40 % of PHEVs (MWh per day) 143.96 21576
Regulated charging pattern of 100 % of PHEVs (MWh per day) 145.65 21610
Unregulated charging pattern of 100 % of PHEVs (MWh per day) 146.35 21614
1
Area owned by Fortum Distribution
As shown in the table, the losses are less with regulated charging pattern than
unregulated pattern with the same daily load. This is due to the direct relation of
losses with the second power of current which make the losses higher with the
higher load. The lower losses size is the other advantage of implementing
regulated charging pattern for the PHEVs and demand side management.
By introduction of regulated charging pattern, apart from cost reduction in

capacity expansion, the losses reduction will cause some cost savings. By
considering the electricity price of 1.5 SEK per kWh, the total saving in Fortum
distribution area by regulation of electricity consumption of PHEVs will be 180-
1050 SEK in the peak power day. In addition, in whole Sweden, the savings will
be from 3000 SEK to 6000 SEK on the peak day depending on the percentage of
PHEVs.
6.6 Conclusions
In this study the number of cars is estimated based on the population in each area.
The total number of cars is overestimated by the introduction of passing cars. On the
other hand, by assuming the same average travel distance for all cars in all three
area, the travel distance per car has been underestimated.
As the result, the only substation in which development is needed by introduction

of PHEVs is Nockeby. Tegner and Gärdet due to the commercial characteristic of the
area and large difference between nightly and daily consumption, the load can be
distributed by valley filling method more efficiently. Therefore, less development is
needed on those areas.
Moreover, it can be concluded that regulating energy consumption of the PHEVs

by valley filling methods can reduce the necessity for substation expansion for
the case of integration of PHEVs to the grid. Moreover, regulation of electricity
consumption can also moderately decrease the losses in the power system. This
69 | P a g e
regulation can be done by providing enough information about electricity price

to the electricity consumers.
The area with more residential characteristics will have more problems from
capacity point of view for integration of PHEVs if the normal sockets are used as
charging infrastructure. This is due to the fact that the number of cars in each
area was estimated with the population in that area. Therefore, the areas with
more residential density of electricity consumption like Nockeby and Gärdet
need sooner and larger expansions than commercial area like Brunkeberg.
Moreover, between 6 to 38 percent of total energy consumption is needed to

charge the PHEVs in different areas of Stockholm and with 100 percent of PHEVs
in pure electric mode. This percentage directly depends on the population
density in each area as the number of cars is estimated by population.
The voltage in 11 kV substations due to reasonable amount of reactive power

compensation and voltage regulation facilities is within its standard permitted
tolerance even with 100 percent of the cars in pure electric mode. But on the
lower voltage level (less than 11 kV), the high amount of injected power from 11
kV substations (with high percentage of PHEVs) may cause problem from both
capacity and voltage point of view. This remains as future work for this study.
70 | P a g e
Future Works
The integration of the PHEVs to the grid have connected the grid issues and
transportation sector. Therefore, the common issues are highlighted and new
problems are defined. Moreover, as the cars are not still in the market, the possible
problems needs to be predicted.
In this study, the model for estimation of the car number in each area was based on
the population. As the future work, the model can be enhanced based on the traffic
information in each area and at each hour. The other suggested future works are
introduced in two categories of Electricity market related issues and power system
technical issues.
Power system technical issues

• Investigation of the effects of integration of PHEVs on the 11 kV network
stations.
• Investigation of the effects of PHEVs in the power grid as a distributed
generation in case of application of Vehicle-to-Grid concept.
• Investigation of the effects of PHEVs on the power quality.
• Stability analysis of the power system in case of large disconnection or
connection of the cars to the grid.
Electricity market issues

• Analysis of market regulations and pricing impacts on the development of
PHEVs.
• Investigation of consumer’s savings due to integration of PHEV by
considering the smart grid concept.
• Investigation of emissions status by removing emissions production from
cars exhausts and increasing the power generation in power plants in
different countries.
71 | P a g e
References
References
1. Automobile. Wikipedia. [Online] 01 17, 2009. [Cited: 01 27, 2009.]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile#cite_note-4.
2. Hybrid Synergy View September 2007. [Online] Toyota, 09 2007. [Cited: 02 06,
2009.] http://www.toyota.com/html/dyncon/2007/september/birthday.html.
3. Karnama, Ahmad. Hybrid Vehicle Drives and their Application in Electric Railway
Traction. Stockholm : Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), 2008.
4. Advanced technologies and energy efficiency. [Online]

http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/atv.shtm.
5. Rosmarino, Tanyalynnette. A Self-Funding Enterprise Solution to Reduce Power

Consumption and Carbon Emissions. [Online] [Cited: May 2009, 30.]
http://www.nysfirm.org/documents/html/2007/execcommittee/may/enterprisepow
erconsumptionreduction_files/800x600/index.html.
6. Simpson, Andrew. Response to the CARB ZEV Expert Panel Position on Lithium-Ion
Full-Performance Battery Electric Vehicles. San Carlos : Tesla Motors Inc., 2008.
7. Power Transmission & Distribution PSS/E™ 30.2 Guide. s.l. : Siemens, November
2005.
8. Lindgren, Mats and Bandhold, Hans. Scenario Planning, The Link Between Future
and Strategy. Norwich : Palgrave McMillan, 2003.
9. Michael Kintner-Meyer, Kevin Schneider, Robert Pratt. Impact assessment if

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles on electric utility and regional U.S. power grid. s.l. :
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 2007.
10. AB, Stockholms Stads Utrednings och Statistikkontor. Statistisk Årsbok för
Stockholm 2009. Stockholm : Stockholm Office of Research and Statistics, 2009.
11. Robin Bjäråker, Stefan Råström. LÅNGTIDSPLAN FÖR REGIONNÄT. Stockholm :

Fortum Distribution, 2007.
12. Gremban, Ronald. PHEVs: the Technical Side. Brussels, Belgium : 1California Cars
Initiative, 2007.
72 | P a g e
13. Fritz, Peter. Plug-in elhybrider. 2007.
14. HANS BANDHOLD, JESSICA CARRAGHER WAL LNER,MATS LINDGREN. PLUG IN

ROAD 2020 RAPPORT BASERAD PÅ KONSUMENTUNDERSÖKNING, INTERVJUER OCH
SEMINARIUM. Stockholm : KAIROS FUTURE, 2009.
15. Fast Charging vs. Slow Charging: Pros and cons for the New Age of Electric
Vehicles. Charles Botsford, Adam Szczepanek. Stavanger, Norway, : EVS24, 2009.
16. Fortum Internal Presentations. Tosting, Jonas. Stockholm : s.n., 2009.
17. Kevin Morrow, Donald Karner, James Francfort. Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Charging Infrastructure Review. s.l. : U.S. Department of Energy , 2008.
18. The electricity year 2007. s.l. : Svensk Energi-Sweden Energy AB, 2008.
19. Greenhouse gas emission trends and projections in Europe 2007 – Sweden.
Copenhagen : EEA (European Environment Agency), OPOCE (Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities) , 2007. EEA Report No 5/2007.
20. Sweden Crude Oil Production by Year. [Online] Index Mundi. [Cited: May 30,
2009.]
http://indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?country=se&product=oil&graph=production.
21. United States Energy Information Administration. Sweden Crude Oil Production
by Year. [Online] Index Mundi. [Cited: May 30, 2009.]
http://indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?country=se&product=oil&graph=production.
22. Maria Melkersson. FORDON 2007, TEMA MILJÖ. Östersund : STATENS INSTITUT
FÖR KOMMUNIKATIONSANALYS, SIKA, 2007.
23. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). [Online] [Cited: 06 08, 2009.]
http://www.iaea.org/programmes/a2/.
24. Wind Energy Basics. AWEA. [Online] [Cited: January 28, 2009.]
http://www.awea.org/faq/wwt_basics.html#top..
25. Update on US Geothermal Power Production and Development. s.l. : Geothermal

Energy Association, 2007.
26. Wind Power:Capacity Factor, Intermittency,and what happens when the wind
doesn’t blow? Community Wind Power Fact Sheet # 2a. s.l. : Renewable Energy
Research Laboratory, University of Massachusetts at Amherst.
73 | P a g e
27. Holger Jené, Ernst Scheid and Hans Kemper, Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)
Concepts - Fuel Savings and Costs
74 | P a g e
Appendix 1
Python code for bus voltages report
##################################################
## Importing library #############################
##################################################
import os
import psspy
import csv
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
##################################################
## Defining Functions ############################
##################################################
def array2dict(dict_keys, dict_values):
'''Convert array to dictionary of arrays.
Returns dictionary as {dict_keys:dict_values}
'''
tmpdict = {}
for i in range(len(dict_keys)):
tmpdict[dict_keys[i].lower()] = dict_values[i]
return tmpdict
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
def busindexes(busnum, busnumlist):
'''Find indexes of a bus in list of buses.
Returns list with indexes of 'busnum' in 'busnumlist'.
'''
busidxes = []
startidx = 0
buscounts = busnumlist.count(busnum)
if buscounts:
for i in range(buscounts):
tmpidx = busnumlist.index(busnum,startidx)
busidxes.append(tmpidx)
startidx = tmpidx+1
return busidxes
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
def splitstring_commaspace(tmpstr):
'''Split string first at comma and then by space. Example:
Input tmpstr = a1 a2, ,a4 a5 ,,,a8,a9
Output strlst = ['a1', 'a2', ' ', 'a4', 'a5', ' ', ' ', 'a8',
'a9']
'''
strlst = []
commalst = tmpstr.split(',')
for each in commalst:
eachlst = each.split()
if eachlst:
strlst.extend(eachlst)
else:
strlst.extend(' ')
return strlst
#--------------------------------------------------------------------
def readloaddata(loadcsvfile):
j=0
75 | P a g e
loaddict = {}
readcsv = csv.reader(open(loadcsvfile))
for row in readcsv:
i=0
for string in row:
if j <= 1:
row[i] = int(float(row[i]))
else:
row[i] = float(row[i])
if EOFError:
i = i + 1
loaddict[j] = row
j = j+1
return loaddict
##################################################
## Get the integer and real data##################
##################################################
ierr1, number_of_loads = psspy.aloadcount(-1, 1) # only in-
service loads including those at type 4 buses
ierr2, number_of_loadbuses = psspy.alodbuscount(-1, 2) # only in-
service load buses including those with only out-of-service loads
ierr3, load_id = psspy.aloadchar ( -1, 2, ['ID'] )
ierr4, NAZOS = psspy.aloadint (-1, 2, ['NUMBER', 'AREA' , 'ZONE' ,
'OWNER' , 'STATUS' ] )
ierr6, lbv = psspy.alodbusreal (-1,4 , ['KV'])
NAZOS = array2dict(['NUMBER' , 'AREA' , 'ZONE' , 'OWNER' , 'STATUS'
], NAZOS)
load_data = NAZOS
load_data['ID'] = load_id [0]
##################################################
## Remove repeated load bus data #################
##################################################
p=range(len(load_data['number']))
m=[]
for h in p:
for d in p:
if load_data['number'][h] == load_data['number'][d] and d >
h:
n = 0
for s in range(len(m)):
if m[s] == d:
n = n + 1
if n == 0:
m.append(d)
m.sort()
g=0
for r in range(len(m)):
del load_data['number'][m[r]-g]
del load_data['area'][m[r]-g]
del load_data['zone'][m[r]-g]
del load_data['owner'][m[r]-g]
del load_data['status'][m[r]-g]
del load_data['ID'][m[r]-g]
g = g + 1
##################################################
## Write Output Prompt ###########################
##################################################
psspy.prompt(' Please enter a CVS file wit hthe following format: \n\
\n\
76 | P a g e
- The CSV file can be saved in the same directory as

Python file in advance or just type a new file name')
psspy.prompt("\n\
- The file name has to be typed in the following space in
this format: \n\
\n\
*********************'FILENAME.csv'**************************")
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
##################################################
## Get load data from a CSV file #################
##################################################
hourload = readloaddata('load.csv')
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
##################################################
## Changing the load in the system ###############
##################################################
busvoltage={}
for k in range(24):
k = k + 2
for i in range(len(hourload[0])):
busnumber = hourload[0][i]
busid = str(hourload [1][i])
for j in range(len(load_data ['ID'])):
busid_PSSE = load_data ['ID'][j]
if busid_PSSE[1] == ' ' :
busid_PSSE = busid_PSSE[0]
if busid == busid_PSSE and busnumber == load_data
['number'][j]:
ierr5 =
psspy.load_data(load_data['number'][j],load_data['ID'][j],[load_data[
'status'][j] ,load_data['area'][j] ,load_data['zone'][j],
load_data['owner'][j]],[hourload[k][i],0 , 0 ,0 ,0,0])
if i <= 19:
reactive = hourload[k][i+1]
ierr5 =
load_data['owner'][j]],[hourload[k][i],reactive,0,0,0])
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
##################################################
## Run the power flow agai for new load ##########
##################################################
## if k == 80:
## ErrLF = psspy.fnsl([1,0,0,1,0,1,0,0])
## else:
ErrLF = psspy.fdns([0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0]) #
1.Tap:disable///2.AreaExchange:disable///2.PhaseShif:disable///4.dcTa
p:disable///5.ShuntAdj:disable///#
6.FlatStart:enable///7.ApplyVarL:on interations///8.non-
divergent:disable
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
##################################################
## Get the new voltage magnitude for new load ####
##################################################
ierr, rval = psspy.alodbusreal(-1 ,2 ,['KV'])
busvoltage [k-2] = rval [0]
##-------------------------------------------------------------------
77 | P a g e
##################################################
## Send the voltage to the provided csv file #####
##################################################
rvaldimension = len(rval[0])
csvfile = input('Please one .csv file')
if csvfile: # open CSV file to write
csvfile_h = open(csvfile,'w')
report = csvfile_h.write
else: # send results to PSS/E
report window
psspy.beginreport()
report = psspy.report
for i in range(len(busvoltage[1])):
busn = load_data['number'][i]
report("%(busn)6d," %vars())
for j in range(len(busvoltage)):
busvoltag = busvoltage[j][i]
report("%(busvoltag)3.4F," %vars())
report("\n ")
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
##################################################
## Close The CSV file ############################
##################################################
if csvfile:
csvfile_h.close()
print '\n Done ..... Power Flow Results Report saved to file %s'
% csvfile
else:
print '\n Done ..... Power Flow Results Report created in Report
window.'
Python code for losses report
##################################################
## Importing library #############################
##################################################
import os
import psspy
import csv
##################################################
## Defining Functions ############################
##################################################
def array2dict(dict_keys, dict_values):
'''Convert array to dictionary of arrays.
Returns dictionary as {dict_keys:dict_values}
'''
tmpdict = {}
for i in range(len(dict_keys)):
tmpdict[dict_keys[i].lower()] = dict_values[i]
return tmpdict
def busindexes(busnum, busnumlist):
'''Find indexes of a bus in list of buses.
Returns list with indexes of 'busnum' in 'busnumlist'.
'''
busidxes = []
startidx = 0
buscounts = busnumlist.count(busnum)
if buscounts:
for i in range(buscounts):
78 | P a g e
tmpidx = busnumlist.index(busnum,startidx)
busidxes.append(tmpidx)
startidx = tmpidx+1
return busidxes
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------
def splitstring_commaspace(tmpstr):
'''Split string first at comma and then by space. Example:
Input tmpstr = a1 a2, ,a4 a5 ,,,a8,a9
Output strlst = ['a1', 'a2', ' ', 'a4', 'a5', ' ', ' ', 'a8',
'a9']
'''
strlst = []
commalst = tmpstr.split(',')
for each in commalst:
eachlst = each.split()
if eachlst:
strlst.extend(eachlst)
else:
strlst.extend(' ')
return strlst
#--------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------
def readloaddata(loadcsvfile):
j=0
loaddict = {}
readcsv = csv.reader(open(loadcsvfile))
for row in readcsv:
i=0
for string in row:
if j <= 1:
row[i] = int(float(row[i]))
else:
row[i] = float(row[i])
if EOFError:
i = i + 1
loaddict[j] = row
j = j+1
return loaddict
#--------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------
##################################################
## Get the integer and real data##################
##################################################
ierr1, number_of_loads = psspy.aloadcount(-1, 1) # only in-
service loads including those at type 4 buses
ierr2, number_of_loadbuses = psspy.alodbuscount(-1, 2) # only in-
service load buses including those with only out-of-service loads
ierr3, load_id = psspy.aloadchar ( -1, 2, ['ID'] )
ierr4, NAZOS = psspy.aloadint (-1, 2, ['NUMBER', 'AREA' , 'ZONE' ,
'OWNER' , 'STATUS' ] )
ierr6, lbv = psspy.alodbusreal (-1,4 , ['KV'])
ierr9, area = psspy.aloadint (-1, 2, ['AREA' ] )
NAZOS = array2dict(['NUMBER' , 'AREA' , 'ZONE' , 'OWNER' , 'STATUS'
], NAZOS)
79 | P a g e
load_data = NAZOS
load_data['ID'] = load_id [0]
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------
##################################################
## Remove repeated laod bus data #################
##################################################
p=range(len(load_data['number']))
m=[]
for h in p:
for d in p:
if load_data['number'][h] == load_data['number'][d] and d >
h:
n = 0
if m[s] == d:
n = n + 1
if n == 0:
m.append(d)
m.sort()
g=0
del load_data['number'][m[r]-g]
del load_data['area'][m[r]-g]
del load_data['zone'][m[r]-g]
del load_data['owner'][m[r]-g]
del load_data['status'][m[r]-g]
del load_data['ID'][m[r]-g]
g = g + 1
##-------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------
##################################################
## Write Output Prompt ###########################
##################################################
psspy.prompt(' Please enter a CSV file wit hthe following format: \n\
\n\
- The CSV file can be saved in the same directory as
Python file in advance or just type a new file name')
psspy.prompt("\n\
- The file name has to be typed in the following space in
this format: \n\
\n\
*********************'FILENAME.csv'**************************")
##################################################
## Find area numbers #############################
##################################################
area = area[0]
p=range(len(area))
m=[]
for h in p:
for d in p:
if area[h] == area[d] and d > h:
n = 0
if m[s] == d:
80 | P a g e
n = n + 1
if n == 0:
m.append(d)
m.sort()
g=0
del area[m[r]-g]
g = g + 1
##Area = load_data['area']
##for q in range(len(load_data['area'])):
## for w in range(len(Area)):
## if load_data['area'][q] == Area[w]:
## Area['area'][w] = 0
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------
##################################################
## Get load data from a CSV file #################
##################################################
hourload = readloaddata('load.csv')
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------
##################################################
## Changing the load in the system ###############
##################################################
Lossa=[]
Loss = {}
dict = 0
for k in range(24):
k = k + 2
for i in range(len(hourload[0])):
busnumber = hourload[0][i]
busid = str(hourload [1][i])
for j in range(len(load_data ['ID'])):
busid_PSSE = load_data ['ID'][j]
if busid_PSSE[1] == ' ' :
busid_PSSE = busid_PSSE[0]
if busid == busid_PSSE and busnumber == load_data
['number'][j]:
ierr5 =
load_data['owner'][j]],[hourload[k][i],0 , 0 ,0 ,0,0])
if i <= 19:
reactive = hourload[k][i+1]
ierr5 =
load_data['owner'][j]],[hourload[k][i],reactive,0,0,0])
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------
##################################################
## Run the power flow again for new load #########
##################################################
81 | P a g e
ErrLF = psspy.fdns([0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0]) #
1.Tap:disable///2.AreaExchange:disable///2.PhaseShif:disable///4.dcTa
p:disable///5.ShuntAdj:disable///#
6.FlatStart:enable///7.ApplyVarL:on interations///8.non-
divergent:disable
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------
##################################################
## Get the new loss in each area with new load ###
##################################################
Lossa=[]
for q in range(len(area)):
ierr12, cmpval = psspy.ardat(area[q], 'LOSS')
Lossa.append(cmpval.real)
Loss [k-2] = Lossa
##-------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------
##################################################
## Send the voltage to the provided csv file #####
##################################################
##rvaldimension = len(cmpval[0])
csvfile = input('Please one .csv file')
if csvfile: # open CSV file to write
csvfile_h = open(csvfile,'w')
report = csvfile_h.write
else: # send results to PSS/E
report window
psspy.beginreport()
report = psspy.report
for i in range(len(area)):
busn = area[i]
report("%(busn)6d," %vars())
for j in range(len(Loss)):
busvoltag = Loss[j][i]
report("%(busvoltag)3.4F," %vars())
report("\n ")
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------
##################################################
## Close The CSV file ############################
##################################################
if csvfile:
csvfile_h.close()
print '\n Done ..... Power Flow Results Report saved to file %s'
% csvfile
else:
print '\n Done ..... Power Flow Results Report created in Report
window.'
# -------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------
82 | P a g e
Appendix 2
A2.1 Nockeby
A2.1.1 Penetration of 20 Percent of the PHEVs
A2.1.1.1 Load curve

30000.00
25000.00
KWh per hour
20000.00
15000.00
10000.00
5000.00
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time of day
A2.1.1.2 Voltage curve with unregulated distribution of the PHEVs load
26
Load MW in Nockeby
24
22
20
18
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Reactive power MVAr in Nockeby
5.5
4.5
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
11.4
Voltage (kV) in Nockeby
11.35
11.3
11.25
11.2
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
83 | P a g e
A2.1.1.3 Voltage curve with regulated distribution of the PHEVs load
24
Load MW in Nockeby
23
22
21
20
19
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.1
5
4.9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
11.32
11.3
11.28
11.26
11.24
11.22
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
A2.1.2.1 Load curve

30000.00
25000.00
KWh per hour
20000.00
15000.00
10000.00
5000.00
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time of day
84 | P a g e
30
Load MW in Nockeby
25
20
15
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)

8
4
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
11.35
11.3
11.25
11.2
11.15
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
12.5
Load MW in Nockeby
12
11.5
11
10.5
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
3.1
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
11.44
11.42
11.4
11.38
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
85 | P a g e
A2.2 Brunkeberg
A2.2.1.1 Load curve

80000.00
70000.00
60000.00
KWh per hour
50000.00
40000.00
30000.00
20000.00
10000.00
0.00
0 5 10 15 20
Time of day

Active power MW in Brunkeberg
80
70
60
50
40
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
Reactive power MVAr in Brunkeberg
-2
-4
-6
0 5 10 15 20 25
11.15
11.1
11.05
11
10.95
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
86 | P a g e

80
70
60
50
40
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
-2
-4
-6
0 5 10 15 20 25
11.15
11.1
11.05
11
10.95
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
A2.2.2.1 Load curve

80000.00
70000.00
60000.00
KWh per hour
50000.00
40000.00
30000.00
20000.00
10000.00
0.00
0 5 10 15 20
Time of day
87 | P a g e

80
70
60
50
40
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
-2
-4
-6
0 5 10 15 20 25
11.1
11.05
11
10.95
10.9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)

80
70
60
50
40
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
-2
-4
-6
0 5 10 15 20 25
11.15
11.1
11.05
11
10.95
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
88 | P a g e
A2.3 Gärdet
A2.3.1.1 Load curve

90000.00
80000.00
70000.00
KWh per hour
60000.00
50000.00
40000.00
30000.00
20000.00
10000.00
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time of day
100
Load MW in Gärdet
80
60
40
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
15
10
-5
0 5 10 15 20 25
11.1
11.05
11
10.95
10.9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
89 | P a g e
80
Load MW in Gärdet
70
60
50
40
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
15
10
-5
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
11.1
11.05
11
10.95
10.9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
A2.3.2.1 Load curve

120000.00
100000.00
KWh per hour
80000.00
60000.00
40000.00
20000.00
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time of day
90 | P a g e
100
Load MW in Gärdet
80
60
40
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
15
10
-5
0 5 10 15 20 25
11.1
11.05
11
10.95
10.9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
90
Load MW in Gärdet
80
70
60
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
15
10
-5
0 5 10 15 20 25
11.1
11.05
11
10.95
10.9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours of day)
91 | P a g e
A2.4 PSS/E .sld files

A2.4.1 Nockeby
A2.4.1 Gärdet and Brunkeberg
92 | P a g e

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Analysis of Integration of Plug-in Hybrid

Electric Vehicles in the Distribution Grid

Master of Science Thesis

Thesis for rewarding Master of Science Degree in Electric Power

Involved Academic Divisions: Electric Power Systems

Once, in a potter's shop, a company

The regulated method is based on the desired pattern of electricity consumption of

I really enjoyed the friendly environment in Fortum Distribution AB together with

1.2 How did the thesis get started?

Figure 1 Defining process of the thesis

In November 2008, a proposal about the integration of Plug-in Hybrid Electric

• Modeling of PHEVs for investigation of their effects in power system.

1.3 Thesis Description

In this thesis, the power system effects without implementation of Vehicle-to-Grid

The thesis is defined in the following milestones as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Thesis milestones

By introducing two regulated (based on valley filling techniques) and unregulated

1.4 Thesis Report Outline

Transition from conventional vehicles

The steam-powered vehicles gradually converted to vehicles with ICE (Internal

Figure 3 Schematic on development in car industry

2.3 Different types of vehicles

2.3.1 Conventional vehicles

Figure 4 Energy losses in a typical ICE (3)

2.3.2 Hybrid electric vehicles

2.3.3 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Grid connection capability in PHEVs will make it possible to coordinate energy

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

3.1 Why PHEV?

Figure 6 Incentives to introduce PHEV

changes in the low-duty

As shown in the above figure, 14 percent of the emissions are produced by

3.2 Comparison between a HEV and a PHEV

Figure 8 Percentage of battery running and type of vehicle (27)

Figure 9 Comparison between different vehicle types (27)

3.3.2 Available EV and PHEVs in the market

Toyota Prius PHEV Volt GM/Chevrolet Tesla Roadster

Think City ReCharge Volvo iMiev Mitsubishi

Figure 10 PHEV and EV pictures

PSS/E and Simulation Automation in

4.1 PSS/E introduction

PSS/E is an integrated, interactive program for simulating, analyzing, and optimizing

• Tree View: All network items are represented as selectable elements in a

Figure 11 PSS/E interface with key elements (7)

• Toolbars: Allows convenient selection of analytical tools, creation of one-line

• Main Menu: Provides access to file handling, interface views, analytical

4.2 Static analysis of the power system in PSS/E

• Load flow study and short circuit calculations.

• Fixed slope decoupled Newton-Raphson

4.3 Automation tools in PSS/E

• The Python interpreter (Python programs)

Python is an interpreter, interactive, object-oriented programming language which is

Table 3 Python and IPLAN differences

4.4 Automation program for the case study

Figure 12 Automation process in Python

Figure 13 Sample load variation in substation 38274 and ID number 1

Defining Scenarios for Penetration of

• A disciplined method for imaging possible futures in which organizational

can be imagined as the future possible cases of a technology, company or even a

5.1.2 Scenario Planning

Focus: New business

Focus: Strategy/ Scenario Scenario Focus: old

Strategy development / Evaluation Risk consciousness/

= × Equation 1

= + Equation 2

, = × × !" # ! $ Equation 3