Prokaryotes VS Eukaryotes

Cell Structure and Differences Under the Microscope

Defined as pre-nucleus, prokaryotes are cells that contain no membrane-based organelles, including a nucleus.

Mostly recognized as bacteria, two prokaryotic kingdoms exist: Monera or Bacteria and Archaea.

Seemingly simple in structure and markedly different from eukaryote and protist organisms, many scientists believe prokaryotic cells were amongst the first
on the Earth and very well may out-survive all other organisms.

Cell Theory

Prokaryotes are, with few exceptions, unicellular organisms; many bacteria live in colonies, making them appear larger at
first glance, but individual cells are visible under a microscope.

These cells do not possess membrane-based organelles, but the fundamentals of cell theory still apply.

Initially proposed by German scientists Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, and later amended by Rudolf Virchow, four
basic rules apply to eukaryotic, prokaryotic and protist cells:

 All forms of life contain one or more cells

 All cells come from pre-existing cells

 All functions that make life possible occur within the boundaries of cells

 All cells possess genetic material required to regulate cell functions and replicate, passing this genetic information to
new cells

Scientists have expanded and refined cell theory with the advent of advanced microscopy instruments, but these basic rules
still apply to all cells.

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes – Similarities?

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Prokaryotic cells, like those in eukaryotic uni- and multi- cellular organisms contain ribosomes and DNA – genetic matter that
control all cell functions, including replication.

All cells require energy to survive and undergo chemical processes to sustain life.

Biochemical processes often involve the use of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids for cell functions such as:

 Obtaining food
 Turning food into usable energy
 Cell growth
 Cell replication

Elemental processes essential to the life – acquisition of energy, reproduction – are similar in prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells, regardless of the difference in structure and means.

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes –Differences

Eukaryotes as well as protists, a miscellany group made up of eukaryote-like plant, animal and fungi missing one or more
characteristics to be defined as purely eukaryotic, differ greatly from prokaryotes in structure.

Most significant is the lack of a nucleus in prokaryotic cells as well as membrane-based organelles found in all eukaryotic
cells.

Both have DNA, but eukaryote-DNA contain histones and chromosomes in a linear structure.

Mitochondria (or the plant equivalent chloroplasts) is one of the many membrane-bound organelles present in eukaryotes,
along with:

 Nucleus
 Nucleoli

 Cytoskeleton

 Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Golgi Complex

 Lysosome
In addition, while eukaryotes can be uni- or multi- cellular, heterotroph or autotroph, prokaryotes are heterotrophic single-
celled organisms.

The Prokaryotic Cell

Ranging from two to five micrometers (um), typical prokaryotic cell structure includes:

 Cell Wall – lends to the shape of the cell; two types are gram positive and gram negative

 Pili – hair-like projections surrounding the outer layer of the cell; enables bacteria to stick-on surfaces or latch-on
other cells

 Capsule – thick covering of the cell wall that can provide protection from phagocytosis, chemicals and dehydration;
the sticky nature allows it to adhere to other cells; found in gram-positive bacteria and blue-green algae

 Flagellum – attached to the cell wall, usually described as “whip-like;" most prokaryotes are in constant motion and
only able to move forward and backward

 Plasma Membrane – a thin, flexible asymmetrical “sac" that essentially contains the cell; serves as a passageway for
anything that enters or leaves the cell such as nutrients and gases; also holds the cytoplasm

 Cytoplasm – can be compared, in terms of purpose, as carrying out similar functions to membrane-bound
organelles; contains enzymes for and carries out metabolism; important to note that nothing within the cytoplasm is
separated via membrane or well-defined sections, items are suspended in the semi-fluid gel

 Nucleoid or Nuclear Body – area of the cytoplasm where the DNA strand is located

 Plasmids – tiny rings of DNA that can be transferred to other cells; anti-biotic resistance is a prime illustration of the
way prokaryotes share information with other prokaryote cells, enabling cells to make adjustments that ensure
survival

 Ribosomes – combination of RNA and protein, the function of prokaryotic ribosomes widely depends on the bacteria

Prokaryotes consist of two Kingdoms: Monera or Bacteria (sometimes called eubacteria), which includes cyanobacterianoted
for the ability to carry out photosynthesis, and Archaea (archaebacteria).

With the greatest ability to withstand the most severe environmental conditions, science believes the latter contains the oldest cells/organisms on the planet,
and sometimes referring to it as “ancient bacteria."

Microbiology

The study of prokaryotic cells involves the study of bacteria – single cells that can be as tiny as two microns and look like
dots under a compound microscope.

Bacteria are fascinating subjects for many reasons:

Range of purpose – without the existences of many “good" bacteria, many species could not exist, including humans

Are found everywhere – bacteria are not limited to causing disease, for example, they:

 Line human intestines to help with digestion

 Aid in the digestive process of rudiment animals
 Help decompose waste material

Adaptability – some bacteria create endospores, enabling them to survive if placed in a different or “harsh" environment

Can survive conditions that would kill other cells – for example, some live in exceptionally hot or cold temperatures,
gaseous environments or in places with intense high or low Ph

Function – even though the cell structure seems simple, especially when compared to eukaryotes, unicellular bacteria and
archaea organisms not only perform complex functions to survive, they are the oldest known cells

Colonization – many bacteria grow in colonies, yet each cell maintains its autonomy

Reproduction – cells pass along genetic information via a process called binary fission; cells create duplicate DNA and
divide

Identifying Bacteria

Prokaryotes are classified through characteristics such as shape, behavior, size, growth, and stains.

Bacteria are separated into three classes based on shape: cocci, bacilli, and spirilla. Although defined by morphology, they
might not fall into the same classification – the only commonality might be shape.

Also important to note, due to the size of bacteria, shapes are the only aspects visible under a light microscopes, such as
electron microscopes, which offer more powerful magnification, in order to see the internal structures of the cell.

Shapes include:

 Cocci are described as round, flat spheres and can be observed as lone cells, pairs, chains, tetrads (4 cells), clusters
or cubes (8 cells); streptococcus is a chain of cocci-shaped bacteria cells responsible for the common sore throat
infection
 Rods, sometimes described as cylindrical and called as bacilli exist as singles, pairs and chains; unlike the simpler
cocci, the length of chains has no bearing on identification
 Spirilla, known for their spiral shape can appear as one curve, like elbow-macaroni, twists or genuine spirals

The way bacteria behaves is also important in identification; attributes include:

 Whether a culture grows in a warm or cold environment

 Whether cells colonize

 DNA tests

 Cell behavior when exposed to a variety of filters, chemicals, elements, gases or states (i.e., dehydration, change in
Ph)

 Growth (i.e., observing sample in a Petri-dish over time, possibly changing the external conditions)

In addition, bacteria are separated into gram positive and gram negative, easily discerned from one another by the use of a
stain.
Summary

Prokaryote cells are especially intriguing to individuals interested in microbiology and microscopy.

Although shapes can be discerned under a compound microscope, powerful electron microscopes are required to observe
internal details of the cell. Separated into Kingdoms Monera and Archaea, prokaryotes consist primarily of bacteria cells.

Ranging from 2-5 um, these impressive one-celled organisms survived millions of years; notorious for the result of diseases,
most eukaryotic organisms could not exist without “good" bacteria – including humans.

Using microscopy, researchers try to understand their ability to adapt and survive, the way they help the human body and
how to use them to improve the earth.

Cell Theory, Form, and Function: Introduction

Introduction
Cell Theory, Form, and Function

 Introduction
 Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
 Viruses
 Fluid Mosaic Model of Membrane Structure and Function
 Cell Cycle: Interphase, Mitosis, Cytokinesis

Deep inside you, on your surface, and all parts in between, fundamental functional units called cells are busy
24/7 keeping your body in a living condition. Curiously, we aren't really in charge of their behavior! In fact, if
we were, it is likely we would be in a state of nonliving because of the numerous activities that take place in
every cell at all times. Thankfully, we have a nervous system that handles that for us and does not bother us
with the trivia of everyday functions. This is an example of the great and miraculous way your body is
structurally and functionally composed to address the pressures of the living world.
Plants have cells very similar to yours. So do the other animals. Humans are classified as animals—gasp!—
because our cells look and act remarkably like all the other animal cells. Take a look at one of your cells under a
microscope, then compare it with a similar one from a duck-billed platypus, if you can find one. If you switched
the cells and handed them to a friend, the friend would likely not be able to tell them apart! Try it with a plant
cell. But don't bet any money on it this time. The plant cell is likely to have some green things in it that are a
sure giveaway. It also has a cell wall, and you don't need one. There are some fundamentals that go into every
cell, uniting the world of living things into a oneness of the universe; there are also cellular modifications that
make some cells look like they are from a different planet. We can sort it all out in this section. Perhaps you will
look at your dog or a plant through new eyes after reading this section.

Cell Theory
While observing dead cork samples with a crude lens, Robert Hooke identified and named “cells.” He thought
that the small, simple units looked like the bare prison cells of his time, and the name cell stuck. His work
launched a new frontier in scientific exploration that led to modern cell theory:

 All living things are made of cells.

 Cells are the basic units of structure and function in all living things.
 All cells come from the reproduction of existing cells.

Size Limitations

Bionote
Nerve cells are often long and fibrous-looking. The nerve cell in the leg of a giraffe is often longer than six feet.
Most plant cells are approximately 0.002 inches in diameter, whereas most bacteria are even smaller at
0.000008 inches long (10 to 50 nanometers in metric units), making them impossible to see without
magnification. Cell size is limited due to the inability of very large cells to provide nutrients and water and
remove wastes in an efficient manner. The size limitation is due to the ratio between their outer surface area and
the internal volume, making large cubical or spherical cells too big for the surface areas to accommodate all of
their cellular life functions. Cells are three-dimensional, so as the cell grows, the volume increases
geometrically as the cube of the side length, but actual surface area increases arithmetically with the square of
the side length. In other words, a cell's volume increases more rapidly than the surface area. This becomes
biologically important when a cell becomes too large for the available surface area to allow passage of nutrients
and oxygen into, and cellular waste out of, the cell. Conversely, smaller cells can move materials in and out
through the cell membrane at a faster rate because they have a more favorable surface area-to-volume ratio.
Interestingly, the shape of muscle and nerve cells tend to be long and thin, which also provides a favorable
surface area-to-volume ratio.

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Cell Theory, Form, and Function

 Introduction
 Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
 Viruses
 Fluid Mosaic Model of Membrane Structure and Function
 Cell Cycle: Interphase, Mitosis, Cytokinesis

Two structurally distinct types of cells have evolved that vary greatly in their internal complexity. Prokaryote cells are the simplest type and are
evolutionary precursors to eukaryote cell types. What is thought to be the earliest known fossilized cells were discovered by paleontologists working near
the Great Lakes in North America. They discovered microfossil evidence with enough detail to classify the cells as prokaryote. How did they know they
were prokaryote?
Although both prokaryote and eukaryote cells can have a cell wall and a cell membrane to enclose the cellular cytoplasm, the structural similarities end
there. Inside a typical prokaryote cell, such as a bacteria cell, there are no membrane-bound organelles. An organelle is a subcellular structure that has
a specific function. Even the genetic material, although often contained and cornered inside the cell, is not bound by a membrane. Eukaryotic cells,
which basically include every cell type except bacteria, are characterized by internal organelles surrounded by a membrane, which helps to increase
their organization and efficiency. In contrast to prokaryotes, in eukaryotes the chromosomes are made of distinct lengths of DNA and are stored within a
nuclear membrane. Because prokaryotes are simpler, lacking membrane-bound organelles, they are also much smaller (1 to 10 micrometers) than
eukaryotes, which range from 10 to 100 micrometers in size.