Fundamentals

Lecture Notes
of
ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Francis M. Nturanabo
B.Sc.Eng.(Mak), M.Sc.Eng.(QUB)

Department of Mechanical
Engineering,
Faculty of Technology,
Makerere University.

April 2009

©2009
 CIV 2105: THERMODYNAMICS
(Elective Course; Semester I, 2009/10)

COURSE OBJECTIVE:

To enable the student appreciate the basic concepts of energy and the laws that
govern thermodynamic systems, and to effectively apply these thermodynamics
concepts to solve civil engineering problems.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of the course, the student should be able to exhibit working knowledge
of the basic thermodynamics principles especially those applied in energy
technology. The student should understand the laws of thermodynamics and
appreciate their importance in the study of thermodynamics.

SYLLABUS OUTLINE:

• Basic concepts. Properties of state, process and cycles.

• Thermal equilibrium of state. Process of thermal equilibrium of state.
• Process of ideal gases.
• The first law of thermodynamics.
• Second law of thermodynamics. Entropy, application in heat engines.
• Combustion equations. Fuel adiabatic temperature.
• Laboratories.

REFERENCE MATERIAL:

1. T.D. Eastop & A. McConkey: Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering

Technologists. 4th Ed. Longman.
2. G.J.V. Wylen & R.E. Sonntag: Fundamentals of Classical
Thermodynamics. 2nd Ed. John Wiley & Sons.

3. G.F.C. Rogers & Y.R. Mayhew: Engineering Thermodynamics. Work &

Heat Transfer. 3rd Ed. Longman.

4. R. Joel: Basic Engineering Thermodynamics. 4th Ed. Longman.

5. P.K. Nag: Engineering Thermodynamics. 2nd Ed. TATA McGraw-Hill.

6. Internet resources

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.INTRODUCTION.....................................................1
What is Thermodynamics? ................................................................................................1
Macroscopic Vs microscopic viewpoint ..............................................................................1
Thermodynamic system and control volume .......................................................................1
Thermodynamic property and process .................................................................................4
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous System. Pure Substance ..................................................4
Thermodynamic Equilibrium. Quasi-static Process .............................................................4
Units and Dimensions .......................................................................................................5
TEMPERATURE AND THE IDEAL GAS..........................9
Definition of Temperature .................................................................................................9
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics and its Applications ...................................................9
Temperature Measurement ..............................................................................................10
The Ideal Gas .................................................................................................................13

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1. INTRODUCTION

What is Thermodynamics?

Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships between HEAT (thermos) and

WORK (dynamics). It deals thus with the energy interactions in physical
systems. Classical thermodynamics can be stated in four laws called the zeroth,
first, second, and third laws respectively. The laws of thermodynamics are
empirical, i.e., they are deduced from experience, and supported by a large
body of experimental evidence.

“Thermodynamics is the Science of the relations between work,

heat and the properties of the system. It is the science of energy
transfer and its effect on the physical properties of substances”.

Thermodynamics is based on observations of common experience which have

been formulated into Thermodynamic Laws that govern the principles of energy
conversion. The applications of these laws and principles are found in all fields
of energy technology, notably in steam and nuclear power plants, internal
combustion engines, gas turbines, air conditioning, refrigeration, gas dynamics,
jet propulsion, compressors, chemical process plants and direct energy
conversion devices.

Macroscopic Vs microscopic viewpoint

The study of matter can be studied from two points of view – the macroscopic
and the microscopic. In the macroscopic viewpoint, a certain quantity of matter
is considered, without the events occurring at the molecular level being taken
into account. From the microscopic point of view, matter is composed of
myriads of molecules and the behaviour of the matter is described by summing
up the behaviour of each molecule. Macroscopic, or Classical Thermodynamics
is only concerned with the effects of the action of many molecules. However all
the results of Classical Thermodynamics can be derived from the microscopic
and statistical study of matter, i.e. Statistical Thermodynamics.

Thermodynamic system and control volume

A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space

upon which attention is concentrated in the analysis of a problem. Everything
external to the system is called the surroundings or environment. The system is
separated from its surroundings or environment by a system boundary, which

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can be fixed or mobile. A system and its surroundings together constitute a
universe.

An example of a mobile boundary is shown in Figure 1.2. When heat is applied

to the system, the piston will move. On the other hand, should the piston be
restrained from moving by locking it in position, then the boundary becomes
fixed.
There are three classes of systems: (a) closed system, (b) open system and (c)
isolated system.

Fig.1.1: A thermodynamic system

In a closed system, there is no mass transfer across the system boundary,

although energy may cross the boundary into or out of the system. Matter
crosses the system boundary in an open system and there may be energy
transfer also. Examples of these are the air compressor, in which air enters at
low pressure and leaves at high pressure and there are energy transfers across
the system boundaries. An isolated system is one in which there is no
interaction between the system and the surroundings. It is of fixed mass and
energy, and there is no mass or energy that crosses the boundary.

Piston (movable)
Gas

HEAT

System boundary

Cylinder (System)

Fig.1.2: Moving system boundary

For thermodynamic analysis of an open system, e.g. an air compressor,

attention is focused on a certain volume in space surrounding the compressor,
known as the control volume, bounded by a surface called the control surface.

NB:The terms closed system and open system are sometimes used as the
equivalent of the terms system (fixed mass) and control volume
(involving flow of mass).

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In general, a system is a collection of objects. It is understood to be a volume in
space or a well defined set of materials (matter). The boundary making its
imaginary outer edge.

As can be seen from the definition, the boundary can be fixed or moving. A
system in which matter crosses the boundary is called an open system.
Similarly, a system in which no matter enters or leaves (i.e. crosses the
boundary) is called a closed system.

The images in Figure 1.3 show a piston cylinder arrangement, where a gas is
compressed by the piston. The dotted lines represent the system boundary. As
can be seen in Fig.1.3(a), due to an opening in the cylinder, gas can escape
outside as the piston moves inwards, and gas enters the system when the
piston moves outwards. Thus, it is an open system.

.(a) (b)

Fig.1.3: Types of systems: (a) Open system (b) Closed system

Now consider a similar system, but one in which gas cannot escape (Fig.1.3(b)).
In practice, there might be some space between the piston and the cylinder, but
we can ignore it for modelling purposes. Thus the model of this configuration is
a closed system.

Classical thermodynamics deals with systems in equilibrium. The equilibrium

state is defined by the values of observable quantities in the system. These are
called system properties (see §1.4).

The minimum number of variables required to describe the system depends on

the complexity or degrees of freedom of the system. Degrees of freedom refer
to the number of properties that can be varied independently of each other in a
system. Some of the common system variables are pressure, temperature, and
density, though any other physical properties may be used.

Consistent with the axiomatic nature of subject development, many of the

relationships between physical properties cannot be completely specified
without further development of theory. What is good about classical
thermodynamics is that many of the axioms stated here can be derived using
techniques of statistical thermodynamics. And statistical thermodynamics gives
results in many cases where classical thermodynamics fails, such as in the
specific heats of gases with many degrees of freedom. In some sense, the
relationship between classical and statistical thermodynamics is similar to the

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one between classical and quantum mechanics, i.e., classical thermodynamics
approximates statistical thermodynamics in the macroscopic limit.

Thermodynamic property and process

Every system has certain characteristics by which its physical condition may be
described. A thermodynamic property is defined as “any macroscopic
observable characteristic of the system”, e.g. pressure, volume, temperature,
enthalpy and entropy. An intensive property is independent of mass of the
system, e.g. temperature, pressure and viscosity; while an extensive property is
dependent on mass, e.g. volume and all types of energy. Specific extensive
properties (i.e. extensive properties per unit mass) are also intensive properties.
Specific extensive properties are normally given lower case letters, e.g. v
(specific volume, m3/kg), s (entropy, kJ/kgK) and h (enthalpy, kJ/kg), are found in
Thermodynamics Tables.

A process results when there is a change of state. A state point is a point on the
diagram representing the properties of a system at any point. A cyclic process
is one where the end and the initial states are the same.

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous System. Pure

Substance

A quantity of matter which is homogeneous throughout in chemical composition

and physical structure is called a phase. Every substance can exist in any of
the three phases – solid, liquid and gas. A system comprising of a single phase
is called a homogeneous system, otherwise it is a heterogeneous system.

A pure substance is one that is homogeneous in chemical composition

throughout its mass. The relative proportions of the chemical elements
constituting the substance are also constant. Atmospheric air, steam-water
mixture and combustion products of a fuel are regarded as pure substances;
but a mixture of air and liquid air is not since the relative proportions of oxygen
and nitrogen differ in the gas and liquid phases in equilibrium. The best
example of a pure substance is water which has the formula H2O in all phases.
More on pure substance will be covered in Proprieties of a Pure Substance
(Chapter 5).

Thermodynamic Equilibrium. Quasi-static Process

A system is said to exist in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium when no

change in any macroscopic property is registered, if the system is isolated from
its surroundings.

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An isolated system always reaches in course of time a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium and can never depart from it spontaneously. Therefore, there can
be no spontaneous change in any macroscopic property if the system exists in
an equilibrium state. In Thermodynamics, study is focussed on properties of
physical systems that are found in equilibrium states.

Thermodynamic equilibrium can be attained if the following conditions are

satisfied:
a) Mechanical equilibrium exists (i.e. absence of unbalanced forces).
b) Chemical equilibrium exists (i.e. no chemical reaction or transfer of
matter as in diffusion).
c) Thermal equilibrium exists (i.e. system separated from its surroundings
by a diathermic wall which allows heat to flow through).

When the conditions for any one of the three types of equilibrium are not
satisfied, a system is said to be in a nonequilibrium state. In this state, no single
property, e.g. pressure or temperature, can be used to refer to the system as a
whole. Thermodynamic properties are the macroscopic coordinates defined for,
and significant to, only equilibrium states.

A quasi-static process is one in which the departure of the state of the system
from the thermodynamic equilibrium state is infinitesimally small. A quasi-static
process is a succession of equilibrium states and is sometimes referred to as a
reversible process.

Units and Dimensions

SI Units:

Although the SI (System International) system of units is widely used, there are
still a number of other non-SI units still in use. The tables below give the basic
units of the SI system.

Table 1.1: SI System: Basic Units

# Quantity Unit Symbol

1 Length (L) Metre m
2 Mass (M) Kilogramme kg
3 Time (t) Second s
4 Amount of substance Mole mol
5 Temperature (T) Kelvin K
6 Electric current Ampere A
7 Luminous intensity Candela cd
8 Plane angle Radian rad
9 Solid angle Steradian sr

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 Table 1.2: SI System: Derived Units

# Quantity Unit Symb Alternative In basic

ol unit units
1 Force (F) Newton N kg m/s2
2 Energy (E) Joule J Nm kg m2/s2
3 Power Watt W J/s kg m2/s3
4 Pressure Pascal Pa N/m2 kg/(m s2)
5 Frequency Hertz Hz s-1
6 Electric charge Coulom C As
b
7 Electric potential Volt V W/A = J/C kg m2/(s3A)
8 Capacitance Farad F C/V s4 A2/(kg
m) 2

9 Electric resistance Ohm Ω V/A kg m2/(s3A2)

1 Magnetic flux Weber Wb Vs kg m2/(s2A)
0
1 Magnetic flux Tesla T Wb/m2 kg /(s2A)
1 density
1 Inductance Henry H Wb/A kg /(s2A2)
2

Table 1.3: SI System: Standard Multipliers

Factor Prefix Factor Prefix

1012 tera, T 10-3 milli, m
109 giga, G 10-6 micro, μ
106 mega, M 10-9 nano, n
103 kilo, k 10-12 pico, p

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Other units

Force:
The unit kg-f (kilogram-force) is sometimes used instead of the standard SI unit
of a newton. This is to cater for the fact that the value of g (gravitational
acceleration) varies with elevation.

Power:
The basic SI-derived unit is the Watt (W). However, the horsepower (1 hp ≈
0.746 kW) is still in use.

Pressure:
Pressure is perhaps the quantity which uses the biggest number of units.
Besides the SI-derived unit, the pascal (Pa), other units and methods used for
pressure measurement are:
a) The bar, where 1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa.
b) The atmosphere, where 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar.
c) In terms of the height of a column of water or mercury, p = ρgz.
d) The imperial unit psi (pounds per square inch) is still much in use also.
1 bar = psi, or 1 psi = 6.895 kPa

Pressure measurement using a U-tube manometer:

The U-tube manometer device is used to measure pressure of a fluid. The
bottom of the U-tube is filled with a manometric liquid Q which is of greater
density (ρman) and is immiscible with the fluid P, liquid or gas, of density ρ whose
pressure is to be determined.
If B is the level of the interface in the left hand limb and C is the point at the
same level in the right hand limb then
pressure at B (pB) = pressure at C (pC)
but pB = pA + pressure due to height h1 of fluid Fluid
P P, density ρ
= pA + ρgh1 D
Similarly, pC = pD + pressure due to height h2 of fluid Q
A
= pD + atmospheric pressure h2
= 0 + ρmangh2 h
1

∴ pA + ρgh1 = ρmangh2
⇒ pA = ρmangh2 - ρgh1 B C
Fluid Q, density ρman
Hence, the pressure pA of the fluid can be determined.
Fig.1.4: Pressure measurement
using a U-tube
manometer
Most instruments indicate pressure relative to the atmospheric pressure (i.e.
gauge pressure), whereas the pressure of the system is its pressure relative to
a perfect vacuum (i.e. absolute pressure).
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure

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Sometimes the letters “g” and “a” are added to indicate gauge and absolute
pressure respectively; e.g. 100 psig and 100 psia.
Barometric pressure is that pressure exerted by the weight of a column of air
above a given datum. If, in the manometer shown above, the right hand limb is
evacuated and the pressure being measured in the left hand limb is that of the
atmosphere, then the manometer is called a barometer and the pressure is
termed barometric pressure (i.e. “absolute” atmospheric pressure).

Examples 1.

1.1 A turbine is supplied with steam at a gauge pressure of 1.4 MPa. After expansion
in the turbine, the steam flows into a condenser which is maintained at a
vacuum (i.e. a pressure below atmospheric) of 710 mm Hg. The barometric
pressure is 772 mm Hg. Express the inlet and exhaust steam pressure in pascals
(absolute). Take the density of mercury as 13.6 x 103 kg/m3 and g as 9.81 m/s2.

Solution:

The atmospheric pressure p0 = ρgz0

= 13.6x103 x 9.81 x 0.772 m
= 1.03x105 Pa

Inlet steam pressure pt = 1.4x106 + 1.03x105 = 15.03x105 Pa

= 1.503 MPa

Condenser pressure pc = (0.772 – 0.710) x 9.81 x 13.6x103 Pa

= 8.27 kPa

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TEMPERATURE AND THE IDEAL GAS

Definition of Temperature

Maxwell stated that “the temperature of a body is its thermal state considered
with reference to its power to communicate heat to other bodies. It is a
property defining whether or not a substance is in thermal equilibrium”.

Equality of Temperature:

Although temperature is a property we are all familiar with, its exact definition
is difficult. We are aware of temperature first of all as a sense of hotness or
coldness when we touch an object. We also learn early in our experience that
when a hot body and a cold body are brought into contact, the hot body
becomes cooler and the cold one warmer. If these bodies remain in contact for
some time, they usually appear to have the same hotness or coldness. However
we also realise that our sense of hotness and coldness is very unreliable.
Sometimes very cold bodies may seem hot, and bodies of different materials
that are at the same temperature appear to be at different temperatures.

Because of these difficulties in defining temperature, we define equality of

temperature. Consider two blocks of copper – one hot and the other cold, each
of which is in contact with a mercury-in-glass thermometer. If these two blocks
of copper are brought into thermal communication, we observe that the
electrical resistance of the hot block decreases while that of the cold block
increases with time. After a period of time has elapsed, however, no further
changes in resistance are observed. Similarly, when the two blocks are first
brought in thermal communication, the length of a side of the hot block
decreases with time, whereas for the cold block it increases with time, and after
a period of time, no further change in length of either of the blocks is perceived.
Also the mercury column of the thermometer in the hot block drops at first and
in the cold block it rises, but after a period of time no further changes in height
are observed. We may say, therefore, that two bodies have equality of
temperature when no change in any observable property occurs when they are
in thermal communication.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics and its Applications

Statement of the law:

The Zeroth law states – ‘Two systems which are equal in temperature to a
third system are equal in temperature to each other’

Using the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics to calibrate a mercury bulb

thermometer:

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For a mercury bulb thermometer, Let S1 be ICE, S2 be GLASS TUBE of the
thermometer, and S3 be MERCURY in the tube. (see Fig.2.1).
ICE (S1) is brought into communication with the glass tube and when they reach
equilibrium, it follows that the mercury is also at the same temperature. Then
the level of mercury corresponding to the ice point (say 0oC) is marked on the
tube stem. Then S2 and S3 are brought into communication with boiling water
and the level of mercury marked for this water temperature (say 100 oC). The
scale is then completed for values between the lower fixed point (0 oC) and the
upper fixed point (100oC).

ICE GLASS
(S1) (S2)

MERCURY
(S3)

Fig.2.1: The
interaction
between three
systems

Temperature
Measurement

In order to obtain a quantitative measure of temperature, a reference body is

used, and a certain physical characteristic of this body which changes with
temperature is selected. The changes in the selected characteristic may be
taken as an indication of change in temperature. The selected characteristic is
called thermometric property, and the reference body which is used in the
determination of temperature is called a thermometer. A very common
thermometer consists of a small amount of mercury in an evacuated capillary
tube. In this case the extension (length) of the mercury in the tube is used as
the thermometric property.

Table 2.1: Thermometers and Thermometric Properties

# Thermometer Thermometric Symb

Property ol
1 Constant volume gas thermometer Pressure p
2 Constant pressure gas thermometer Volume v
3 Electrical resistance thermometer Resistance R
4 Thermocouple Thermal e.m.f. ε
5 Mercury-in-glass thermometer Length L

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It is useful to establish a temperature scale so that a cardinal relationship can
be established between various systems at different temperatures. This is done
by defining the temperature t as a function of a thermometric property X, such
that the temperature is a linear function of X, i.e., equal changes in the property
X give rise to equal changes in the temperature. Such a linear function is

t = a + b X,

for which one needs to assign arbitrary temperatures to two values of X to find
the values of the constants a and b. For example, in the case of the Celsius
scale, the measurements are based on properties of water at the boiling point
and melting point. Suppose the value of the thermometric property is Xb for the
normal boiling point and Xm for the normal melting point. Then the temperature
is given by

t = 100 (X - Xm)/(Xb - Xm),

where X is the thermometric property at temperature t, and we have chosen

tm = 0°C and tb = 100°C. The normal melting and boiling points are the
temperatures of melting and boiling at 1 atmosphere pressure.

The major temperature scales are the Celsius scale (°C), the Fahrenheit (°F)
and the Kelvin (K) scale. Note the absence of the ° sign for kelvin--it is not
degrees Kelvin, but kelvins, not capitalized when spelled out, and with the
normal English plural which was added to the degree when Kelvin was an
adjective modifying that unit. Different thermometers are used for different
temperature ranges. This means that the different thermometers will only agree
on the fixed points. However, a set of thermometers have been carefully
selected and calibrated so that this is not a big issue in practice.

The standard in this case is the International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS),
which was introduced in 1927 at the Seventh General Conference on Weights
and Measures, and revised in 1948, 1968, and 1990. The latest scale is denoted
by T90 for the Kelvin scale and is defined from 0.65 K upwards. For instance,
between 0.65 K and 5.0 K T90 is defined in terms of the vapor-pressure
temperature relations of 3He and 4He. The ranges for different materials overlap
and any of the valid materials can be used as a standard in the overlapping
region.

The IPTS agrees with the Celsius scale at the defining fixed points listed in Table
2.2. The temperature interval from the oxygen point to the gold point is divided
into three main parts as given below.

Table 2.2: Temperatures of Fixed Points

# Fixed Point Temperature

o
C
1 Normal boiling point of oxygen -182.97
2 Triple point of water (standard) +0.01

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 3 Normal boiling point of water 100
4 Normal boiling point of sulphur (normal melting point of 444.60; 419.50
zinc suggested as an alternative)
5 Normal melting point of antimony 630.50
6 Normal melting point of silver 960.8.
7 Normal melting point of gold 1063.00

(a) From 0 to 660oC:

A platinum resistance thermometer with a platinum wire whose diameter must

lie between 0.05 and 0.20 mm is used, and the temperature is given by the
equation

R = R0(1 + At + Bt2)

where the constants R0, A and B are computed by measurements at the ice
point, steam point and sulphur point.

(b) From -190 to 0oC:

The same platinum resistance thermometer is used, and the temperature given
by

R = R0[1 + At + Bt2 + C(t – 100)t3]

where R0, A and B are the same as above, and C is determined from a
measurement at the oxygen point.

(c) From 660 to 1063oC:

A thermocouple, one wire of which is made of platinum and the other of an alloy
of 90% platinum and 10% rhodium, is used with one junction at 0 oC. The
temperature is given by the formula

ε = a + bt + ct2

where a, b and c are computed from measurements at the antimony point,

silver point and gold point. The diameter of each wire of the thermocouple must
lie between 0.35 and 0.65 mm.

An optical method is adopted for measuring temperatures higher than the gold
point. The intensity of radiation of any convenient wavelength is compared with
the intensity of the radiation of the same wavelength emitted by a black body
at the gold point. The temperature is then determined with the help of Planck’s
law of thermal radiation.

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 The Ideal Gas

Recall that a thermodynamic system may have a certain substance or material

whose quantity can be expressed in mass or moles in an overall volume. These
are extensive properties of the system. If the substance is evenly distributed
throughout the volume in question, then a value of volume per amount of
substance may be used as an intensive property. For an example, for an
amount called a mole, volume per mole is typically called molar volume. Also, a
volume per mass for a specific substance may be called specific volume. In such
cases, an equation of state may relate the three intensive properties,
temperature, pressure, and molar or specific volume.

A simple but very useful equation of state is for an ideal gas. The ideal gas is a
useful notion in thermodynamics, as it is a simple system that depends on two
independent properties. An ideal gas is one that has no intermolecular
interactions except for completely elastic collisions with other molecules. For a
closed system containing an ideal gas, the state can be specified by giving the
values of any two of pressure, temperature, and molar volume.

Consider a system, an ideal gas enclosed in a container. Starting from an initial

state 1, where the temperature is T1, its temperature is changed to T2 through a
constant pressure process and then a constant molar volume process, then the
ratio of pressures is found to be the same as the ratio of molar volumes.
Suppose the initial value of the pressure and molar volume are p1 and V1
respectively, and final value of pressure and molar volume are p2 and V2
respectively. Note that we have not chosen a specific scale for the temperature
(like say, the Celsius scale). Now, suppose we were to choose a scale such that
T1/T2 = p1/p2, we can show that the value of pV/T is constant for an ideal gas, so
that it obeys the gas equation pV = RT, where p is the absolute pressure, V is
the molar volume, and R is a constant known as the universal gas constant. The
temperature T is the absolute temperature in the ideal gas scale, and the scale
is found to be the same as the thermodynamic temperature scale. The
thermodynamic temperature scale will be defined after the statement of the
second law of thermodynamics.

This equation pV = RT is called the equation of state for an ideal gas, and is
known as the ideal gas equation. Most common gases obey the ideal gas
equation unless they are compressed or cooled to extreme states, so this is a
very useful relation. A similar equation may be written where, for the specific
type of gas, specific volume is used instead of molar volume and a specific gas
constant is used instead of the universal gas constant. This then is written as

pv = mrT.

In Figure 2.2, the volume of an ideal gas

at two different pressures p1 and p2 is
plotted against the temperature in
Celsius. If we extrapolate the two

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 straight line graphs, they intersect the temperature axis at a point
t0, where t0 = −273.15°C.

Fig.2.2: The p-v-t plot for an ideal gas

From experiment, it is easy to show that the thermodynamic temperature T is

related to the Celsius temperature t by the equation: T = t + 273.15. The zero
of thermodynamic temperature scale is 0 K, and its significance will be clear
when we discuss the second law of thermodynamics.

Summary on ideal gas:

Experimental observations have established that the p-v-T behaviour of gases

at very low pressures or densities, or at temperatures above critical, is closely
given by the relation:
pv
Pv = RT ⇔ = Constant (R)
T
An imaginary ideal gas which obeys the above law is called a perfect gas. Each
perfect gas has a different gas constant (R). Units of R are kJ/kgK, or kJ/kmoleK.
For a mass of m kg occupying a volume V m3 (V = mv)
PV = mRT.
If n is the number of moles, and M the molecular weight, then,
M = m/n
pv
or PV = nMRT ⇔ MR = Ro = ; Ro is the universal gas
nT
constant.

From the Avogadro’s hypothesis, the volume of 1 kilogramme-mole (kmol.)

of any perfect gas occupies, at a pressure of 1 bar and a temperature of 0 oC
(NTP), approximately 22.71 m3.
pv 1 ×10 5 × 22 .71
⇒ Ro = = = 8314 J/kmol.K (8.314 kJ/kmol.K)
nT 1 × 273 .15

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Examples 2.

2.1 The resistance of the windings in certain motor is found to be 80 ohms at room
temperature (25oC). When operating at full load under steady state conditions,
the motor is switched off and the resistance of the windings, immediately
measured again, is found to be 93 ohms. The windings are made of copper
whose resistance at temperature toC is given by the equation
Rt = R0(1 + 0.00393 t);
where R0 is the resistance at 0oC. Find the temperature attained by the coil
during full load.

Solution:

Given motor resistance as 80 ohms at 25oC; and Rt = R0(1 + 0.00393 t);

⇒ 80 = R0(1 + 0.00393 x 25)
⇒ Ro = = 72.84 Ω

∴ Rt = 72.84 x (1 + 0.00393 t)

When the resistance is 93 Ω, the temperature is given by

t = = 70.41oC

2.2 A tank has a volume of 0.5 m3 and contains 10 kg of an ideal gas having a
molecular weight of 24. The temperature is 25oC. What is the pressure?

Solution:

The gas constant is determined first:

R0 8.314
R= = = 0.346 kJ/kgK
M 24

Solving for pressure,

mRT 10 × 0.346 × ( 274 .15 + 25 )

p= = = 2065 .8 kPA
V 0.5

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