It is
substantially "prestressed" (compressed) during its fabrication, in a manner that
strengthens it against tensile forces which will exist when in service.[1]
[2]:3�5[3]
Prestressed concrete is used in a wide range of building and civil structures where
its improved performance can allow for longer spans, reduced structural
thicknesses, and material savings compared with simple reinforced concrete. Typical
applications include high-rise buildings, residential slabs, foundation systems,
bridge and dam structures, silos and tanks, industrial pavements and nuclear
containment structures.[6]
1 Pre-tensioned concrete
2 Post-tensioned concrete
2.1 Bonded post-tensioning
2.2 Unbonded post-tensioning
2.3 Comparison between bonded and unbonded post-tensioning
3 Tendon durability and corrosion protection
4 Applications
4.1 Building structures
4.2 Civil structures
4.2.1 Bridges
4.2.2 Dams
4.2.3 Silos and tanks
4.2.4 Nuclear and blast-containment structures
4.2.5 Hardstands and pavements
5 Design agencies and regulations
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Pre-tensioned concrete
three figures; darker green slab is pre-tensioned in lighter green casting bed
Pre-tensioning process
Form for concrete I-beam with tendons in lower portion
Pre-tensioned bridge girder in precasting bed, with single-strand tendons exiting
through the formwork
The amount of bond (or adhesion) achievable between the freshly set concrete and
the surface of the tendons is critical to the pre-tensioning process, as it
determines when the tendon anchorages can be safely released. Higher bond strength
in early-age concrete will speed production and allow more economical fabrication.
To promote this, pre-tensioned tendons are usually composed of isolated single
wires or strands, which provides a greater surface area for bonding than bundled-
strand tendons.[5]
Crane manoeuvres concrete plank
Pre-tensioned hollow-core plank being placed
The tendons are not placed in direct contact with the concrete, but are
encapsulated within a protective sleeve or duct which is either cast into the
concrete structure or placed adjacent to it. At each end of a tendon is an
anchorage assembly firmly fixed to the surrounding concrete. Once the concrete has
been cast and set, the tendons are tensioned ("stressed") by pulling the tendon
ends through the anchorages while pressing against the concrete. The large forces
required to tension the tendons result in a significant permanent compression being
applied to the concrete once the tendon is "locked-off" at the anchorage.
[1]:25[5]:7 The method of locking the tendon-ends to the anchorage is dependent
upon the tendon composition, with the most common systems being "button-head"
anchoring (for wire tendons), split-wedge anchoring (for strand tendons), and
threaded anchoring (for bar tendons).[1]:79�84
A T-shaped section of bridge being constructed over a river
Balanced-cantilever bridge under construction. Each added segment is supported by
post-tensioned tendons
Casting the tendon ducts/sleeves into the concrete before any tensioning occurs
allows them to be readily "profiled" to any desired shape including incorporating
vertical and/or horizontal curvature. When the tendons are tensioned, this
profiling results in reaction forces being imparted onto the hardened concrete, and
these can be beneficially used to counter any loadings subsequently applied to the
structure.[2]:5�6[5]:48:9�10
Bonded post-tensioning
a detached anchor displaying tendon lock-offs
Multi-strand post-tensioning anchor
Individual strand tendons placed directly into the concreted structure (e.g.
buildings, ground slabs), or
Bundled strands, individually greased-and-sheathed, forming a single tendon
within an encapsulating duct that is placed either within or adjacent to the
concrete (e.g. restressable anchors, external post-tensioning)
For individual strand tendons, no additional tendon ducting is used and no post-
stressing grouting operation is required, unlike for bonded post-tensioning.
Permanent corrosion protection of the strands is provided by the combined layers of
grease, plastic sheathing, and surrounding concrete. Where strands are bundled to
form a single unbonded tendon, an enveloping duct of plastic or galvanised steel is
used and its interior free-spaces grouted after stressing. In this way, additional
corrosion protection is provided via the grease, plastic sheathing, grout, external
sheathing, and surrounding concrete layers.[9]:1
Both bonded and unbonded post-tensioning technologies are widely used around the
world, and the choice of system is often dictated by regional preferences,
contractor experience, or the availability of alternative systems. Either one is
capable of delivering code-compliant, durable structures meeting the structural
strength and serviceability requirements of the designer.[9]:2
The benefits that bonded post-tensioning can offer over unbonded systems are:
The benefits that unbonded post-tensioning can offer over bonded systems are:
Ability to be prefabricated
Unbonded tendons can be readily prefabricated off-site complete with end-
anchorages, facilitating faster installation during construction. Additional lead
time may need to be allowed for this fabrication process.
Improved site productivity
The elimination of the post-stressing grouting process required in bonded
structures improves the site-labour productivity of unbonded post-tensioning.[9]:5
Improved installation flexibility
Unbonded single-strand tendons have greater handling flexibility than bonded
ducting during installation, allowing them a greater ability to be deviated around
service penetrations or obstructions.[9]:5
Reduced concrete cover
Unbonded tendons may allow some reduction in concrete element thickness, as
their smaller size and increased corrosion protection may allow them to be placed
closer to the concrete surface.[2]:8
Simpler replacement and/or adjustment
Being permanently isolated from the concrete, unbonded tendons are able to be
readily de-stressed, re-stressed and/or replaced should they become damaged or need
their force levels to be modified in-service.[9]:6
Superior overload performance
Although having a lower ultimate strength than bonded tendons, unbonded
tendons' ability to redistribute strains over their full length can give them
superior pre-collapse ductility. In extremes, unbonded tendons can resort to a
catenary-type action instead of pure flexure, allowing significantly greater
deformation before structural failure.[12]
Applications
Civil structures
Bridges
Concrete is the most popular structural material for bridges, and prestressed
concrete is frequently adopted.[33][34] When investigated in the 1940s for use on
heavy-duty bridges, the advantages of this type of bridge over more traditional
designs was that it is quicker to install, more economical and longer-lasting with
the bridge being less lively.[35][36] One of the first bridges built in this way is
the Adam Viaduct, a railway bridge constructed 1946 in the UK.[37] By the 1960s,
prestressed concrete largely superseded reinforced concrete bridges in the UK, with
box girders being the dominant form.[38]
Concrete dams have used prestressing to counter uplift and increase their overall
stability since the mid-1930s.[42][43] Prestressing is also frequently retro-fitted
as part of dam remediation works, such as for structural strengthening, or when
raising crest or spillway heights.[44][45]
Most commonly, dam prestressing takes the form of post-tensioned anchors drilled
into the dam's concrete structure and/or the underlying rock strata. Such anchors
typically comprise tendons of high-tensile bundled steel strands or individual
threaded bars. Tendons are grouted to the concrete or rock at their far (internal)
end, and have a significant "de-bonded" free-length at their external end which
allows the tendon to stretch during tensioning. Tendons may be full-length bonded
to the surrounding concrete or rock once tensioned, or (more commonly) have strands
permanently encapsulated in corrosion-inhibiting grease over the free-length to
permit long-term load monitoring and re-stressability.[46]
Silos and tanks
Circular storage structures such as silos and tanks can use prestressing forces to
directly resist the outward pressures generated by stored liquids or bulk-solids.
Horizontally curved tendons are installed within the concrete wall to form a series
of hoops, spaced vertically up the structure. When tensioned, these tendons exert
both axial (compressive) and radial (inward) forces onto the structure, which can
directly oppose the subsequent storage loadings. If the magnitude of the prestress
is designed to always exceed the tensile stresses produced by the loadings, a
permanent residual compression will exist in the wall concrete, assisting in
maintaining a watertight crack-free structure.[47][48][49][50]:61
Nuclear and blast-containment structures
Nuclear reactor and containment vessels will commonly employ separate sets of post-
tensioned tendons curved horizontally or vertically to completely envelop the
reactor core. Blast containment walls, such as for liquid natural gas (LNG) tanks,
will normally utilise layers of horizontally-curved hoop tendons for containment in
combination with vertically looped tendons for axial wall prestressing.
Hardstands and pavements
Heavily loaded concrete ground-slabs and pavements can be sensitive to cracking and
subsequent traffic-driven deterioration. As a result, prestressed concrete is
regularly used in such structures as its pre-compression provides the concrete with
the ability to resist the crack-inducing tensile stresses generated by in-service
loading. This crack-resistance also allows individual slab sections to be
constructed in larger pours than for conventionally reinforced concrete, resulting
in wider joint spacings, reduced jointing costs and less long-term joint
maintenance issues.[53]:594�598[54] Initial works have also been successfully
conducted on the use of precast prestressed concrete for road pavements, where the
speed and quality of the construction has been noted as being beneficial for this
technique.[55]
Gateway Bridge
Brisbane, Aust.
Incheon Bridge
South Korea
Autobahn A73
Itz Valley, Germany
Ostankino Tower
Moscow, Russia
CN Tower
Toronto, Canada
Norcem silos
Brevik, Norway
Roseires Dam
Ad Damazin, Sudan
Wanapum Dam
Washington, US
LNG tanks
South Hook, Wales
Rules and requirements for the detailing of reinforcement and prestressing tendons
are specified by individual national codes and standards such as: