The particulate nature of matter

Introduction
Chemistry is the study of matter and how matter changes
In science, matter is anything that has mass and takes up space

States of matter:
A solid, at a given temperature, has a definite volume and shape which may be affected by changes in temperature.
Solids usually increase slightly in size when heated (expansion) and usually decrease in size if cooled (contraction)

A liquid, at a given temperature, has a fixed volume and will take up the shape of any container into which it is poured.
Like a solid, a liquid’s volume is slightly affected by changes in temperature.

A gas, at a given temperature, has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. It will take up the shape of any
container into which it is placed and will spread out evenly within it. Unlike those of solids and liquids, the volumes of
gases are affected quite markedly by changes in temperature.

微观认识 matter
[The kinetic theory of matter]

Big idea:
All matter is made up of particles invisible to the naked eye
The particles move all the time.
The higher the temperature of the matter, the faster the particles move on average (The average speed of the particles
increases with an increase in temperature.)
Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter ones at a given temperature.
There are attractive forces between particles when they are close enough.

particle separation arrangement motion (Particles can) Picture

Solid close regular vibrate about
a fixed position

Liquid close irregular move around past each other

within the liquid
 Gas Far apart irregular move randomly

Classification of matter
Substance
A substance is a form of matter that has a definite (constant) composition and distinct properties. Commented [QL1]: 后面我们会讲物质是由什么组成的

A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their distinct identities

all matter are made up of tiny particles

what are these tiny particles
atoms, ions and molecules

Atoms: smallest particles that make up of matter

Atom’s structure Commented [QL2]: 原子有更下的粒子构成，为什么说构
成物质的最小粒子是原子呢？
因为我们构成物质的粒子首先满足的条件是：仅由这种
粒子就可以构成物质。所以电子，质子不满足，原子，
离子和分子都满足

Relative: no unit
Nucleus
Electrons

Atoms are electrically neutral

The number of electrons in an atom is equal to that of the proton number.

Different atoms have different proton number and neutron number.

The number of protons (proton number) in the nucleus of an atom is called the atomic number (denoted by Z)

Neutrons and protons have a similar mass. Electrons possess very little mass. So the mass of any atom depends on the
number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
The total number of protons and neutrons found in the nucleus of an atom is called the nucleon number (or mass
number)
(denoted by A)

Classification of substance:

Atoms in some substances both have same proton number. We can these kinds of substance are called elements

Therefore, we classify atoms according to their atomic number (proton number)

Each element contains only one kind of atoms, they both have same atomic number.
Atoms of different elements are different in atomic number.

Now we have 118 kinds of elements on earth. It means there are also 118 kinds of atom.
Each element has a name and a symbol
Element symbol represent a atom of that element.

When you see an element name, sometimes it represent a substance and sometimes it represent a kind of atom
Element symbol 一般在 chemical formula 中表示一个这类的原子 Commented [QL3]: 什么是 chemical formula 后面再深
入讨论
Scientist list all 118 elements in a table at the sequence of increasing the atomic number of atoms of that elements
from 1 to 118. The table is called periodic table.
Classification of elements
Metal
nonmetal

Atoms in an element both have same proton number but their neutron number may be different.
Atoms of Each kind(element) can be classified into several isotopes according to their neutron number.
(we don’t give special name for each isotopes of an element)
Atoms of one isotope of one element have same proton number and neutron number.
Atoms of different isotopes of one element have same proton number but different neutron number.

A notation of atom

Each element can have several isotopes

carbon
12 13 14
6C, 6C, 6C
In a nature sample of an element, both isotopes are exists in that sample.
And the percentage of each isotopes of any nature sample are same
Example:
12 13 14
6C, 6C, 6C
Some isotopes are radioactive
That means its nucleus is unstable. Sooner or later the atom breaks down naturally or decays, giving out radiation in
the form of rays and particles, plus a large amount of energy.

Making use of radioisotopes

How electrons are arranged in the atom?

Electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus.

each shell is also called energy level Commented [QL4]: 为什么 shell 也叫 energy level
that because when electrons moving in different shells, the energy of that electrons will be different.
When electrons move in the first shell, closest to the nucleus, the energy of electron are lowest. So the first shell is the
lowest energy level.
The further the electrons are moving in a shell, the higher energy of electrons are.

The principle of the arrangement of electrons in an atom:

The total energy of all electrons are lowest
outer-shell electrons are also called the valency electrons.
For first 20 elements in the periodic table
Period number= shell number
Group number= valency electron number

The change of states Commented [QL5]: 条件

Heat：当温度不一样的 system 接触时，传递的 energy

Deposition： reverse sublimation

Condensing：condensation

Difference between Evaporation and Boiling Commented [QL6]: 后面再解释 e 和 b 的区别

The condition of change of states

Heating curve of a substance (water)

Melting point
Boiling point
Pure substance：m.p 和 b.p 是恒定的 Commented [QL7]: 第一次学肯定不知道什么是 pure
mixture substance，或者不理解，学完后面的内容就可以理解了
Cooling curve
Freezing point
Condensation point

Applying the kinetic model to changes in physical state

Melting：
When the temperature is raised, the particles gain energy and vibrate more strongly; the particles occupy more space Commented [QL8]: Particle 的动能如果算是 particle
– this 的能量，那么一个 particle 的能量为它的内能，加动
causes the solid to expand. Eventually the particles have enough energy to break the forces holding the lattice together, 能，加势能
and they can move around– the solid melts.
Solids which have high melting points have stronger forces of attraction between their particles than those which have
low melting points.

Evaporation and boiling

In the liquid, some particles at the surface move very fast, then have enough energy to break the forces attracting them,
they may separate from each other and become gas state – evaporation takes place. Commented [QL9]: 决定 gas：距离，离子的动能
As the temperature rises, more particles have enough energy to escape – evaporation is faster at higher temperatures.
At the boiling point, some particles inside the liquid have enough energy to break the forces attracting them together
and separate from each other and bubbles appears – the liquid boils.

The melting point and boiling point is related to the attractive force between particles of the matter when they are in
solid and liquid state.

The greater attractive forces are, more energy needed to cause the change of states, so higher the melting point and
boiling point.
all gases exert a pressure on the container

Pressure 来源
The pressure of a gas is the result of collisions of the fast-moving particles with the walls of the container.

When you heat a gas (increase the temperature) in a closed container (fixed volume), its pressure increases
Explain: (kinetic theory)
温度越高，粒子运动速度越快，撞击容器的力越大，压力越大

When a gas is compressed into a smaller space, its pressure increases.

Movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration is known as diffusion
Eventually, the particles are evenly spread – their concentration is the same throughout
Diffusion in liquids（后面补充）
Diffusion in gases

The lower the mass of particles of the gas, the faster the gas will diffuse
Explain: (kinetic theory)
Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter particles at the same temperature

When Robert Brown used a microscope to observe pollen grains on the surface of water in 1827, he noticed that the
pollen grains moved in a random manner. This random movement is known as Brownian motion. The same thing can
be observed if smoke particles in air are observed through a microscope.
The random motion of visible particles caused by bombardment by much smaller particles Commented [QL10]: 没有讲溶液，扩散没讲全，没讲分
子，原子，所以没法讲分子质量
Mixtures
Heterogenous
homogenous
Solution:
uniform and every part of the solution looks same

solution= solute + solvent

solids + liquid
liquids + liquids
gases + liquid
gases + gases
solid + solid

最常见的 solution：
Solid + water
Aqueous solution
：
不是所有固体都可以溶于水
Insoluble
Soluble
同样体积的同种 Solvent，对于不同的 solutes 溶解能力不同
Solubility

两个物质混合，Dissolving 不是一定发生，能够发生才得到 solution

Solid 溶于水的的过程

Diffusion in liquids
如果一个固体和一个 liquid 可以发生 Dissolving，把一块固体扔进液体中，diffusion 会发生。Diffusion 完成后得到
的就是 solution。
If a colored solid, such as nickel(II) sulfate(green), are placed in a liquid such as water, the color of the nickel(II) sulfate
spreads throughout the liquid, after several minutes a solution with a uniform green color form.

Separation of mixture

Purity
一个 mixture 中，我们想要的一种物质的量（质量，volume）占全部的比例。
impurities
Food 和 drug 对 purity 要求高

paper chromatography Commented [QL11]: 来源：染料滴在纸上发现出现许多

a method to separate a mixture of substances 色带

如果 mixture 中每个 substance 都有颜色，就可以看到不同物质对应的颜色出现在不同的位置

如果 mixture 中的 substance 没有颜色，可以使用 locating agent，使纸上存在物质的地方出现颜色（同样的颜色）

原理:

Attractive force
选用一种溶剂 Commented [QL12]: 溶剂粒子对两种溶质粒子的吸引力
The greater solubility for the chosen solvent a substance has, the further it will travel up the chromatography paper. 不同，两种溶质的溶解度不同

Paper chromatography 用途：

检测 purity/有几种物质
：如果只有一个点，说明只有一个物质（但不能 100%把握）
identify a substance
一个物质在某一溶剂下，做 paper chromatography

该物质（在该溶剂中）的 Rf 值
在 paper chromatography 的原理上科学家开发出更多分离方法，chromatography 是利用同样原理进行分离的方法
的总称。paper chromatography 是 chromatography 中最简单的一种。
Two groups of elements
80% of the known elements are metals

Bonding
除了 noble gas 中原子是以单独的原子存在，其他种类的原子，在自然界中总是和其他原子（同种或者不同种）通
过吸引力结合在一起。
原子之间的吸引力统称为 bond Commented [QL13]: 待处理
Why form bonds?
Ions Atoms bond with each other in order to gain a stable
Ions exist in some substance arrangement of outer-shell electrons
What is ion? What electron arrangement is stable?
an atom, or groups of atoms (polyatomic ions) that have charge on it The electron arrangement of Group 0 element
8 electrons in their outer shell (or 2, if they have only one
Where ions exist? shell).
Compound
Ionic compounds Atom have two methods to get a stable electron
arrangement.
Classification of ions: Gain or lose electron
Share electrons with other
simple(single atom) ion Two different method
polyatomic ion

Commented [QL14]: 为什么要形成 ion？什么时候形成

positive charged ions / cation
ions？那些物质中存在 ion？
negative charged ions/ anion

how do simple ions form?

an atom loses electrons, and carry positive charge, form positive ions or cations
an atom gains electrons, and carry negative charge, form negative ions or anions
not atoms of all elements can from simple ions

Ions of transition element:

Ag+ silver
Zn2+ zinc

规律：
Metal atom always carry positive charge
Nonmetal atom always carry negative charge (except hydrogen)
Ions in a group carry same charge (except transition elements)

Atom would lose/gain electrons to form ions and achieve same electron arrangement of nearest noble gas (according
to the atomic number)
(except H)

以 sodium chloride，chemical formula 为 NaCl 为例

when and how simple ions form? Commented [QL15]: 稳定和不稳定都是相对的
Metal atom react non-metal atom and then ions form
Metal sodium react with nonmetal chlorine
下面的过程会发生

(Lose valency electrons, gain valency electrons)

And ionic compound called sodium chloride, NaCl form
An ionic compound consists of cations and anions
Ionic compound is always electrical neutral

The attractive force between positive ions and negative ions are called ionic bond.
Solid ionic compounds have giant lattice structure

Other ionic compounds

MgO

MgCl2

Polyatomic ions

Name and chemical formula of binary ionic compounds(只含有一种阳离子和阴离子的离子化合物)

已知 chemical formula，写 name
Cation name comes first, anion name follows next
已知名字，写 Chemical formula:
按照名字顺序书写离子，离子角标标注最简比例以保证 ionic compounds is electrical neutral

Molecule
Many substances contain molecule
What is molecule
A unit of two or more atoms held together

以 hydrogen molecule 为例，how atom held together in molecule?

Molecule of hydrogen has two H atom held together.
Molecular formula tells the composition of a molecule
the molecular formula of hydrogen is H2.
The chemical formula of substance made up of molecules is molecular formula of the molecule

When two nonmetal atoms react with each other

Two nonmetal atoms share electrons in the valency shell

The negative shared electrons attract the two positive nucleus.
The attractive force between the negative shared electrons and the two positive nucleus is called covalent bonds.

What is molecule?
A unit of two or more atoms held together by covalent bond.

molecules containing two atoms are called diatomic molecule.

Other diatomic molecule:
Chlorine
Cl2

Like hydrogen, two chlorine atoms share one pair of electrons

The covalent bond contain one pair of electrons is called single covalent bonds
We can use a dash line to represent one pair shared electrons
Cl-Cl

Oxygen
Double bond

Nitrogen

triple bond
rules：
atom would tend to share electrons with other atom to achieve the electron arrangement of nearest noble gas

other elements contain molecules：

phosphorus P4/ P
sulfur S8/ S
fluorine F2
bromine Br2
they both non-metal elements

giant covalent structure

carbon
silicon
carbon and silicon have giant covalent structures, they contain macromolecules.
Macromolecule: molecule with a great number of atoms

Carbon have two kinds of giant covalent structures

Diamond

Graphite:
Both diamond, graphite is made only of carbon atoms.
We call diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon – two forms(structure) of the same element.

总结：
除了 noble gas， all nonmetal elements are made up of molecules. Some are made of small molecule. Some are made
up of macromolecule.

Molecules do not only exist in elements. They also exist in compounds.

We call these kinds of compounds covalent compounds/ molecular compounds
The atom in molecule are also held by covalent bonds and follow same rule of sharing electrons
Giant covalent structure also exists in compounds
silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide)
The structure of SiO2 is like diamond

Chemical formula: SiO2

Name and chemical formula of binary covalent compounds(总结)

whether a compound is ionic or covalent

metal + non-metal
metal + polyatomic ion
 Ionic compounds

Nonmetal+ nonmetal
 Covalent compounds

Known the name, Write chemical formula

Known the name, write the chemical formula

总结 chemical formula
Chemical formula of molecular compounds is the molecular formula
Chemical formula of ionic compounds and giant covalent compounds is the simplest ratio of two elements
Chemical formula will also use in chemical equation to represent the substance.

Know the two elements in the compounds, deduce the formula

Valency
The valency of an element is the number of electrons its atoms lose, gain or share, to form a compound
Balance the valency of each atom.

Comparing ionic and covalent compounds

The bonding in metals
At room temperature, most metals are solid. So the atoms are packed tightly together in a regular lattice

outer electrons of metal is not held tightly. So they would separate from their atoms and shared by all metal cations.
These electrons can move freely in the lattice of metal cations. So metal can conduct electricity.
Metallic bonding Commented [QL16]: 电子不再属于一个原子所有
The metallic bond is the attraction between metal ions and free electrons.

Chemical formula of metal

Element symbol

Summary
Chemical formula of first 20 elements
four different types of solid physical structure
Summary of bonding in substance: