Studying History: A How-To Guide for Undergraduates

 Top Ten Tips from T.As.

 Skills for History Students
 How to Read History
 How to Write an Essay Exam
 Citations of Sources

Top Ten Tips from T.As.

1. Take copious, detailed notes in class; review your notes frequently and try to
connect them with your assigned readings.
2. Read all assignments on time; if you have questions or comments about the
readings, raise them in class.
3. There is no substitute for ample studying and proper preparation for class and
exams.
4. Participate in class by asking questions and answering those posed by the
instructor.
5. When writing assigned essays, be sure to follow formal essay structure (i.e.,
introduction in which you present your thesis, body full of evidence supporting
your argument, and conclusion in which you summarize your argument). Be
sure to leave time for multiple drafts and revisions, and always proofread
thoroughly.
6. When taking an essay exam, outline your answer prior to writing it. Always
have detailed examples to support your ideas.
7. Go see your professor or T.A. during their office hours. This will help them get
to know you and enable you to clarify points made in class.
8. Attend review sessions prior to exams. These will help you structure your
approach to studying and will suggest points of emphasis for the exam.
9. Make connections with other students in your class. This will allow you to
compare your perceptions of the course with those of your colleagues; consider
forming study groups to prepare for exams.
10. Believe in yourself and that you have something worthwhile to contribute to the
class. [top]

Skills for History Students

Historians develop many skills in order to practice their discipline. Listed below are
three levels of skills which you should expect to develop in courses taken in the Temple
University History Department.

Foundation:

 basic organizational, reading, and writing skills

 constructing simple essay arguments with use of historical evidence
 comprehension of continuity and change over time
 knowing the difference and relationship between fact and interpretation
 appreciating a variety of historical perspectives
 understanding what historians do and the kinds of questions they ask
 recognizing the difference between primary and secondary sources

Intermediate:

 critically examining written materials and historical sources

 understanding primary sources in their historical context
 analysis of multiple historical causal factors
 identification and comprehension of historical arguments
 formulating analytical questions about historical events
 demonstrating the ability to write an analytical historical essay
 developing speaking and presentation skills
 gaining the ability to use the library and other technologically appropriate
sources for research

Advanced:

 comparing varied interpretations of historical events

 collecting and organizing historical data
 employing primary and secondary sources to construct an historical argument
 writing with clarity and precision
 using standard methods of citation
 refining command of library and Internet research skills [top]

How to Read History

In General:

When you study history, you are trying to get a sense of the complex landscape of the
past. Your textbook, articles and essays, and other kinds of reading are maps to that
understanding. You should be aware of when events happened, especially in relation to
other historical situations, and try to consider the causes and effects of historical events.
There are often multiple reasons why particular events unfolded as they did. History
consists of many diverse threads woven together to offer images of the past.

Whether you are reading a textbook, an historical article or essay, or another reading
assignment, the trick is to sift through a great deal of information to dig out the most
important points. When you are finished reading a page, it should not be drowning in a
sea of highlighter ink. Your primary goal is to discover the main points made by the
author.
A Textbook:

Perhaps the most important factor in reading a textbook is to do so in a timely manner;

don’t wait until the day before the exam, because you will be reading in such a rush that
you won’t remember anything you read. A textbook provides important background
information for and an introduction to materials covered in class. As you read, look for
the key idea in each paragraph; quite often, though not always, it will appear in the first
sentence. Underline or highlight the essential information in the paragraph as well as
any names or terms that seem important. Some students find it helpful to jot notes in the
margin as they read.

You should also become familiar with how your textbook is organized. Look for a
summary at the beginning or end of each chapter; these will help you to identify
important ideas and show how they fit together. Examine the table of contents as well;
this will indicate the focus of each chapter. The following example is taken from the
detailed table of contents for The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society
(New York: Longman, 1998). Chapter 1 is part of a section called "A Colonizing
People, 1492-1776."

Chapter 1, Three Worlds Meet

 The People of America before Columbus, 6

 Africa on the Eve of Contact, 14
 Europe in the Age of Exploration, 17
 The Iberian Conquest of America, 23
 England Looks West, 30
 Conclusion: Converging Worlds, 34

Just from looking at the table of contents for this chapter, one can see that the main
topics to be covered will include information about Native Americans, Africans, and
Europeans as well as showing how these three worlds met as people from Europe began
to explore the Americas. By using the table of contents as well as headings within
chapters, you can gain a good sense of what is important before you begin to read.

Historical Articles and Essays:

Historical essays or articles address a particular topic. They will be far more detailed
and specialized than a textbook, because they focus on a much narrower subject. When
doing this type of reading, the first step is to determine the author’s thesis: What is he
or she trying to show? Next, examine the kinds of evidence used by the
historian—what are her or his sources? Many monographs will draw on primary
sources (those from the time or event being discussed), while others will use secondary
sources (those written well after an event has occurred). Historians will often use a
combination of sources, so it is important to know what information in the article comes
from which kind of sources.

The next step in the process is to determine how the historian uses the sources to
support her or his thesis. The evidence should illuminate and support the author’s key
points; the pieces of evidence are like the bricks that go together to build a wall. You
should consider the validity of the evidence used by asking such questions as the
following: From where and when does the evidence come? Who is the author of the
evidence? Is the evidence biased (if so, how?)? Does the evidence reliably support the
author’s thesis?

Finally, try to connect the article or essay to topics you are studying in class. Think
about whether the article agrees with or diverges from what you already know about a
particular time or event. You will have a more thorough understanding of history if you
can place a topic in its chronological context.

Other Types of Books:

Your professor may assign other kinds of reading, including collections of essays,
books about a narrowly defined topic based on primary sources (sometimes called
monographs), synthetic works, and novels. Each of these types of readings calls for a
particular approach.

Collections of essays can be read in the same way as individual articles. You should
determine the author’s thesis and critically examine the evidence he or she uses to
support the analysis. Frequently, editors of an anthology will group together several
related articles, which can provide you with an opportunity to compare several
historians’ interpretations of a particular topic. When doing so, look for points of
agreement and conflict. You should consider how the evidence used by an historian
shapes her or his argument. Think about why historians can arrive at divergent
interpretations of similar events.

The procedure for reading an article also works for reading monographs. You should
use the organization of the book to help your understanding. The author will frequently
indicate his or her thesis in the preface or introduction. Moreover, she or he will often
discuss the evidence as well as any theoretical framework that shaped the analysis.
Again, use the structure of the text as a guide; each chapter will contain introductory
and concluding paragraphs. You can read quickly through the evidence presented in
order to assess the validity of the author’s thesis. Underline or highlight minimally;
focus on the key points of the work. You may want to make notes in the margin or
indicate the pages with important information inside the front cover.

A synthetic work relies less exclusively on primary sources than does a monograph. The
author of such a work offers an analysis of the various interpretations of a topic while
simultaneously trying to shed new light on his or her subject. This kind of book is
especially useful as you attempt to discover historical themes. Think of these works as
offering a big picture of a topic; they can summarize previous research on a topic and
break new historical ground.

Sometimes, your professor will assign a novel as part of your reading. Novels can offer
a rich sense of time and place, and have the narrative appeal of storytelling. Be sure to
remember, however, that a novel is a fictitious rendering of events; the sophisticated
student will look for points of similarity and difference between the plot and historical
context. Novels serve to complement and even to challenge evidence-based analyses of
the past, but should not function as the only source of information about a time or event.
[top]
How to Write an Essay Exam

Most history courses will require you to write essay exams. Students sometimes feel
intimidated by this prospect, but if you are well prepared, you have nothing to fear. As
with any other kind of examination or assignment, waiting until the last minute could
have disastrous consequences. Paying attention in class, taking good notes, and reading
assignments carefully will enable you to do well on the day of the exam.

If you have been attentive in class, you should not be surprised by the exam questions.
Your professor will probably ask questions that address broad themes from the course
and allow you to demonstrate your ability to synthesize relevant material. As you
review your notes and reading assignments, think about how the information is
connected. Be aware that your professor will expect an organized response to the
question, a clear thesis, appropriate examples, and a sense of chronological
relationships.

On the day of the exam, arrive as well-rested as you can and be sure to bring functional
writing utensils. When the exam is distributed, take a deep breath and begin with
confidence. The first thing you should do is to plan how you will use the time allotted.
Look over the exam to see how many questions there are and their value; you should
probably spend more time on those worth more points. Divide your time appropriately,
and be sure to leave time to review and revise your essay.

The next step is to read the question(s) to see just what it is you are supposed to address
in your essay(s). Look for key terms that can help you shape your answer; words like
compare, contrast, describe, discuss, evaluate, and relate require different kinds of
answers.

What is My Essay Exam Really Asking?

 Compare: look for points of similarity and resemblance of events or people

 Contrast: focus on differences among the subjects of the essay
 Describe: offer a broad picture of what happened
 Discuss: examine and analyze various aspects of a topic
 Evaluate: make an informed judgment about what happened; explain why
events unfolded as they did
 Relate: make connections among events and people

Now, plan your response; in order to write an organized, intelligent essay, you must
take time to plan your answer. Use the inside cover of your bluebook to construct a brief
outline. Jot down the examples you will use to illustrate and support your argument. Be
sure to choose examples that relate to the question; a question about the reformers of the
Progressive period will most likely not require information about Civil War battles,
even if both subjects were covered in your class.

Tips on Taking Essay Exams

Your answer should include the following components:

  1) Introductory paragraph: state your argument and suggest how you will
support it.
 2) Body of the essay: each paragraph should contain one point that supports
your argument. Use specific details and relevant examples from class lectures
and discussions as well as readings.
 3) Conclusion: sum up the main points of your essay and draw your argument
to a close.

-- adapted from information provided by Marc Frey and John Kennedy

Once you have finished writing your answer (as legibly as possible), take a few
moments to review your outline to be sure that you have covered all the relevant points.
Be sure that you actually answered the questions that was asked, rather than flinging
facts onto the page in the hope that the right answer will emerge from the muck. Also
check that errors in punctuation, spelling, or grammar do not detract from your
argument.

Remember that careful preparation and a logical approach to the question provide the
keys to success for an essay exam. [top]

Citations of Sources

Whenever you use information compiled by others, in an essay or research paper, you
must cite those sources. Many academic disciplines have specific formats which should
be followed; the one most commonly used by historians comes from The Chicago
Manual of Style. There are two types of citations: notes and bibliographies. Notes may
come either at the bottom of a page (footnotes) or the end of a paper (endnotes), while
the bibliography is a list of the course used in a paper or essay. You should always
check with your professor or T.A. for the format she or he wants you to use. Below you
will find the format for notes and bibliographies for a variety of commonly used
sources.

Proper citation is a critical component of research. Failure to cite sources properly can
lead to suspicion of plagiarism, which is an egregious academic offense. The
University’s definition of plagiarism appears in the Undergraduate Bulletin, as does
information about possible penalties for this offense. By its nature, your paper or essay
will include citations; the originality of your work comes from the way you collect,
present, and interpret information. Whether you use direct quotations or paraphrase the
words of others, be absolutely sure to cite your sources accurately.

For each entry below, the format for notes will appear first, followed by the format for a
bibliography entry for the item. Please note that there are small, but significant,
differences in punctuation and format from notes to bibliography entries.

There are several sources you should consult if you require further information about
citations. Some of the most useful ones are listed here.

Booth, Wayne C., Gregory C. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 5th ed. New York:
MLA, 1999.

Harnack, Andrew and Eugene Kleppinger. 2nd ed. Online! A Reference Guide to Using
Internet Sources. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998.

Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. 6th
ed., rev. John Grossman and Alice Bennett. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1996.

You should provide the author, title, and publication data for each of your sources. If
there is no author, skip to the format for the title and continue from there. The first
example in each category is for footnotes or endnotes, while the second represents the
bibliography entry. [The following examples indicate the information that should appear
in citations; for precise appearance, students are advised to consult one of the research
handbooks cited above.]

Books by a single author

Bettye Collier-Thomas, Daughters of Thunder: Black Women Preachers and Their

Sermons, 1850-1978 (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998), 117.

Collier-Thomas, Bettye. Daughters of Thunder: Black Women Preachers and Their

Sermons, 1850-1978. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998.

Books by two authors

Margaret Marsh and Wanda Ronner, The Empty Cradle: Infertility in America from
Colonial Times to the Present (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 82.

Marsh, Margaret and Wanda Ronner. The Empty Cradle: Infertility in America from
Colonial Times to the Present. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.

Books by three authors

Morris J. Vogel, Allen F. Davis, and Fredric M. Miller, Philadelphia Stories: A

Photographic History (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 218.

Vogel, Morris J., Allen F. Davis, and Fredric M. Miller, Philadelphia Stories: A
Photographic History. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988.

Work by an author in an anthology

Richard Immerman, "’A Time in the Tide of Men’s Affairs’: Lyndon Johnson and
Vietnam," in Lyndon Johnson Confronts the World: American Foreign Policy, 1963-
1968, ed. Warren Cohen and Nancy Tucker (New York: Cambridge University
Press,1994), 63.

Immerman, Richard. "’A Time in the Tide of Men’s Affairs’: Lyndon Johnson and
Vietnam." In Lyndon Johnson Confronts the World: American Foreign Policy, 1963-
1968, ed. Warren Cohen and Nancy Tucker, 57-97. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1994.

Article in a journal

Teshale Tibebu, "Ethiopia: The ‘Anomaly’ and ‘Paradox’ of Africa," Journal of

Black Studies 26 (March 1996): 417 and 425.

Tibebu, Teshale. "Ethiopia: The ‘Anomaly’ and ‘Paradox’ of Africa." Journal of

Black Studies 26 (March 1996): 414-430.

Article in a newspaper

Claire Smith, "Rutgers Women Hand UConn a Rare Loss," New York Times, 11
February 1998, C5.

Smith, Claire. "Rutgers Women Hand UConn a Rare Loss. " New York Times 11
February 1998, C5.

Article in a magazine

Debra Rosenberg, "Playing in a League of Their Own," Newsweek, 16 February 1998,

62.

Rosenberg, Debra. "Playing in a League of Their Own." Newsweek, 16 February 1998,

62.

Book review

Rima D. Apple, review of The Empty Cradle: Infertility in America from Colonial
Times to the Present, by Margaret Marsh and Wanda Ronner,American Historical
Review 102 (October 1997): 1219.

Apple, Rima D. Review of The Empty Cradle: Infertility in America from Colonia
Times to the Present, by Margaret Marsh and Wanda Ronner.American Historical
Review 102 (October 1997): 1218-1219.

Interview by the author of the paper

Michelle Marciniak, professional basketball player, interview by author, 8 February

1998, Philadelphia.

Marciniak, Michelle, professional basketball player. Interview by author, 8 February

1998, Philadelphia.

Sound recordings

Indigo Girls, Shaming of the Sun, Epic, 1997, audio cassette.

Indigo Girls. Shaming of the Sun. Epic, 1997. Audio cassette.

Videocassettes

Much Ado about Nothing, dir. Kenneth Brannagh, 110 min., Columbia Tristar, 1993,
videocassette.

Much Ado about Nothing. Dir. Kenneth Brannagh. 110 min. Columbia Tristar, 1993.
Videocassette.

Electronic documents

Please note that for Internet sources, you should provide the address from which you got
the information as well as the date on which you accessed it.

World Wide Web Site

Cammi Granato, "Chasing the Dream," 18 January

1998,<http://www.sportsline.com/u/olympics/nagano98/features/dream_granato012798.
html> (11 February 1998).

Granato, Cammi. "Chasing the Dream." 18 January

1998.<http://www.sportsline.com/u/olympics/nagano98/features/dream_granato012798.
html> (11 February 1998).

Email message

Arthur Schmidt, <arturo@temple.edu> "Undergraduate Handbook," 9 February 1998,

personal email (11 February 1998).

Schmidt, Arthur. <arturo@temple.edu> "Undergraduate Handbook." 9 February 1998.

Personal email (11 February 1998).

Listserv message

Jay B. Lockenour, <jlockeno@temple.edu> "German Soldiers in World War Two," 27

June 1997, <H-German@H-Net.msu.edu> (30 June 1997).

Lockenour, Jay B. <jlockeno@temple.edu> "German Soldiers in World War Two." 27

June 1997. <H-German@H-Net.msu.edu> (30 June 1997).