IE RB2ll34

' IE FIRST 25 YEARS

PH~LIP
RUFFLES FEng, FRAes
Director - Eneeering - vJ

kolls-Royce p l -~Aerospace Grow

31st SHOicl DJ..OTHERS

COMMEMORATIVE LECTURE
 PREFACE

Philip Ruffles, Director - Engineering

Rolls-Royce - Aerospace Group
presented the
31st Short Brothers Commemorative Lecture
to the
Royal Aeronautical Society
at The Queens University of Belfast
on 16th January 1992.
1. INTRODUCTION
It is a great honour for me to be invited to give the 1992 Short Brothers Commemorative
Lecture for which I would like to thank the Belfast Branch of the Royal Aeronautical Society.
The association of Rolls-Royce with the Short brothers began informally at the start of the
century when Shorts began making balloons for enthusiasts, including The Honourable
Charles Rolls. More recently, however, Short Brothers Ltd has participated in the design and
manufacture of nacelle sections throughout the RB211 programme and are now involved with
us on research work for future low drag nacelles. This year marks 25 years since the board
decision to launch the RB211 high bypass turbofan engine and in this lecture I shall review the
background to its development, its early problems and inherent strengths, the dramatic
evolution of 'the design and finally, how the engine family will address the future market.
The RB211-22 first entered service on the LlOll Tristar with Eastern Airlines in 1972.Now,
twenty years later, the RB211 has been developed into an outstanding family of engines; the
-524 for the Boeing 747 and 767, the smaller -535 on the Boeing 757 and the latest and most
powerful Trent family, for the new Airbus A330, Boeing 777 and McDonnell Douglas MD-12
aircraft. The RB211 has now gained over 40 million hours experience with 64 customers and
its evolutionary development has given rise to many unique innovations in design and
manufacturing to meet the requirements of the customer.

2. BACKGROUND
Rolls-Royce was the first company to introduce a bypass engine in order to gain the benefit
on propulsive efficiency by using lower jet velocities. The Conway entered service in 1960 on
the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC8 with a bypass ratio of only 0.3, to be followed in 1965 by a
further derivative of Conway for the VClO with a bypass ratio of 0.6. Pratt & Whitney were
more far-sighted in choice of bypass ratio and introduced the JT3D with bypass ratio 1.3,
which marked the end of the Conway, for we failed to continue its development. Even with
the later Spey engine, designed for the BEA Trident, we did not exceed unity bypass ratio and,
whilst this aircraft served BEA well, a great export opportunity was missed when Boeing
launched a scaled-up version, the enormously successful 727 using the Pratt & Whitney JT8D
engine. Although outdated, this remains the most widely used turbofan in service today.
Ironically, the Tay engine, which uses the core of the Spey, has now been ordered to re-engine
the Boeing 727 and could yet displace many JT8Ds from the lower life Boeing 737s and
Douglas DC9s.
Much was learned from this experience with early commercialjet engines, in particular the
importance of continuing to develop the product and the necessity to size engines to meet
world needs rather than those of the domestic market. Both these lessons were applied.to the
RB211.
The Company began design studies of engines with higher bypass ratios in the early 1960s
and this resulted in the RB178 series of preliminary designs, having a maximum bypass ratio
of 2.3. In 1965, Rolls-Royce launched the RB178-16, a two-shaft demonstrator engine of 27000
lbf take-off thrust and a bypass ratio of 2.3. This engine ran in 1966 but the programme was
short lived due to lack of funding and the cancellation of the new VClO for which it was
selected. The demonstrator did, however, show many of the high temperature component
problems later experienced with the RB211, which would have been more quickly solved had
more testing been done on the RB178.
The Company's view on the choice of bypass ratio changed when tests in the US
demonstrated that the installed drag penalty of the nacelle was less than half that assumed in
 Operating hours (Millions)
September 1991
RB211 - 22 20.2
- RB211 - 524 18.8
70 RB211 - 535 4.3
60 - 3438 engines ordered
Million 5 0 - 2162 engines delivered
hours 64 current customers

40 -
30 -

2o - -22

10 -
v i

1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996
Entry into service

RB211 Experierzce

Tlze RB178-51; tlzefirst tl~ree-shaftengine offerecl to aircraft constructors

European studies. The RB178 designs were therefore extended up to a bypass ratio of 8,
leading to the choice of a three-shaft configuration as the best for both aerodynamic and
mechanical reasons. During 1965, the RB178-51 three shaft engine, having a bypass ratio of 6
and a thrust rating up to 41000 lbf, was offered for the new Boeing 747 aircraft. However, this
aircraft was launched with Pan-American airlines in 1966 using the Pratt & Whitney JT9D
which had been successfully demonstrated, aided by government funding for a long range
cargo aircraft, later to become the C-5A powered by the GE TF39 engine. Having lost the
Boeing 747 competition, Rolls-Royce directed its attention to the other wide bodied aircraft
being studied by both European and US manufacturers.
The European Airbus was at its early design stage in 1966 and Bristol Siddeley, who had
been competing with Rolls-Royce on a number of projects, were keen to enter the large engine
field. They planned to join SNECMA in a collaboration to manufacture and sell the JT9D in
Europe. Rolls-Royce did not welcome the move which triggered the merger with Bristol
Siddeley in 1966.
At this time, Rolls-Royce proposed two new engines, both of a similar three-shaft design
derived from the RB178-51.'The RB207 was a 50000 lbf thrust engine with a bypass ratio of 5
and formed the basis of studies with Sud-Aviation for the European Airbus in addition to
Lockheed and Douglas proposals for a big twin-engined aircraft. The other engine proposal
was the RB211-06, a scaled down version of the RB207, rated at 33260 lbf thrust. This was sized
for the Lockheed and Douglas trijet projects which were gaining airline preference and the
BAC211 twin jet being studied in the UK. Resources constrained us to launching only one
engine and a choice had to be made between the proven aircraft builders in the US, where the
largest market existed, and the European initiative, which eventually led to the formation of
Airbus Industrie. However, at a main board meeting in July 1967, chaired by Sir Denning
Pearson with Sir David Huddie as Managing Director, a final bid for the RB211 to power the
US trijets was authorised along with the launch of detail design work on the RB211-06 engine,
which first ran in August 1968. However, as the precise engine requirements developed, it
became evident that the thrust of the RB211-06 would be insufficient to suit the trijet
requirement, which eventually increased to 40600 lbf. This demanded substantial design
changes and led to the RB211-22 with the same engine size as the original -06. On 29 March
1968, Lockheed ordered 450 engines of this specification concurrently with the announcement
of orders by TWA and Eastern Airlines for 94 Tristars. Two other airlines, American and
United, ordered the Douglas DC-10-10 with the General Electric CF6-6 engine, developed
from the TF39.

3. THE RB211 ENGINE

The basic three shaft design philosophy of the engine was chosen because it has a number of
inherent advantages, which are common throughout the RB211 and Trent families.
The high bypass turbofan consists of a high pressure ratio core in which fuel is burned and
a low pressure system which converts this energy into thrust. On the three-shaft engine, the
fan is driven by its own turbine and can, therefore, run at its optimum speed. The core
compression system utilises two compressors, the intermediate pressure (IP) and high
pressure (HP), each driven by its own single-stage turbine on separate shafts, again at
optimum speed. The aerodynamic compromise is therefore small, enabling peak efficiency to
be achieved with the minimum number of compressor and turbine stages, giving rise to a
shorter engine with low nacelle drag.
 "
pressure compression system are on the same shaft, at least one is operating at non-optimum
speed. Also, more cooling air is required for the two stage HP turbine, the slower and cooler
IP turbine being uncooled on the three shaft design. In addition, because the pressure ratio
which can be achieved efficiently on a single shaft is not as high as that required by modern
engines, booster stages are added on the low pressure (LP) shaft and operate at about half
their optimum speed.
It was realised at the start of the RB211 programme that thrust requirements would increase
as wide-bodied aircraft evolved. Such growth has been easier because the fan, which provides
approximately 75% of the thrust, is independent of the core compressors. This flexibility
provides greater opportunity for higher component efficiencies and allows high thrust levels
to be achieved with lower turbine entry temperatures and, hence, increased blade lives.
The integrity of the RB211 has always been excellent, demonstrated by a rate of uncontained
failures which is four times better than its nearest rival. The engine has proved to have
exceptional resistance to foreign object damage, including bird strikes. The axial position of
the fan was selected to ensure that objects entering the engine are mainly centrifuged
outwards and pass down the fan duct rather than the core. This feature, combined with robust
compressor blading, minimises blade erosion and its effect on aerodynamic performance. The
fan itself has an excellent service record, operating for more than 40 million hours without a
single blade failure. The unique wide-chord fan blade, derived from the Hyfil composite blade
of the RB211-06 engine but instead using hollow titanium, was introduced onto the -535E4 in
1984 and has further enhanced integrity as well as performance. Examples of the excellent
resistance to bird strike include a recent occasion when a Boeing 757, in passenger service,
powered by -535E4 engines, hit a flock of Canada geese on take-off. Three or four 71b birds
were ingested
- by one engine
- but it continued to provide thrust and a safe landing was made.
The retention of low sfc levels depends on the ability to maintain close clearances in the
compressors and turbines under all running conditions. The three-shaft layout allows each
rotor to be mounted between two bearings on a stiff structure with double casings to isolate
the structural loads from the gas path. This makes it easier to maintain concentricity between
static and rotating parts in order to control clearances. In contrast, the longer shafts of a two-
shaft engine lead to overllung turbines which, together with single skin casings, give rise to
less uniform turbine seal clearances and hence performance deterioration. In the RB211, all
turbine blades have tip shrouds with multi-fin seals to minimise leakage.
These design features result in the RB211 having better performance retention than either of
its competitors. This is especially valuable to longhaul Boeing 747-400 operators, to whom, on
a fuel tank limited flight, a 1%fuel saving allows an extra 30 passengers to be carried.
Furthermore, deterioration leads to an increase in turbine entry temperature which decreases
blade life.
In addition to performance and safety, the cost of maintenance is an important
consideration for customers. The three-shaft configuration enables a modular design to be
adopted which leads to quick engine strip and rebuild as well as easing transportability.
Engine accessories are mounted on the fan case rather than the hot core, which facilitates
rapid access. The modular construction has also allowed operators to benefit from progressive
technological developments, as retrofit packages are conveniently incorporated on a modular
basis into their existing RB211 fleets, enhancing the payload/range performance of the aircraft
and the profitability of their operations.
 I
Load bearing I IP spool

Shorter engine Better modularity

Fewer stages Improved performance

retention
lmproved operation
Greater growth potential
Tlie RB211-22 tlzree-shnft el~gille
RB211- ~~neqlmlled
perfonimlice retelitiolz

Flights
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
0
Cruise sfc
deterioration
%
1

L
2

Competitor information bast available to Rolls-Royce

4. RB211-22 DEVELOPMENT
Following receipt of the Lockheed order, development of the RE211 engine presented an
enormous challenge to the Engineering team, particularly since the thrust requirements had
already increased from the 33260 Ibf level of the -06 to 40600 Ibf for the -22 variant. The
previous largest turbofan was the 21800 lbf thrust Conway. The main design objectives of the
-22 were to reduce cruise specific fuel consumption (sfc)by 20-25% compared with this engine
and to substantially reduce engine noise. In addition, a mechanical design was required of
high integrity which could fully exploit the performance potential of the turbomachinery,
providing scope for further thrust growth within a modular construction to ease maintenance.
Since an appreciable step in performance, size and efficiency was being attempted, it was
necessary to depart from previous design practices and experience. In particular this applied
to the large fan, the high pressure annular combustor which replaced the individual flame
tubes of the Conway, the control of tip clearance in the high speed, high pressure turbine and
the large size of the powerplant structure. The key features which were used to sell the engine
to Lockheed were the benefits of the three-shaft configuration and the use of the revolutionary
Hyfil carbon composite wide-chord fan, which offered a significant weight saving and aircraft
payload benefit. Fan blade weight savings are multiplied many times by reducing the
required weight of the fan disk and containment structure.
Considerable redesign of the -06 engine to become the -22 began ahead of the first run of the
-06. Apart from changes to g v e the higher thrust, additional modifications were required by
both Lockheed and the airlines. Casings were strengthened and the engine mounting was
changed from the core to the fan case in an unsuccessful attempt to reduce aircraft weight,
although the move did eliminate a potential noise source in the fan duct. Hyfil carbon
composite and glass fibre reinforced composites, which were design features of the -06 engine,
were eliminated from the casings and compressor rotor stages of the -22 engine. This was
partly a consequence of the mounting change and also because extensive use of composite
materials involved an unjustified risk with entry into service planned for December 1971. The
Hyfil fan blade was, however, retained because of the important performance advantages
which it offered, although its risk was recognised and the parallel development of a narrower
chord titanium fan had already been initiated.
Adrian Lombard, who died suddenly in 1968, used to demonstrate the strength of the
carbon blade by hitting it against steel roof supports. However, on engine testing, the blade
proved less able to accommodate the relatively soft body of a bird when entering at high
speed. The resin proved unable to withstand the sudden impact on the thin leading edge and
the back-up titanium fan had to replace the Hyfil construction, making this one of the easier
problems to solve but eliminating the engine's weight and performance advantage over its
rivals. Nevertheless, persistence turned this setback to our advantage as the wide-chord
concept ultimately led to the titanium bonded hollow fan blade used today, with its inherent
advantages of efficiency and flow capacity, the significance of which I shall return to later.
When the -06 engine ran in August 1968, its performance and mechanical reliability was far
worse than ever expected thus leading to a further redesign of the RB211-22 engine.
Subsequent events showed that this process of redesign and test was to continue for many
more iterations before the engine was fit to fly and carry passengers. The most significant
engine development problems resulted from operating at pressures and temperatures which
were far beyond previous experience. As a result, the HP compressor, combustor and HP
turbine required most attention but poor performance of all the components compounded
these difficulties.
 ~earbbxmodule
Modrrlnr corrsfrriction of flre RE211 fn~nily
I

PerformanceAdvance
\
Thrust +95% Turbine entry +150°C
Cruise sfc - 21% * Pressure ratio 17 -- 25
Noise - 19PNdB Airflow x 3.7
 Although turbomachinery performance on rigs was close to expectation, inadequate control
of blade tip clearances and inadequate sealing led to performance shortcomings in the engine
environment. These deficiencies were eventually overcome by improving detail design and
tightening tolerances, assisted by engine measurements of the relative movements between
rotating and static components over the full speed range, which included the use of X-rays. In
addition, the weight of both the engine and the LlOll aircraft had increased. In May 1970, this
led to an agreement with Lockheed to further increase the take-off thrust to 42000 lbf by
March 1972, causing further design change. The first Tristar flew in November 1970 and
demonstrated significant deficiencies in specific air range, with -22 engines giving 33500 lbf
take-off thrust, the level originally specified for the RB211-06.
The end of 1970 also saw the welcome return of Stanley Hooker to Derby. He had left the
Company in 1948 to join Bristol Aero Engines following a disagreement with Lord Hives but,
following the merger, returned to tackle the RB211 problems. Efforts continued against a
background of increasing costs which led to the financial collapse of the Company on 4
February 1971 and the subsequent take over by the State-owned Rolls-Royce (1971) Ltd.
Ironically, on the evening of the previous day, an engine test had shown that the latest
modifications were proving effective and thrust levels were approaching those required. Two
weeks later, with a further change to the LP nozzle guide vane to achieve optimum
component matching, a take-off thrust of over 41000 lbf was demonstrated with acceptable
turbine entry temperature.
In the period immediately after February 4th 1971, attention moved from improving the
engine performance to improving its durability. Throughout the development programme the
HP turbine blade had been a major cause of development failures with some engines lasting
as little as 5 minutes before a blade was released. Early failures were due to excessive direct
stress whilst later failures were due to vibration from both the upstream and downstream
nozzle guide vanes. An interlocking shroud was incorporated onto the blade and the gap
between the blade and the downstream nozzle guide vane was increased by 0.325", thus
enabling the first 150 hour test to be completed late in 1971.
In the meantime, a favourable outcome to the Government's appraisal of the engine
resulted and the RB211 project was saved. The Tristar entered service with Eastern Airlines
and TWA in April 1972, the 42000 lbf rating being achieved in early 1973. Initially, after
production engines were passed off in Derby, they were flown to the Lockheed facility in
California via Belfast, where Shorts, who carried out the majority of the remaining powerplant
production, completed the build.

5. INITIAL SERVICE OPERATION

The reliability of the engine in the early years was worse than that of the preceding
generation of engines with problems in virtually all modules, due largely to the fact that the
development programme, of necessity, had concentrated on performance. Reliability was
steadily improved as modifications were implemented, a process requiring the close
cooperation of airlines and aided by the modular construction of the engine. Arguably the
most serious service problem, although quickly solved, was the uncontained failure of two fan
disks in late 1972 and early 1973 which fortunately caused no critical damage. The cause
was the sensitivity of the new titanium disk alloy to dwell time at maximum load during the
normal cyclic loading experienced with each flight, the susceptibility of the material being
dependent on its manufacturing history. This was a new phenomenon to the industry. Prior to
changing the material, all disks had to be inspected, a difficult process on the enclosed
 centre engine. In some cases this was repeated every 50 flight cycles, causing a great deal of
disruption and additional costs. Nevertheless, the replacement material was certified within 6
months and the retrofit of the whole fleet was completed just over a year after the original
incident.
Following the development difficulties, the life achieved by the combustion chamber and
HP turbine blades was very short, typically only 800 hours, and urgent action was taken to
improve the design. Additional cooling was introduced in the combustor along with two
additional film cooling rows near to the blade trailing edge. Although this improved the
situation, giving hot section lives of around 2000 hours, the performance was still not
satisfactory. The combustor life was further improved by replacing the sheet metal heat
shields with cast ones, while still more film cooling, this time at the leading edge, increased
the turbine life to over 3000 hours. In addition to cooling problems, blades were suffering
severe erosion caused by carbon shed from the burners. This was solved by a new burner
design which prevented carbon build-up by air-washing those surfaces prone to it. However,
the turbine blade problem was eventually solved when the forged nirnonic blade was replaced
by a cast, directionally solidified blade with an advanced multipass cooling configuration.
Cooling air is passed up and down within the blade before ultimate discharge through film
cooling holes. This blade entered service in 1979 and has demonstrated outstanding integrity,
achieving service lives in excess of 20000 hours and is judged by operators as the best turbine
blade in airline service today.
Prior to the introduction of the -22B DS multipass blade, an equiaxed cast version of the
forged blade was introduced onto the -524 providing improved material properties. A high
pressure feed system was also employed which gave greater scope for the use of film cooling
and this blade was successful in enabling the -524 to be developed to 53000 lbf thrust.
However, it has since been replaced by the multipass design philosophy which has been used
on all subsequent RB211 designs because it has significant advantages. The internal passages
can be fitted with roughening features to selectively enhance heat transfer, giving a
satisfactory blade metal temperature distribution. Furthermore, the relatively large internal
passages have a low loss compared with other systems, ensuring adequate feed pressure for
film cooling rows. Comparison of the -535C and -535E4 designs demonstrates how evolution
of the internal cooling design and the blade profile has achieved satisfactory metal
temperatures with less need for film cooling and its associated aerodynamic penalty.
The directionally solidified casting process, introduced with the -22B multipass blade, has
since been further refined for both cooled and uncooled blades to give single crystal materials,
offering even higher strength and improved resistance to oxidation and corrosion. These
blades, currently in operation on our military engines and in uncooled, solid civil turbines,
will be introduced to the cooled RB211 HP turbine on the Trent engine.
Another significant cause of engine removals began in the winter of 1973, when a number of
HP compressor surges were experienced. It was found that a significant loss in surge margin
occurred with a cold engine on take-off, caused by the compressor casing expanding more
rapidly than the disks and becoming eccentric, leading to excessive blade tip leakage. The
problem was aggravated by a control system problem and compressor blade damage caused
by other defects. Although new engines could cope with this, lower build standards after
repair left insufficient surge margin. The problem was solved by a modified compressor
casing with a new mounting, tailored to more closely match expansions and maintain
concentricity.Prior to this however, pilots were required to warm up engines while standing
at the end of the runway.
 FORGED
BLADES

TET CAPABILITY:

LPFEED
d
HPFEED

BLADES

b
1977 -524 1979 -22BlS35C 1984 -53584 1987 -524
EQUIAXED CAST MULTIPASS DS CAST MULTIPASS DS CAST QUINTUPLE PASS DS CAST
TET CAPABILITY: 1660K 1590/1660K 1660K 1730K
 Poor LP location bearing life was experienced throughout the 1970s. Indeed, the first RB211
failure during flight test at Lockheed was due to this bearing, the primary cause being
marginal lubrication which led to wear. In extreme cases, ignition of the oil occurred which
softened the fan shaft and, in 1981, after approximately 10 million hours in sefvice, a fan shaft
failure occurred in the centre engine of an L1011. The initial modifications were successful in
achieving satisfactory integrity but the bearing life remained poor. The end-load on this
bearing varies throughout the flight envelope and on some RB211 models, including the -228,
it can reverse in direction. At conditions with low end-load, skidding of the balls occurred
which led to failure. On the -22B, this condition arose when the centre engine was throttled
back dur' g descent and for a while this operation had to be changed to enhance bearing life.
1
On the -2 B and early -524 engines, this problem has been alleviated by a modification which
moves the point of load reversal to a less damaging low power condition. Now, with a
redesign to ensure a positive oil feed at all times, bearing life is good. The lower power
RB211-535 engine was designed without a load reversal and has had no failures of this type in
over 4 million hours operation.
In addition to the reliability improvements, changes were made to the afterbody design to
reduce the installed drag of the engine. Research to understand installation losses was
progressing and in 1972 a configuration with an 11' afterbody reduced separation losses on
the rear of the afterbody to yield a 1.5%installed sfc impr~vement.This was much larger than
predicted and led to the realisation that wave drag losses were much lower than previously
thought, the implicationbeing that a major reduction in afterbody length was possible. Thus,
the 15" afterbody was introduced in 1976 and resulted in the specific air range of the LlOll
being up to 5% better than original estimates. 0
Despite the difficult start, the -22B engine now demonstrates excellent reliability and low
cost of ownership and the RB211 has since been developed into an outstanding family of
engines.

6. THE RB211-524
In 1970, it was evident that a second generation RB211 with a thrust in the range of 48000- .
53000 lbf was required for longer range versions of the Boeing 747, the DC-10, LlOll and the
European Airbus. Prelidnary design studies, started in 1971 under Stanley Hooker (later to
receive a knighthood), highlighted the changes needed to achieve the initial 48000 lbf target.
These included a new fan, of the same diameter as the -22B but with a 20% greater flow, a new
IP compressor, modified HP compressor and new HP turbine. None of these changes affected
the overall engine dimensions and when production started, over 85% of parts were common
with the corresponding -22B engine. However, with finance controlled by the Government, it
was almost two years before we were permitted to proceed with full development; detailed
design starting in 1972.
The target thrust was achieved after only two days testing in October 1973 and led to more
ambitious performance objectives being set at 50000 lbf thrust. The engine entered service in
1977 initially on a heavier version of the Lockheed LlOll with Saudi Arabian Airlines and
subsequently on the Boeing 747 with British Airways. Replacement of the -22B engine on the
LlOll decreased fuel burn by 7% and contributed to a 66% increase in range, converting a
transcontinental airframe to one with intercontinental capability.
More powerful variants have since been developed for the 747, the 51500 lbf -524C in 1980,
the 53000 lbf -524D4 in 1981 and more recently the 58000 and 60600 lbf -524G and H, each
accompanied by reductions in sfc and all using essentially the same fan diameter and nacelle
xr,Lprovenzei~t
in cnstiilg tecln~ology.Examples 01 ryurlcxrcr, Llrrrctionally solidified and single cystal castings
RB211 LP locatioil bearing desigil

Engine thrust
-524G

-535

skidding

-
F.orward
I
Axial load
*
Rearward
 Initial service First stage improvement - Second stage
configuration Ilo
afterbody improvement-
15" afterbody

Clznizges to We RB211-22 nfterbody design

The RB211 fmnlly nild n~rfrninenypl~cntioizs

80 - ---------------
Trent t-=--e-
McDonnell Douglas MD-12

70 -
Thrust
Ib x 1000

60 -
-524D4

50 - */-* -- 4
-5248
-524C-C)

---- - -
-524D4-B

-52484 Improved
Boelng 747

4-4
Improved -22B Lockheed L-1011
,." &-. +2
40- -228 Tupolev Tu-204
535E5
Boelng 757
535C
Rolls-Royce ciwil rrrgirre cruise sfc mrtd

Straight Low Medium High

jet bypass bypass bypass

!
Propulsive
efficiency

%SFC 30
\
improvement
(Bare engine) Cycle OPR
and TET
Thermal
' efficiency
to efficiency
Component

Datum o
(19581
Avon Conway Spey RBZll RB211 RB211 RB211
-228 -524 B41D4 -535 E4 -524Gll.
Certification year
 as the -22B engine. An impressive demonstration of the impact of this progress on aircraft
performance took place in 1989, when a Qantas Boeing 747-400 powered by -524G engines
flew non-stop from London to Sydney, albeit with a greatly reduced payload. The
performance advances, introduced in response to customer requirements, have caused
significant penetration of the -524 into the Boeing 747 market against the competitor JT9D and
PW4000 engines of Pratt & Whitney and the CF6 family of General Electric. How then, have
these advances been achieved?
Improvements in the RB211 have been primarily the result of improved component
efficiencies, there being little change in the contribution from the cycle or in propulsive
efficiency. Considering the -524 family, approximately 70% of the sfc reduction is due to an
improvement in the transfer of available core energy into useful propulsive energy, mainly
brought about by improved fan and LP turbine efficiencies. The remaining 30% is the result of
improved components and reduced parasitic losses in the engine core. Increases in thrust have
resulted from a larger air mass flow and higher overall pressure ratio, the flexibility of the
three-shaft configuration providing growth without the need for large increases in turbine
entry temperature.
Advances in the core compressor technology have enabled higher flows to be passed
without an increase in the compressor exit area. The use of computational fluid dynamics has
produced improved blading designs leading to increased stage loadings which, together with
higher rotational speeds and improved stage matching, have enabled the pressure ratio per
stage to rise. This has been accompanied by an increase in compressor polytropic efficiency
which at 92% on the Trent is approaching a practical limit. In current cycles a 1%increase in
the polytropic efficiency of the compression system leads to approximately 1%sfc
improvement and a 15°C turbine temperature reduction at a thrust.
The trend towards higher pressure ratios and the progressive tightening of environmental
legislation, have driven developments in combustion technology to reduce exhaust emissions.
The combustion chamber produces four main species of emissions; smoke and nitrous oxides
at higher power, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide at low power. Ideally, the mixture in the
primary burning zone needs to be as weak as possible at take-off to reduce smoke and as rich
as possible at idle to reduce idle emissions, requirements which are in direct contradiction
with the engine stoichiometry at these conditions. A careful compromise is therefore
necessary.
Emission reductions have been achieved by refinement of the mixing process within the
combustor and changes to the fuel injectors to improve atomisation, both enabled by a
combination of experimental work and computational modelling. NO, emissions are
controlled by restricting the time spent at high temperature, which requires the burning of a
rich mixture in the primary combustion zone to be followed by a rapid quench with dilution
air. Combustion efficiency at low power has been increased from below 90% in the designs of
the early 1960s to over 99.5%today, giving a substantial reduction in idle emissions.

7. THE RB211-535
The RB211-535 engine was created to power the Boeing 757 and was ordered by the
aircraft's two launch customers, British Airways and Eastern Airlines, in August 1978. This
marked the first occasion on which a Boeing aircraft had been launched without Pratt &
Whitney engines.
Boeing designed the 757 as a successor to the world's best selling aircraft, the 727. Although
it was conceived as a derivative design, it emerged as a completely new aircraft having only
 Overall
pressure ratio

1970 1980 1990 Entry into service

Advances in core compressor performance

Trends in reduced coinbustioiz emissions

Average emissions by Average emissions by

year of manufacture year of manufacture
SAE
Smoke
~~~b~~
1960-1970
1980-1990
1 1970-1973

"
1985-1988

Smoke Hydrocarbons Carbon Monoxide NOx

r--l Predicted NOx increase due to increased pressure
1 1 ratio. and no improvementin technology
engined aircraft and ~ o l l g ~ owere
~ c einvolved in a partnership with Pratt & Whitney on the
JTlOD engine for this application. However, in 1976, wllen the 757 design was confirmed as a
two-engined aircraft, it was evident that a reduced thrust version of the RB211 was suitable
and so the JTlOD collaboration was terminated, with Pratt & Whitney choosing not to enter a
partnership on the -535 engine.
The Boeing 757 aimed to provide a substantial reduction in fuel consumption, both by
reducing aircraft drag and improving engine sfc relative to the Pratt & Whitney JT8D engines
which powered the 727. The choice of a twin-engined design placed greater emphasis on
engine reliability and this favoured the choice of a low risk derivative engine. In addition, a
derivative offered a shorter timescale to certification and reduced launch costs.
The -535C, at 37400 lbf thrust, offered a derating of RB211 parameters allowing the use of
conservative turbine temperatures. However, the existing -228 high pressure rotor, which
formed the basis of the design, was slightly larger than the optimum and, therefore, weight
and performance penalties were incurred. In parallel with our efforts, General Electric were
planning a similar derivative within their CF6 family. The competition continued until 1978
when the launch orders for the -535C were placed, causing General Electric to withdraw from
the market. Eastern Airlines operations began in 1982 with the Boeing 757/RB211-535C
combination demonstrating a 72% increase in passenger miles per gallon of fuel above the
727-200 aircraft as well as increased range.
In 1980, with the continuing rise in fuel prices, Pratt & Whitney launched a competitor
engine in an attempt to re-establish their dominant position held in the short/medium haul
aircraft market during the 1960s and 1970s. Their PW2037 design emerged as a scaled up
version of the earlier JT1OD study. The design incorporated a very ambitious thermodynamic
cycle and advanced component technology which promised an 8% sfc advantage over the
-535C. The future of our investment in the -535 was therefore threatened and a further
derivative, the 40100 lbf thrust -535E4 engine, was proposed to counter this challenge. The
-535E4 incorporated many of our most advanced technologies, already proven in
demonstrator programmes, which have since been incorporated into the -524 family on the G
and H engines.
One of the most significant advances made by Rolls-Royce was the introduction of the
hollow wide-chord fan blade on the -535E4 in 1984. The success of this component was the
culmination of many years of engineering and manufacturing research, with its origins in the
original unsuccessful Hyfil blade.
Previous fan blades of solid titanium construction were restricted in chord by a limit on
blade weight, necessary to enable successful containment in the event of failure. These
relatively narrow blades were aerodynamicallyunstable requiring a snubber, or damper, part
way along the span in order to prevent flutter. However, snubbers reduce the blade efficiency
by causing pressure losses, reduce the effective flow area and hence fan flow capacity, lead to
shockwave interaction losses and require the blade to be locally thickened to absorb the
snubber loads. The introduction of the wide-chord fan blade enabled the required blade
stiffnessto be obtained without snubbers, while its hollow construction reduced blade weight
to allow successful containment.
The blade is a sandwich construction, with titanium alloy skins and a thin walled
honeycomb core, also of titanium alloy. These are joined by activated diffusion bonding, a
process developed by Rolls-Royce. Elimination of the snubbers gives the benefits of higher
blade efficiency, higher pressure ratio for a given speed and a high flow for a given fan
 wake

535c
33 snubbered
fan blades

535E4
22 wide chord
fan blades

The wide-cltord fan

I
 diameter. Other benefits are the greater resistance to foreign object damage and a contribution
to lower engine noise, to which I shall return.
Following proven service on the -535E4, the technology has since been applied to the
smaller Tay and five-nation V2500 engines, as well as the -524G/H, gaining over 5 million
hours service experience without failure. Several Rolls-Royce engines with wide chord fan
blades also have common exhaust nozzles and a long cowl; the fan and turbine exhaust flows
being combined before leaving the engine via a single nozzle. This development provides an
efficiency benefit in its own right which is maximised when combined with the wide chord
blade. The combination causes the fan to operate over a more favourable region of its
efficiency envelope during climb and cruise and results in an sfc improvement of
approximately 4%.
The major developments in three-dimensional flow calculation, aided by rig measurements,
were first applied to the design of the HP nozzle guide vane on the -535E4, in order to increase
efficiency by reducing secondary losses in the endwall regions. This gives rise to blade leading
and trailing edge shapes which are curved and leant rather than straight, which leads to
additional complexities in the cooling design and manufacture. The improvement in
aerodynamic performance is more significant at high blade loadings, where turning angles,
and thus secondary flows, are highest.
Developments in materials have enabled the thrust to weight ratio of the RB211 to be
dramatically increased. Wider use of titanium in the HP compressor and carbon composites in
the nacelle contributed to the -535E4 having a higher thrust to weight ratio than the PW2037.
The exploitation of titanium has been dramatic, with it now contributing over 30%of the
engine by weight. Its specific strength, with a density just over half that of steel, is superior to
most other structural metals and it is this characteristic, maintained to high temperatures,
which has resulted in the rapid growth in use, especially for compressor components. The
result of this and the development of high temperature nickel alloys, is that steel, which until
1960 accounted for about 60%by weight of aero engines, has gradually been replaced. Resin
based composites have also been introduced, mainly in low temperature, non load bearing
applications, to utilise their high specific stiffness. The replacement of the aluminium cowl
doors on the -535E4 with composites resulted in a 30%weight saving and a 25% cost saving.
Other applications include the nose cone, fairings and thrust reverser components.
The RB211-535 engine is the quietest of its class. At Washington National Airport, for
example, the Boeing 757 with -535E4 engines is the only aircraft with over 100 seats allowed to
operate during the night curfew, providing a valuable commercial advantage. Annoyance
levels caused by aircraft noise are now six times lower than the earliest civil engines at the
same thrust and continuous improvement has been seen throughout the whole engine family,
including the five-nation V2500 for which we have noise and powerplant responsibility.
The spacings between turbomachinery stages and the numbers of blades are chosen to
avoid obtrusive tones, whilst extensive use of acoustic liner in the intake and bypass duct
absorb noise. Both the wide chord fan and integrated nozzle have helped to reduce noise.
The smaller number of blades helps the designer avoid the generation of tones due to
interaction with the fixed vanes behind it, while the wider chord makes it more difficult for
noise to escape forwards from the fan. At high powers, the more rigid blade and tight
manufacturing tolerances reduce the irritating ''buzz-saw" sound produced from the
differences in shock strengths resulting from the supersonic flow at the blade tips. The mixing
of the hot and cold gas streams before leaving the engine, further reduces the jet velocity and
hence jet noise.
Tlzc Bmiiig 757 pozuered by RB211-535E4 engines

The irrtegiuted nozzle and forcd rnixer

Hot and cold stream mixing for:

- improved efficiency
- reduced noise

Increased reverse thrust

-
In service, the -535 engine has proved to be the most reliable ever which, together with its
low noise, has helped the engine to take 56% of the market and 87%over the last three years.
It was granted 180 minutes ETOPS clearance with the Boeing 757 after 6 years of service
operation. The RB211-524 also has the lowest removal rate on the Boeing 747 and 767 aircraft.
An early -524 engine recently became the highest life aero-engine in history by achieving over
22500 hours on wing without removal, equivalent to approximately 11 million miles.

8. THE RB211 TRENT ENGINE A N D BEYOND

In the mid-eighties it was apparent that a large market existed for high capacity transports
capable of flying intercontinental ranges. This demand arose both from the expected 5% per
annum growth in passenger-miles and from the requirement to replace early Boeing 747,
DC-10 and LlOll aircraft. Approximately 50%by value of future airline business is expected
to be in this sector. In addition, with the advance in engine reliability levels, the "big-twin"
was rising in prominence on long-haul as well as short to medium-haul routes.
A large gap exists between the unrivalled payload/range capability of the Boeing 747 and
that of the present wide-bodied twins, such as the Boeing 767 and Airbus A300. During 1987
and 1988, Boeing, Airbus and McDonnell Douglas, recognised the need to produce aircraft to '

bridge this gap with thrust requirements significantly higher than the existing RB211 could
provide. Realising that thrust requirements would increase with time, the challenge that faced
us was to offer thrust up to 85000 lbf and beyond. For long range aircraft, the largest single
contribution to the cost of ownership is fuel, being some 40% of the total. The need to reduce
fuel burn is, therefore, of the utmost importance in the development of large thrust civil
engines.
Early &dies-indicated that the high pressure system of the -524G/H engine was large
enough to provide engines with this thrust capability, provided a larger fan diameter was
used together with a new IP compressor to supercharge the HP system. Hence, in 1988 the
RB211 Trent family of engines was launched, with take-off thrust capability ranging from
64000 lbf to over 95000 lbf.
The Trent 700 is rated at 67500-78000 Ibf and will enter service on the A330 with TWA in
1995. It has also been specified for the MD-12 aircraft which is due to enter service in 1997
and presents a real competitor to the Boeing 747. During 1989, Boeing concluded that, in order
to challenge the A330, a completely new aircraft was required and launched the Boeing 777.
The Trent 800 for this aircraft covers thrusts from 75000 lbf to 86500 Ibf and will enter service
with Thai Airways in 1995. This engine has a 110" fan diameter compared with 97.5" on the
Trent 700 and 86" on the existing -524G. The thrust capability of these engine variants has
been optimised for each aircraft application and tailored to meet airline requirements.
The higher pressure ratio and higher flow of the new IP compressor enables the gas
generator to power a larger fan driven by a new LP turbine. The turbine has been designed
with the latest three-dimensionalaero technology and features four stages in the Trent 700 and
five on the Trent 800, compared with three on existing RB2lls.
The Trent is being designed to meet ETOPS regulations at entry into service by drawing on
all previous RB211 experience. The high pressure system of the engine is to be common with
contemporary -524G/H engines and incorporates a more efficient compressor with a 33%
- weight reduction, a low emissions combustor with a shorter residence time to reduce NO, and
1 7'heRB211-535E4 HP noale guide vane: Three-dimensionalaerodynamic design

( Engine noise: Sources ~ n control

d

Sources

Jet mixing
/ \

nnd stator:
 a more advanced turbine. The ease of thrust growth enabled by the three-shaft design has
resulted in the maximum operating temperature being lower than competing designs by some
60-70°C on the Trent 800 which will give benefits in hot section life.
The Trent 700 and 800 are the lightest engines in the A330 and Boeing 777 respectively. The
Trent 700 has an 18%thrust to weight advantage over the -524H currently in service and is
about 2000 lb lighter than a scaled version of the -524. Major advances in the engine structure
and powerplant have been incorporated, including the adoption of core mounting; a
lightweight composite nacelle with a blocker door thrust reverser (rather than cascades) and a
cast IMI 834 titanium intercase, originally developed on our XG40 military demonstrator
engine.
A second generation wide chord fan blade is incorporated, manufactured by a
superplasticallyformed/diffusion bonded (SPF/DB) process. This increases the strength of
the internal stiffening structure, allowing the blade weight and manufacturing costs to be
reduced and giving further savings in the containment structure and fan disk. An aluminium
isogrid containment ring with Kevlar wrapping has been introduced which is approximately
380 lb lighter than the steel containment system on the -524G. The need for weight reduction
has led to the new General Electric GE90 e n ~ n adovting
e a comvosite wide chord fan which.
based on our earlier experience, represents ;higher iisk znd is siill heavier than the hollow '
SPF/DB fan.
Future development of the Trent will occur in two ways. Firstly the two shaft core will be
progressively developed to higher overall pressure ratios and turbine temperatures, enabling
the existing engines to achieve over 95000 Ibf thrust. This development will initially be by
component and later by module substitution. In the longer term the fan diameter will be
changed to a size which will be decided by future aircraft requirements. However, the fully
developed core will be capable of driving a fan of 130" diameter to give an engine with a
bypass ratio of 9 and over 105000 lbf thrust, which should satisfy future market requirements
for at least another 25 years. Above a bypass ratio of 9 it will be necessary to consider more
novel engine configurations involving gearboxes in order to avoid large diameter shafts and
an excessive number of turbine stages.
Critical to making these developments practical are the weight of the engine and the drag of
the nacelle, both of which must be contained so that the fuel consumption benefit of a higher
bypass ratio is not eroded. Here, new materials have an important role to play. Higher
temperature polymer based, fibre reinforced composites will need to be used in structural
components and casings, whilst the application of titanium aluminides to LP turbine, IP
compressor blades and structural components, offers high rewards. A low weight, low drag
nacelle is another key requirement, along with its successful integration with the airframe to
avoid interference losses. A flight test of a natural laminar flow nacelle is to take place shortly,
which offers a 25% nacelle drag reduction and 1%installed sfc improvement at Trent size,
which could be increased to 2% by using a more complex design utilising surface suction.
The three-shaft RB211 engine, conceived 25 years ago, is highly suited to meet both the
thrust and sfc requirements of the next generation of aircraft. Whilst new configurations will
eventually be introduced, it is evident that when all the factors which affect aircraft direct
operating costs are considered, advanced RB211 derivatives will be very difficult to displace.
The RB211 is well placed to meet the challenges of the next 25 years and is likely to beat the
record set by the Dart engine, which enjoyed 40 years of continuous production with over
7000 engines being sold.
 Engine
Removal Rate
(Per 1000 1.O
hours)

Years in service
I

The RB211-535E4: U~zequnlledrelinbility

Rent - Advn~~ced
civil technologj

SPFIDB / High Temperature T i i ~

wide-chorc
containment
 SPF/DB Fan construction Aluminium isogrid fan case

Trent fa~z- Weigl~tsaving technolo~j

Future RB211 derivatives: Technology requirelne~zts

IP spool -,
High efficiency, compact Advanced core
\
-
-
Increased OPR & TET
Low emissions combustor I

Low weight , low drag nacelle

9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Rolls-Royce plc for permission to publish this paper, his
colleagues who have contributed to its content and Mr C J Cholerton who assisted in its
preparation.

10. REFERENCES
1. COWNIE, J R "Success Through Perseverance: the Rolls-Royce RB211 Engine", The
Putnam Aeronautical Review, Issue 4, December 1989.

2. ELTIS, E M and WILDE, G L "The Rolls-Royce RB211 Turbofan Engine", 1974 James
Clayton Lecture, IMechE Proceedings, Volume 188 37/74.

2. KEIR, J 0 "The Rolls-Royce RB211-535 Engine", Paper submitted to IMechE, 1987.

4. PICKERELL, D J "History of Development of Major Rolls-Royce Commercial Engine

Models", presented at the Air Transport Association of America - Engineering and
Maintenance Forum, Cincinnati, Ohio, September 1987.

5. RUFFLES, P C "Wide-Chord Fan Proved in Nearly Five Years of Service", The

Rolls-Royce Magazine, No 41, June 1989.

6. SPENCER, M A "The Development of the Rolls-Royce Trent Aero Gas Turbine", Lecture
to North Eastern Branch of IMechE, April 1991.
 PHILIP CHARLES RUFFLES
Mr Philip Charles Ruffles became Director - Engineering, Rolls-Royce plc - Aerospace Group
on 1st January 1991.
He was educated at Sevenoaks School and gained a first class honours degree in Mechanical
Engineering from Bristol University. He is a Fellow of The Fellowship of Engineering, a Fellow
of the Royal Aeronautical Society and a Fellow of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.
He joined Rolls-Royce in 1961 and first worked in the Preliminary Design group on new
engine projects and was later involved in the development of the RB211 engine becoming
Chief Engineer of the RB211-22B for the LlOll Tristar in 1977 and later of the RB211-524D4D
for the Boeing 747.
In 1981 he was appointed Head of Engineering of the Small Engine Group and played a
major part in the launch of the RTM322 helicopter engine. In the period from 1984 through to
1989 he held the posts of Head of Technology, Director of Technology and Director of Design
Engineering and in the latter post he was responsible for the design of the Company's new
products including the RB211-524G, V2500, Tay, Pegasus 11-61 and EJ200 engines. He was
appointed Technical Director in March 1989, with responsibility for the direction of the
Company's Advanced Engineering programmes.
He is an Honorary Professor of the University of Warwick and in 1987 was awarded the
Ackroyd Stuart Prize by the Royal Aeronautical Society.
Philip R11ff7esBSc, F E I I ~FRAeS,
, FIMecllE
 Production

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