Rifling

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Conventional rifling of a 90 mm M75 cannon (production year 1891, Austro-Hungary)

Rifling of a 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 tank gun.

In firearms, rifling refers to the helical groovings that are machined into the
internal (bore) surface of a gun's barrel, for the purpose of exerting torque and
thus imparting a spin to a projectile around its longitudinal axis during shooting.
This spin serves to gyroscopically stabilize the projectile by conservation of
angular momentum, improving its aerodynamic stability and accuracy over smoothbore
designs.

Rifling is often described by its twist rate, which indicates the distance the
rifling takes to complete one full revolution, such as "1 turn in 10 inches" (1:10
inches), or "1 turn in 254 mm" (1:254 mm). A shorter distance indicates a "faster"
twist, meaning that for a given velocity the projectile will be rotating at a
higher spin rate.

The combination of length, weight and shape of a projectile determines the twist
rate needed to stabilize it � barrels intended for short, large-diameter
projectiles like spherical lead balls require a very low twist rate, such as 1 turn
in 48 inches (122 cm).[1] Barrels intended for long, small-diameter bullets, such
as the ultra-low-drag, 80-grain 0.223 inch bullets (5.2 g, 5.56 mm), use twist
rates of 1 turn in 8 inches (20 cm) or faster.[2]

In some cases, rifling will have changing twist rates that increase down the length
of the barrel, called a gain twist or progressive twist; a twist rate that
decreases from breech to muzzle is undesirable, since it cannot reliably stabilize
the bullet as it travels down the bore.[3][4] Extremely long projectiles such as
flechettes may require high twist rates; these projectiles must be inherently
stable, and are often fired from a smoothbore barrel.

Contents
1 History
1.1 Recent developments
1.1.1 Polygonal rifling
1.1.2 Extended range, full bore
1.1.3 Gain-twist rifling
2 Manufacture
3 Construction and operation
4 Fitting the projectile to the bore
5 Twist rate
5.1 Expressing twist rate
5.2 Twist rate and bullet stability
5.3 Bullet spin
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
8.1 Calculators for stability and twist
History

Traditional rifling of a 9 mm handgun barrel.

Main article: Rifle
Muskets were smoothbore, large caliber weapons using ball-shaped ammunition fired
at relatively low velocity. Due to the high cost and great difficulty of precision
manufacturing, and the need to load readily and speedily from the muzzle, musket
balls were generally a loose fit in the barrels. Consequently, on firing the balls
would often bounce off the sides of the barrel when fired and the final destination
after leaving the muzzle was less predictable. This was countered when accuracy was
more important, for example when hunting, by using a tighter-fitting combination of
a closer-to-bore-sized ball and a patch. The accuracy was improved, but still not
reliable for precision shooting over long distances.

Barrel rifling was invented in Augsburg, Germany in 1498.[5] In 1520 August Kotter,
an armourer from Nuremberg, improved upon this work. Though true rifling dates from
the mid-16th century, it did not become commonplace until the nineteenth century.

The concept of stabilizing the flight of a projectile by spinning it was known in

the days of bows and arrows, but early firearms using black powder had difficulty
with rifling because of the fouling left behind by the dirty combustion of the
powder. The most successful weapons using rifling with black powder were breech
loaders such as the Queen Anne pistol.

Recent developments
Polygonal rifling

Conventional rifling (left) and polygonal rifling (right). Both types of rifling
use a spiraling pattern.
Main article: Polygonal rifling

The spiraling pattern (here with polygonal rifling) is shown.

The grooves most commonly used in modern rifling have fairly sharp edges. More
recently, polygonal rifling, a throwback to the earliest types of rifling, has
become popular, especially in handguns. Polygonal barrels tend to have longer
service lives because the reduction of the sharp edges of the land (the grooves are
the spaces that are cut out, and the resulting ridges are called lands) reduces
erosion of the barrel. Supporters of polygonal rifling also claim higher velocities
and greater accuracy. Polygonal rifling is currently seen on pistols from CZ,
Heckler & Koch, Glock, Tanfoglio, and Kahr Arms, as well as the Desert Eagle.

Extended range, full bore

For tanks and artillery pieces, the extended range, full bore concept developed by
Gerald Bull for the GC-45 howitzer reverses the normal rifling idea by using a
projectile with small fins that ride in the grooves, as opposed to using a
projectile with a slightly oversized driving band which is forced into the grooves.
Such guns have achieved significant increases in muzzle velocity and range.
Examples include the South African G5 and the German PzH 2000.

Gain-twist rifling

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Gain-twist rifling, also called progressive rifling, begins with very little change
in the projectile's angular momentum during the first few inches of bullet travel
after ignition during the transition from chamber to throat. This enables the
bullet to remain essentially undisturbed and trued to the case mouth. After
engaging the rifling the bullet is progressively subjected to accelerated angular
momentum as burning powder propels it down the barrel. By only gradually increasing
the spin rate, torque is spread along a much longer section of barrel, rather than
only at the throat where rifling is eroded through repeated rifling engagement.

Gain-twist rifling was used as prior to and during the American Civil War
(1861�65). Colt Army and Navy revolvers both employed gain-twist rifling. Gain-
twist rifling, however, is more difficult to produce than uniform rifling, and
therefore is more expensive. The military has used gain-twist rifling in a variety
of weapons such as the 20 mm M61 Vulcan Gatling gun used in some current fighter
jets and the larger 30 mm GAU-8 Avenger Gatling gun used in the A10 Thunderbolt II
close air support jet. In these applications it allows lighter construction of the
barrels by decreasing chamber pressures through the use of low initial twist rates
but ensuring the projectiles have sufficient stability once they leave the barrel.
It is seldom used in commercially available products, though notably on the Smith &
Wesson Model 460 (X-treme Velocity Revolver).[6]

Manufacture

Rifling in a French 19th century cannon.

Further information: Internal ballistics
An early method of introducing rifling to a pre-drilled barrel was to use a cutter
mounted on a square-section rod, accurately twisted into a spiral of the desired
pitch, mounted in two fixed square-section holes. As the cutter was advanced
through the barrel it twisted at a uniform rate governed by the pitch. The first
cut was shallow but as repeated cuts were made the cutter points were gradually
expanded�the blades were in slots in a wooden dowel which were gradually packed out
with slips of paper�until the required depth was obtained. The process was finished
off by casting a slug of molten lead into the barrel, withdrawing it and using it
with a paste of emery and oil to smooth the bore.[7]

Most rifling is created by either:

cutting one groove at a time with a tool (cut rifling or single point cut rifling);
cutting all grooves in one pass with a special progressive broaching bit (broached
rifling);
pressing all grooves at once with a tool called a "button" that is pushed or pulled
down the barrel (button rifling);
forging the barrel over a mandrel containing a reverse image of the rifling, and
often the chamber as well (hammer forging);
flow forming the barrel preform over a mandrel containing a reverse image of the
rifling (rifling by flow forming)
The grooves are the spaces that are cut out, and the resulting ridges are called
lands. These lands and grooves can vary in number, depth, shape, direction of twist
(right or left), and twist rate. The spin imparted by rifling significantly
improves the stability of the projectile, improving both range and accuracy.
Typically rifling is a constant rate down the barrel, usually measured by the
length of travel required to produce a single turn. Occasionally firearms are
encountered with a gain twist, where the rate of spin increases from chamber to
muzzle. While intentional gain twists are rare, due to manufacturing variance, a
slight gain twist is in fact fairly common. Since a reduction in twist rate is very
detrimental to accuracy, gunsmiths who are machining a new barrel from a rifled
blank will often measure the twist carefully so they may put the faster rate, no
matter how minute the difference is, at the muzzle end.

Construction and operation

A barrel of circular bore cross-section is not capable of imparting a spin to a
projectile, so a rifled barrel has a non-circular cross-section. Typically the
rifled barrel contains one or more grooves that run down its length, giving it a
cross-section resembling an internal gear, though it can also take the shape of a
polygon, usually with rounded corners. Since the barrel is not circular in cross-
section, it cannot be accurately described with a single diameter. Rifled bores may
be described by the bore diameter (the diameter across the lands or high points in
the rifling), or by groove diameter (the diameter across the grooves or low points
in the rifling). Differences in naming conventions for cartridges can cause
confusion; for example, the projectiles of the .303 British are actually slightly
larger in diameter than the projectiles of the .308 Winchester, because the ".303"
refers to the bore diameter in inches (bullet is .312), while the ".308" refers to
the bullet diameter in inches (7.92 mm and 7.82 mm, respectively).

Despite differences in form, the common goal of rifling is to deliver the

projectile accurately to the target. In addition to imparting the spin to the
bullet, the barrel must hold the projectile securely and concentrically as it
travels down the barrel. This requires that the rifling meet a number of tasks:[4]

It must be sized so that the projectile will swage or obturate upon firing to fill
the bore.
The diameter should be consistent, and must not increase towards the muzzle.
The rifling should be consistent down the length of the bore, without changes in
cross-section, such as variations in groove width or spacing.
It should be smooth, with no scratches lying perpendicular to the bore, so it does
not abrade material from the projectile.
The chamber and crown must smoothly transition the projectile into and out of the
rifling.
Rifling may not begin immediately forward of the chamber. There may be an unrifled
throat ahead of the chamber so a cartridge may be chambered without pushing the
bullet into the rifling. This reduces the force required to load a cartridge into
the chamber, and prevents leaving a bullet stuck in the rifling when an unfired
cartridge is removed from the chamber. The specified diameter of the throat may be
somewhat greater than groove diameter, and may be enlarged by use if hot powder gas
melts the interior barrel surface when the rifle is fired.[8] Freebore is a groove-
diameter length of smoothbore barrel without lands forward of the throat. Freebore
allows the bullet to transition from static friction to sliding friction and gain
linear momentum prior to encountering the resistance of increasing rotational
momentum. Freebore may allow more effective use of propellants by reducing the
initial pressure peak during the minimum volume phase of internal ballistics before
the bullet starts moving down the barrel. Barrels with freebore length exceeding
the rifled length have been known by a variety of trade names including paradox.[9]

When the projectile is swaged into the rifling, it takes on a mirror image of the
rifling, as the lands push into the projectile in a process called engraving.
Engraving takes on not only the major features of the bore, such as the lands and
grooves, but also minor features, like scratches and tool marks. The relationship
between the bore characteristics and the engraving on the projectile are often used
in forensic ballistics.

Fitting the projectile to the bore

57-N-231 standard 7.62�39mm military bullets with steel core - the one on the left
is unfired, the one on the right is fired, with the rifling grooves visible. Notice
the copper wash scraped off and the steel jacket is exposed on the groove marks.
Three recovered 7.62�51mm NATO bullets (next to an unfired cartridge), showing
rifling marks imparting anti-clockwise spin

Russian 122 mm shrapnel shell (which has been fired) showing rifling marks on the
copper alloy driving band around its base, indicating clockwise spin

Cannonball equipped with winglets for rifled cannons circa 1860

Ogival shell of the La Hitte system, 1858, designed to engage with clockwise
rifling
The original firearms were loaded from the muzzle by forcing a ball from the muzzle
to the chamber. Whether using a rifled or smooth bore, a good fit was needed to
seal the bore and provide the best possible accuracy from the gun. To ease the
force required to load the projectile, these early guns used an undersized ball,
and a patch made of cloth, paper, or leather to fill the windage (the gap between
the ball and the walls of the bore). The patch provided some degree of sealing,
kept the ball seated on the charge of black powder, and kept the ball concentric to
the bore. In rifled barrels, the patch also provided a means to transfer the spin
from the rifling to the bullet, as the patch is engraved rather than the ball.
Until the advent of the hollow-base Mini� ball, which obturates upon firing to seal
the bore and engage the rifling, the patch provided the best means of getting the
projectile to engage the rifling.[10]

In breech-loading firearms, the task of seating the projectile into the rifling is
handled by the throat of the chamber. Next is the freebore, which is the portion of
the throat down which the projectile travels before the rifling starts. The last
section of the throat is the throat angle, where the throat transitions into the
rifled barrel.

The throat is usually sized slightly larger than the projectile, so the loaded
cartridge can be inserted and removed easily, but the throat should be as close as
practical to the groove diameter of the barrel. Upon firing, the projectile expands
under the pressure from the chamber, and obturates to fit the throat. The bullet
then travels down the throat and engages the rifling, where it is engraved, and
begins to spin. Engraving the projectile requires a significant amount of force,
and in some firearms there is a significant amount of freebore, which helps keep
chamber pressures low by allowing the propellant gases to expand before being
required to engrave the projectile. Minimizing freebore improves accuracy by
decreasing the chance that a projectile will distort before entering the rifling.
[11][12]

Twist rate
For best performance, the barrel should have a twist rate sufficient to spin
stabilize any bullet that it would reasonably be expected to fire, but not
significantly more. Large diameter bullets provide more stability, as the larger
radius provides more gyroscopic inertia, while long bullets are harder to
stabilize, as they tend to be very backheavy and the aerodynamic pressures have a
longer arm ("lever") to act on. The slowest twist rates are found in muzzleloading
firearms meant to fire a round ball; these will have twist rates as low as 1 in 72
inches (180 cm), or slightly longer, although for a typical multi-purpose
muzzleloader rifle, a twist rate of 1 in 48 inches (120 cm) is very common. The
M16A2 rifle, which is designed to fire the 5.56�45mm NATO SS109 ball and L110
tracer bullets, has a 1 in 7-inch (18 cm) or 32 calibers twist. Civilian AR-15
rifles are commonly found with 1 in 12 inches (30 cm) or 54.8 calibers for older
rifles and 1 in 9 inches (23 cm) or 41.1 calibers for most newer rifles, although
some are made with 1 in 7 inches (18 cm) or 32 calibers twist rates, the same as
used for the M16 rifle. Rifles, which generally fire longer, smaller diameter
bullets, will in general have higher twist rates than handguns, which fire shorter,
larger diameter bullets.
Expressing twist rate
There are three methods in use to describe the twist rate:

The, traditionally speaking, most common method expresses the twist rate in terms
of the 'travel' (length) required to complete one full projectile revolution in the
rifled barrel. This method does not give an easy or straightforward understanding
of whether a twist rate is relatively slow or fast when bores of different
diameters are compared.

The second method describes the 'rifled travel' required to complete one full
projectile revolution in calibers or bore diameters.

{\displaystyle {Twist}={\frac {L}{D_{bore}}}} {Twist}={\frac {L}{D_{bore}}}

where:

Twist = twist rate expressed in bore diameters

L = the twist length required to complete one full projectile revolution (in mm or
in)
Dbore = bore diameter (diameter of the lands, in mm or in)
Note that the twist travel L and the bore diameter D must be expressed in a
consistent unit of measure, i.e. metric (mm) or imperial (in).

The third method simply reports the angle of the grooves relative to the bore axis,
measured in degrees.

Note that the latter two methods have the inherent advantage of expressing twist
rate as a ratio and give an easy understanding if a twist rate is relatively slow
or fast even when comparing bores of differing diameters.

Twist rate and bullet stability

In 1879, George Greenhill, a professor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy
(RMA) at Woolwich, London, UK[13] developed a rule of thumb for calculating the
optimal twist rate for lead-core bullets. This shortcut uses the bullet's length,
needing no allowances for weight or nose shape.[14] The eponymous Greenhill
Formula, still used today, is:

{\displaystyle Twist={\frac {CD^{2}}{L}}\times {\sqrt {\frac {SG}{10.9}}}}

Twist={\frac {CD^{2}}{L}}\times {\sqrt {\frac {SG}{10.9}}}

where:

C = 150 (use 180 for muzzle velocities higher than 2,800 f/s)
D = bullet's diameter in inches
L = bullet's length in inches
SG = bullet's specific gravity (10.9 for lead-core bullets, which cancels out the
second half of the equation)
The original value of C was 150, which yields a twist rate in inches per turn, when
given the diameter D and the length L of the bullet in inches. This works to
velocities of about 840 m/s (2800 ft/s); above those velocities, a C of 180 should
be used. For instance, with a velocity of 600 m/s (2000 ft/s), a diameter of 0.5
inches (13 mm) and a length of 1.5 inches (38 mm), the Greenhill formula would give
a value of 25, which means 1 turn in 25 inches (640 mm).

Improved formulas for determining stability and twist rates include the Miller
Twist Rule[15] and the McGyro program[16] developed by Bill Davis and Robert McCoy.
A Parrott rifle, used by both Confederate and Union forces in the American Civil
War.
If an insufficient twist rate is used, the bullet will begin to yaw and then
tumble; this is usually seen as "keyholing", where bullets leave elongated holes in
the target as they strike at an angle. Once the bullet starts to yaw, any hope of
accuracy is lost, as the bullet will begin to veer off in random directions as it
precesses.

Conversely, too-high a rate of twist can also cause problems. The excessive twist
can cause accelerated barrel wear, and coupled with high velocities also induce a
very high spin rate which can cause projectile jacket ruptures causing high
velocity spin stabilized projectiles to disintegrate in flight. Projectiles made
out of mono metals cannot practically achieve flight and spin velocities such that
they disintegrate in flight due to their spin rate.[17] Smokeless powder can
produce muzzle velocities of approximately 1,600 m/s (5,200 ft/s) for spin
stabilized projectiles and more advanced propellants used in smoothbore tank guns
can produce muzzle velocities of approximately 1,800 m/s (5,900 ft/s).[18] A higher
twist than needed can also cause more subtle problems with accuracy: Any
inconsistency within the bullet, such as a void that causes an unequal distribution
of mass, may be magnified by the spin. Undersized bullets also have problems, as
they may not enter the rifling exactly concentric and coaxial to the bore, and
excess twist will exacerbate the accuracy problems this causes.

Bullet spin
A bullet fired from a rifled barrel can spin at over 300,000 rpm (5 kHz), depending
on the bullet's muzzle velocity and the barrel's twist rate.

The general definition of the spin {\displaystyle S} S of an object rotating around

a single axis can be written as

{\displaystyle S={\frac {\upsilon }{C}}} S={\frac {\upsilon }{C}}

where {\displaystyle \upsilon } \upsilon is the linear velocity of a point in the
rotating object (in units of distance/time) and {\displaystyle C} C refers to the
circumference of the circle that this measuring point performs around the axis of
rotation.

A bullet that matches the rifling of the firing barrel will exit that barrel with a
spin

{\displaystyle S={\frac {\upsilon _{0}}{L}}} S={\frac {\upsilon _{0}}{L}}

where {\displaystyle \upsilon _{0}} \upsilon _{0} is the muzzle velocity and
{\displaystyle L} L is the twist rate.[19]

For example, an M4 Carbine with a twist rate of 1 in 7 inches (177.8 mm) and a
muzzle velocity of 3,050 feet per second (930 m/s) will give the bullet a spin of
930 m/s / 0.1778 m = 5.2 kHz (314,000 rpm).

Excessive rotational speed can exceed the bullet's designed limits and the
resulting centrifugal force can cause the bullet to disintegrate radially during
flight.[20]

See also
Rifle
Smoothbore
Paradox gun
Comparison microscope
Gun barrel sequence in James Bond films
Greenhill formula
Glossary of firearms terminology
Miller twist rate
References
Randy D. Smith. "The .54 Caliber Muzzleloader". Chuck Hawks.
"Products::Rifle Barrels::Calibers and Twists". Shilen Rifles, Inc.
"gain twist". MidwayUSA GunTec Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2009-02-
15. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
Dan Lilja. "What makes a barrel accurate?". Archived from the original on 2007-08-
30.
W. S. Curtis. "Long Range Shooting: A Historical Perspective". Archived from the
original on 2007-06-22.; Petzal, David E., and Bourjaily, Phil, with Fenson, Brad.
The Total Gun Manual (Canadian edition) (San Francisco: WeldonOwen, 2014), p.5.
"Product: Model 460XVR�".
Wilkinson, Henry (1840). Engines of War, Or, Historical and Experimental
Observations on Ancient and Modern Warlike Machines and Implements. London:
Longman. pp. 108�110. OCLC 254626119.
"Internal Ballistics". Hornady. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
Holland & Holland. "Definition of a Paradox Gun". Classic Shooting Company.
Retrieved 21 June 2018.
Sam Fadala (2006). The Complete Blackpowder Handbook: The Latest Guns and Gear.
Gun Digest. ISBN 0-89689-390-1. Chapter 18, The Cloth Patch
P. O. Ackley (1966). Handbook for Shooters & Reloaders Volume II. Plaza
Publishing. pages 97-98
Daniel Lilja. "Thoughts on Throats for the 50 BMG". Archived from the original on
2008-05-13. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Alfred
George Greenhill (October 2003) .http://www-history.mcs.st-
andrews.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Greenhill.html
Mosdell, Matthew. The Greenhill
Formula.http://www.mamut.net/MarkBrooks/newsdet35.htm (Accessed 2009 AUG 19)
Miller, Don. How Good Are Simple Rules For Estimating Rifling Twist[permanent dead
link], Precision Shooting - June 2009
R. L. McCoy (April 1986). "McGyro" (TXT). JBM Ballistics (BASIC). Retrieved
November 18, 2017.
"GS CUSTOM BULLETS - The 22x64 Experiment".
"120mm Tank Gun KE Ammunition". Defense Update. 2006-11-22. Archived from the
original on 2007-08-05. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
"Calculating Bullet RPM". 3 June 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2015.
"Twist Rate". 18 August 2012. Archived from the original on May 12, 2013.
Retrieved 4 February 2015.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rifling.
Article on barrel making from an IHMSA shooter
Article on barrel making from Lilja, a maker of world class competition barrels
Article on making and measuring rifling by Lilja; includes pictures of button
rifling machine
Article on rifle barrel manufacturing process including gundrilling, reaming,
rifling, and finishing
6mmBR article on barrels
Bore slugging tutorial, explaining now to determine the true bore and groove size
and choose appropriate bullet diameters
Calculating Bullet RPM � Spin Rates And Stability
Common rifling dimensions of revolver, pistol and rifle ammunition
Calculators for stability and twist
Bowman-Howell Twist Rate Calculator
Miller Formula Calculator
Drag/Twist Calculator based on Bob McCoy's "McGyro" algorithm
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