Do we know what light is exactly? No, we can only guess what it is or rather construct models to
analyze and show the way it behaves. In physics it is unimportant to know the exact structure, it is
important to know the behaviour.
Light is an electromagnetic radiatio n of a given wavelength not necessarily visible to the human
eye. We will limit ourselves to visible radiation. Some primary properties of light are its intensity
and its frequency or wavelength.
In general, light is described by a dualism, because light may show particle properties. Dualism
means that some experiments are explained by a particle model, others by a wave model.
The propagation of light is a very complex phenomenon, and this year we will focus on the
geometrical method of light propagation: light goes in a linear way.
Experiment:
Observation:
We see a light-beam hitting a wall.
Explanation:
We see an object because it reflects the light, even the colour black reflects a little light, but much
less than the other colours.
2.1 Shadows
When an object intercepts a light beam, we mostly see a black shape on the wall which looks
exactly like this object. We call this shape a “shadow”. A property of a shadow is that its color is
always black. The number of shadows is equal to the number of light sources which hit the object
from which the shadow comes. If we have two light sources with two different colors and the light
beams hit an item from two different angles, we will see two shadows, each one having the color of
the other light source, and if there's an intersection of both shadows, we will see that it is black.
The sun
E
The pinhole camera
We use a black box with a very small hole in the front side, and frosted glass on the backside. An
illuminated object (the figure 1 made of coloured dots) is set in front of the box. On the glass we see
that the image of the object is reversed. The many light rays that get into the box cross at the hole
and therefore you see the object reversed.
We also notice that the image gets smaller if the distance from the black box to the object gets
larger, and it gets bigger when this distance is smaller.
If you now take a photography plate instead of the glass, you get a photo, but it takes quite along
time, because very few light rays enter the box. If you had a bigger hole in the box, too much light
would enter and you would get a less sharp image; so it is better if only one light ray enters, for
example. This type of camera was the very first camera and is called a “pinhole camera”.
Simply stated: our eye works like a pinhole camera, but instead of the frosted glass panel we have
the retina (=Netzhaut).
The magnification G ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object: G = gi/go
This can be explained by the law of reflection, which states that the angle of incidence is equal to
the angle of reflection.
When an object is placed in front of a mirror, we see an image that is upright, is the same size as the
object, has no left-right inversion, but forwards and backwards are reversed.
Note that changing the distance between the object and the mirror does not affect the size of the
image; it is just further away.
The image in a flat mirror is actually a virtual image; you are not able to fix it on a photo plate. The
image in a pinhole camera is a real image and therefore it can be fixed on a photo plate.
Law of reflection
(http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/316/lectures/node127.html)
As one can see in this figure, the angle i between the incident ray and the normal is the same as the
angle r between the reflected ray and the normal so:
Parallel rays are reflected by a curved mirror so that they converge into one point called focus or
focal point. This point can become really hot due to the massive energy concentrated in a single
point.
(http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/outreach/8thgradesol/CurvedMirrors.htm)
A convex mirror gives a virtual, upright image that is smaller than the object; a concave mirror,
however, either gives a real, reversed image that may be larger or smaller than the object, or a
virtual, upright image that is always larger than the object.
5 Applications of the law of reflection
5.1. Two mirrors build an angle of 90°. Find all the images.
mirror 2
candle
image of the
candle
mirror 1
Because of the 90 degree angle we can see 4 candles, 3 of them are virtual images of the real candle.
In case of a candle set between two mirrors making an angle of 60°, you see 6 candles, 5 virtual images plus
the real candle.
The more the angle is reduced, the more candles you can see.
When the mirrors are parallel, which means that the angle between them is 0°, you get an infinite number of
images.
5.2 A panel of glass of placed at mid-distance between two candles. The first one is lit.
When you look through the glass you see that the second one is lit as well. How can it be
explained?
glass
same distance
The incident light ray is partly reflected and partly transmitted. Because energy is conserved, the reflected
and the transmitted light rays are less intense than the incident light ray. This means that using double-
glazed windows slightly reduces the brightness of a room.
5.2. Change of direction of light
• Light changes direction when it passes from air over into glass.
When light gets from air into glass, it is always reflected and refracted by the glass. The
angle of refraction of this light is in this case smaller than the incident angle:
b<a
• Light changes direction when it passes from glass over into air.
The angle increases when light passes first through glass and passes than over into air:
b>a
In this case, there is also a total reflection possible where the light isn’t refracted. This
happens when the angle of incidence is too large.
During the day, the interior of a house is illuminated even if all windows are closed, because light
can go through glass. But what does really happen there? Are all "light rays" able to go through
glass?
As a little experiment we place a transparent water glass under or by the side of a light source. We
observe that the shadow of the water glass is much less dark than that of our hand. We conclude that
light goes partially through the glass.
This is true for EACH time light hits a "glass wall". But a pane of glass has two "glass walls", so the
strength of the reflected light and light that goes through is a bit different at the second wall!
− Water
Water is transparent, too, so a “sheet” of water behaves like a “sheet” of glass: light is only partly
transmitted. The deeper we go in the ocean, the more light is weakened! This explains why in high
depth only darkness prevails.
− Pathway of light hitting a block of glass
A light ray hitting glass at normal incidence is partly reflected and partly transmitted.
At a different incidence, the reflected and the transmitted light rays have different directions.
If we use a rectangular block of glass, light will twice change the medium, and so change twice its
direction.
Even here it is possible that light does not get out at the second surface.
Right-angle prism:
The right-angle prism is one of the simplest prisms. The legs of standard right-angle prism have
equal length.
Single mirror:
In a single mirror (leg-hypotenuse-leg orientation), the prism acts like a single mirror. Light enters
the prism through one of its legs, and when light hits the hypotenuse, light is reflected and leaves
the prism through its second leg. This only works when the incident light ray is perpendicular to the
entrance leg.
Double mirror:
In the double mirror (hypotenuse-leg-leg-hypotenuse orientation), the prism acts like two
mirrors. Light enters the prism through its hypotenuse. Then light hits the first leg which
reflects it to the second leg. The second one reflects light back through the hypotenuse.
We consider that the outgoing light ray is parallel to the incident light ray.
Lenses
A lens is a transparent medium with opposite surfaces either or both of which are curved.
There are two basic types of lenses: the converging lens and the diverging lens. Due to
refraction, light rays bend as they pass into and out of the lens.
Diverging glasses are used to have a far sight, whereas converging ones are used to have a
near sight.
F: focal point
f: focal distance
Assume that our object is a candle which emits light rays that go through the lens. The 3
light rays converge at 1 point, where we will see the image of the candle.
The image compared to the object is upside down; it is a real image.
Note: If an image is real we can put a screen behind the lens, where we will then see the
image.
Our eye works the same way as a camera. We have to change the property of the lens
to
get the correct focal point, so that we can see a sharp image.
Here, the object is farther away from the lens. The light rays converge and we have a real
image. The image is upside down, it is smaller than the object and the distance between the
lens and the image is smaller.
Finally, the object is nearer to the lens. We have a real image which is now upside down.
Both its size and distance from the lens are larger.
This phenomenon also applies to cameras. If the distance between the object and the camera
is large, the image is small. If the object is nearer to the camera, the picture is large.
In a slide projector, for example, we have to turn our object on its head to see the picture
upright.
If the object is between the focal point and the lens, there is a virtual upright image on the same side
of the lens than the object.
Sunrays are parallel, so that they converge to a point after passing a lens. At this point, the focal
point, we can place a screen showing then the image of the sun.
Note: in fact, the sunrays are slightly inclined, but because of the huge distance of 150 million km
between the sun and the earth, they can be considered as being almost parallel.
The lens equation
The triangles ABC and ADE have the same angles and the sides of the triangles are parallel, it all
comes down to 2 similar triangles, so that we can apply Thales’ theorem:
go/do = gi/di
gi/go = di/do
Since AGF and FDE are also 2 similar triangles, we can again apply Thales’ theorem:
go/f = gi/(di-f)
gi/go = (di-f)/f
di/do = di-f/f
di * f = do * (di-f)
di * f = do * di- do * f : (do*di*f)
1/do = 1/f – 1/di
1/f = 1/do + 1/di
example:
• Let’s suppose the focal length is 2 cm and the object is 4 cm from the lens
di = 4 cm
gi = 41 cm
Clip refraction:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f8oV4RBYR9U
Exercise: light ray deviation by a prism
The relation (4) is true for all kind of triangles, not only for equilateral ones. It is even true for a
prism that has its top cut off.
- When using equation (3) we have to measure α and β, and so we have to draw the normal with a
precision of 1 minute. (1 minute is a 60 th of a degree and is divided into 60 seconds).
However, if we measure the angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray, then the angle of
incidence is half the measured angle.
- When using equation (4) we only have to measure D with a goniometer that does not have any
reference to the prism. We do not have to determine the normal, and the exact value of γ is told by
the manufacturer.
Experiment:
We observe the deviation of white light through a prism. The deviated light contains red, green and
blue light rays. Why are there 3 different coloured light rays?
Answer: γ does not change for different colours, but D and
therefore the index of refraction n changes with colour.
The index depends on the material which is used, but also on
the wavelength that varies with colour.
Light can be separated in colours by a prism; this is called
dispersion.
The index of refraction provides information about the material used. If we want to identify a
material, one way is to measure the index of refraction.
Another method is to analyze the absorption, and thus to determine the concentration of a given
substance.
T<I
I–T=A
A~c*d
A= absorption
c =concentration
Optics may be used to find out the concentration of a substance, and to identify a substance.
.
Excitations in atoms:
If electrons are excited by ultraviolet light, they jump to a
higher energy level, and then emit light when they fall back to
their ground state.
If electrons are excited by infrared light, the energy delivered
is merely sufficient to let molecules vibrate.
By measuring how much energy is absorbed as a function
of the wavelength, you get another way to characterize a
given substance.