Groundwater Hydraulics (DR Tariq Hassan Bayumi)

Dr.
Tariq Bayumi EHG315
‫ﻫﻴﺩﺭﻭﻟﻴﻜﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻭﻓﻴﺔ‬

315 ‫ﺽ ﺠﻡ‬
Groundwater Hydraulics
EHG 315
Dr. Tariq Hassan Bayumi

Dr. Tariq Bayumi EHG315
References
A- English References
1- Kruseman G.P.& DeRidder, N. A., 1990. Analysis and Evaluation of
Pumping Test Data. International Institute for Land Reclamation and
Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
2-Sen, Z., 1995. Applied Hydrogeology for Scientists and Engineers. Lewis
Publications, Boca Raton.
3-Todd, D. K., 2005 Groundwater Hydrology. John Wiley & Sons. New
York.
4- Raghunath, H. M.,1982. Groundwater. Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
B- Arabic References:
.‫ ﺍﻷﺭﺩﻥ‬-‫ ﻋﻤﺎﻥ‬،‫ ﺩﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﺸﻴﺭ‬.‫ ﻫﻴﺩﺭﻭﺠﻴﻭﻟﻭﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻭﻓﻴﺔ‬.‫ ﻡ‬1987 ،‫ ﺨﻠﻴﻔﺔ ﺩﺭﺍﺩﻜﺔ‬-5
.‫ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻭﺩﻴﺔ‬-‫ ﺍﻟﺭﻴﺎﺽ‬.‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻭﻓﻴﺔ‬.‫ﻫـ‬1422 ،‫ ﻋﺒﺩﺍﻟﻌﺯﻴﺯ ﺍﻟﺒﺴﺎﻡ‬-6
C- Related internet websites:

1- http://www.ngwa.org
2- http://www.lifewater.ca/ndexdril.htm
Contents
Introduction.
Basic concepts and definitions.
Steady radial flow –confined aquifers
Steady radial flow- unconfined aquifers
Relation between discharge and drawdown in steady state flow
Unsteady radial flow in confined aquifers (Theis method)

Pumping tests- technique and instrumentation
Jacob methods of solution
Slope-match method
Large diameter wells- Papadopulos-Cooper method and volumetric method.
Unsteady radial flow in an unconfined aquifers
Unsteady radial flow in an leaky aquifers

Partially penetrating wells
Recovery test
Multiple well systems and interference
Well flow near hydrogeological boundaries
Course Grading
Course requests and means of evaluation:
1- 2 periodical exams- 20 degrees each
2- Weakly homework, activity and attendance 20 degrees.
3- Final exam – theoretical and practical- 40 degrees.
Introduction
Groundwater hydraulics is a branch of the hydrogeological sciences

that combines groundwater and geology in a quantitative manner. It is
mainly concerned with estimating various quantities related to
groundwater storage and movement within geological formations.
Emphasis is made on aquifer constants, such as hydraulic conductivity,
transmissivity, specific yield and storage coefficient in addition to
groundwater flow, discharge, drawdown and storage.
This course benefits from other courses such as "Groundwater
Geology" and "Elements of Flow through Porous Media". It is a
prerequisite for advanced courses like "Well Technology” and
Groundwater Modeling".
Basic Concepts and Definitions

I- Physical Properties of Aquifers
‫ﺍﻟﺨﻭﺍﺹ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺯﻴﺎﺌﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻜﺎﻭﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺌﻴﺔ‬
1- Porosity (η): The porosity of a rock is its property of containing pores or

voids. It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids Vv to total volume of
medium (rock) VT; i.e.:
η = (Vv/VT) 100 (1)
2- Specific Yield (Sy): It is defined as the ratio of total drainable water

volume (Vw) to the bulk volume of medium (VT); i.e.:
Sy =(Vw / VT) *100 (2)
3- Specific Retention (Sr): It is defined as the ratio of total retained water

volume (Vr) to the bulk volume of medium (VT); i.e.:
Sr = (Vr / VT)*100 (3)
4- Storage Coefficient (S): The ability of an aquifer to store groundwater. It

is defined as the volume of water that an aquifer releases or takes into
storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in head, i.e.:
S= Vw/(dh *A) (5)

Where Vw=volume of water released or taken into storage by the aquifer,
dh= change in the piezometric surface and A= cross sectional area.
It can also be defined as the ratio of abstracted volume of water from the
aquifer (Vw) to the dewatered volume of aquifer (Va):
S = (Vw/Va)*100 (6)
Values of S ranges between 10-6 – 10-2 for confined aquifers.
For unconfined aquifers it ranges between 0.3-0.01, which is considered

equal to the specific yield Sy.
5- Hydraulic Conductivity (K): It expresses the ability of rocks to let the

water through under any hydraulic gradient. It can be defined as rate of flow
of water that can passes through a unit cross section of the aquifer under unit
hydraulic gradient. It has the unit of velocity (L/t) for example m/day.
6- Transmissivity (T) ‫ﻤﻌﺎﻤل ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻭﻟﻴﺔ‬

Transmissivity (T) is the product of the average hydraulic conductivity K
and the saturated thickness of the aquifer (D) i.e.
T=KD (7)
It is defined also as the rate of flow under a unit hydraulic gradient through a
cross-section of unit width over the whole saturated thickness of the aquifer:
T = Q/wi (8)
Where Q= Discharge rate,
w= width of the aquifer
i= hydraulic gradient.
Transmissivity has the dimensions of Length2/Time and is, for example,
expressed in m2/d or cm2/s.
2-Basic Definitions
1- Static water level ‫ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﺒﺕ‬
The level at which groundwater stands in the well during the pump shut
down. It is explained by the distance from the surface to the water level in
the well (m)
2- Dynamic water level(‫ﻤﺴﺘﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺭﻙ )ﺍﻟﺩﻴﻨﺎﻤﻴﻜﻲ‬
The level at which groundwater stands during the pump operation (m).
3-Drawdown ‫( ﺍﻟﻬﺒﻭﻁ‬s)
The drop in the groundwater level, it equals the difference between the static
and dynamic water levels measured at any time after pumping start (m).
4-Rate of discharge ‫( ﻤﻌﺩل ﺘﺼﺭﻴﻑ ﺍﻟﺒﺌﺭ‬Q)
The volume of water abstracted during a unit of time. Q has a dimension of
volume/ time i.e. m3/day or l/min.
5- Cone of depression ‫ﻤﺨﺭﻭﻁ ﺍﻻﻨﺨﻔﺎﺽ‬

A cone of occurs in an aquifer when ground water is pumped from a well.
In an unconfined (water table) aquifer, this is an actual depression of the
water levels. In confined (artesian) aquifers, the cone of depression is a

reduction in the pressure head surrounding the pumped well
6- Radius of influence (R) ‫ﻨﺼﻑ ﻗﻁﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ‬
The radial distance from the center of a well to the point where there is no
lowering of the water table or potentiometric surface (the edge of the cone of
depression) (m).
‫ﻗﻭﺍﻨﻴﻥ ﺤﺭﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻭﻓﻴﺔ‬

Groundwater Flow Laws
Darcy's Law
Darcy law states that the rate of flow through a porous medium is
proportional to the loss of head and inversely proportional to the length of
the flow path, or
v =Q/A or
v=- Ki= K (∆h/∆L ) =- K (h2-h1/L)

where:
v = Darcy velocity , Specific discharge , Filter velocity (L/T),
A= cross sectional area normal to flow direction (L3).
K= Hydraulic conductivity (Coefficient of permeability) (L/T),
∆h= head loss (L),
L= distance between two points along the flow path (L),
i = dh/dl=h2-h1= Hydraulic gradient is simply the slope of the water table
or potentiometric surface. It is the change in hydraulic head over the change
in distance between the two monitoring wells.
.
Validiy of Darcy's Law
Darcy law is valid only for laminar flow, but not for turbulent flow. In case
of doubt, one can use the Reynold's number (NR) as a criterion to distinguish
between laminar and turbulent flow. NR is expressed as:
NR = ( ρ vD/μ)
Where:
NR= Reynold’s No.,
Ρ= the fluid density,
v= the specific discharge,
D= the average length of the aquifer material, expressed usually as d10.
μ = the fluid viscosity.
Darcy law is valid for NR=1- 10.

General Groundwater Flow Equations
A- Rectangular Coordinates:
1- Unsteady saturated flow
In unsteady state flow velocity and head change with time. This figure
shows a unit volume of porous medium known as element control volume,
rate of inflow into the unit equals:
qy0
w
qx0 qvi
qyi
qxi= - Txw (∂h/∂x )i qx0 = - Txw (∂h/∂x )I
Tx Transmissivity in the x direction, (∂h/∂x )0 and (∂h/∂x )I hydraulic

gradients in the inflow and outflow points.
The rate of flow through the square as found by the Continuity equation, as:
(qxi -qx0) + (qyi -qy0) = Sw (∂h/∂t )
Tx (∂h/∂x )i -(∂h/∂x )0 + Ty (∂h/∂y)i - (∂h/∂y) 0 = S (∂h/∂t)

w w
if w is extremely small and the aquifer is isotropic, then the equation
becomes:
(∂x2/ ∂2h)+(∂2h/∂y2) = S/T (∂h/∂t)

This equation is known as Laplace equation for unsteady two
dimensional flow. For three dimensions it is written as:
(∂2h/ ∂x2)+(∂2h/∂y2) + (∂2h/∂Z 2 ) = (S/T) (∂h/∂t)

2- Steady State Flow

In steady state flow head does not change with time i.e. ∂h/∂t=0,
therefore the above equation becomes:
(∂2h/ ∂x2)+(∂2h/∂y2) + (∂2h/∂Z 2 ) = 0
B- Radial Coordinates
Groundwater flow towards wells is radial. Assuming homogenous and
isotropic aquifer Lapalce equation for unsteady state radial flow is:
(∂2h/∂r2) + (1/r)( ∂h/∂r) = (S/T)( ∂h/ ∂t)
Laplace equation for steady state radial flow is:
(∂2h/∂r2 )+ (1/r)( ∂h/∂r) = 0

Groundwater Hydraulics and Pumping Tests

First- Steady Radial Flow to Wells
1- Confined Aquifers
If a fully penetrating small-diameter well penetrating a confined aquifer is
pumped for a very long period of time until the water level reached a steady
state, i.e. the water level and the cone of depression became stable, and then
by applying Darcy equation it is possible to calculate the well discharge:
Q = Av= 2Л r D K dh
dr
Where:
A= Cross-sectional area of flow (L2)
V= Darcy velocity (L/T)
r= radial distance from main well to any point in the aquifer (L),
D= thickness of the aquifer (L).
K= hydraulic conductivity (L/T).
h= head (L)
since:
T = Dk
Then Q = 2Л r T dh
dr
By arranging and integrating: ∂r/r =(2 ЛT/Q) ∂h

h1
∫ ∂r/r =2 Л T /Q h2 ∫∂h
ln r2/r1 = 2 Л T /Q (h2-h1)
Q= r 2 Л T [h2-h1]
ln(r2/r1)
This is called Thiem’s equation.
In order to apply this equation a small diameter fully penetrating well is

pumped and the drawdowns are measured in two observation wells (s1,s2) at
two different distances (r1,r2).
The equation can be written as:
2T ( s 1  s 2)
Q (1)
ln( r 2 / r1)
This is the simple form of Thiem’s Law for confined aquifers
When one well is used the equation becomes:

2T ( s w  s1)
Q
ln( r1 / rw)
Where sW = drawdown in the pumped (main) well.
To calculate the radius of influence (R) s1 is assumed = 0, since it is located
at the end of the cone of depression, hence the equation becomes:
Q = 2 Л T (sw)
ln (R/rw)
2-Unconfined Aquifers
In unconfined aquifers the saturated thickness (D) is variable; therefore it
is not possible to apply it in the flow equation. As an alternative we use
the head (h), which represents the elevation of the water level above the
base of the aquifer.
ho
ho
Hence Q becomes:
Q = 2 Л r h k (∂h/∂r)
by rearranging: ∂ r/∂ r = (2 Л k / Q).h∂h

h1
and integrating: ∫ ∂r/r =2 Л k / Q ∫.h∂h
h2
Q = Л k (h2 2 - h2 1 ) / ln(r2-r1)
Replacing h by s, the equation becomes:
Q = Л k (s2 1 - s2 2 ) (2)
ln(r2/r1
This is the simple form of Thiem’s Law for unconfined aquifers

If the well suffers from large drawdown compared to the saturated thickness
of the aquifer (ho), then transmissivity (T) becomes nearly equal to:
T = k ho
Therefore equation 2 becomes;
T = Q (ln r2/r1)
2 Л [s1-(s21/2 ho)]- [s2-(s22 /2 ho)]
Well in a Unconfined Aquifer with Uniform Vertical Recharge

Figure below shows a well penetrating an unconfined aquifer that is
recharged uniformly at rate W. The flow rate Q toward the well increases as
the well increase as the well is approached, reaching a maximum of Qw at

the well. The discharge of the well is supplied by the vertical recharge and
the aquifer storage. Thus
Q= πr2W+2πrhk(dh/dr) (1)
Integrating, and noting that h=h0 at r=r0, yield the equation for the drawdown
curve:
h0-h2 =W (r2-r02)+Qw ln r0 (2)
2K πK r
By comparing this Thiem equation the effect of vertical recharge becomes
apparent.
It follows that when r= r0 Q=0, so that equation 1 becomes:
Q= πr02W
Thus the total flow of the well equals the recharge within the circle defined
by the radius of influence, which means that the radius of influence is
controlled by the well pumping and the recharge rate only. This results in a
steady- state drawdown.
Relationship between Discharge and Drawdown in Steady-State Flow
Water level drawdown in wells depends on the rate of discharge. It is

possible to make a relationship between the drawdown values of
groundwater levels and the discharge of wells penetrating either confined or
unconfined aquifers.
Specific Capacity (discharge / drawdown Qs): is defined as the amount of
well discharge per one meter drop in the groundwater level.
Qs=Q/sw
1- In confined aquifers- according to Thiem equation:
Q/sw= 2ПT/ln(R/rw)
2- In unconfined aquifers
Q/sw=П Ksw / ln(R/rw)
When plotting discharge vs. drawdown we obtain a curve of two parts:

1- Initial part is a straight line
2- A parabola starts when the drawdown reaches critical point where
minor increase in the discharge rate causes large drop in the
groundwater level.
Q Qmax
sw
The relation between specific discharge and drawdown is linear:

Specific discharge Qs
sw
If we consider that the radius of influence of a well penetrating a

confined aquifer is 3000meter and the main well radius is 0.2 m; then the
equation of specific discharge for confined aquifers become:
Q / sw = T/1.6
On the other hand, if we consider that the radius of influence of a well

penetrating an unconfined aquifer is 300meter and the main well radius is
0.15 m; then the equation of specific discharge for unconfined aquifers
become:
Q / sw = T/1.2
Second -Unsteady- State Radial Flow

‫ ﺍﻟﺴﺭﻴﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺎﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺭﻤﺴﺘﻘﺭ‬:‫ﺜﺎﻨﻴﺎ‬
Theis's Method
Theis (1935) was the first to develop a formula for unsteady-state
flow that introduces the time factor and the storativity. He noted that when a
well penetrating an extensive confined aquifer is pumped at a constant rate,
the influence of the discharge extends outward with time (Figure). The rate
of decline of head, multiplied by the storativity and summed over the area of
influence, equals the discharge. The unsteady-state (or Theis) equation,
which was derived from the analogy between the flow of groundwater and
the conduction of heat, is written as:
u
s =Q ∫ e-u du = Q W(u ) (1)
4πT -u u 4πT
Where
s= the drawdown in m measured in a piezometer at a distance r (m) from the
well,
Q= the constant well discharge in m3/d
T= the transmissivity of the aquifer in m2/d
W(u) is the Theis well function, it is equal to:
W(u) = -0.5772- ln u + u - u2 + u3- u4! +…. (1a)
2.2! 3.3! 4.4
And u is the dimensionless time factor and is equal to

u = r2S / 4Tt (2)
Where S= the dimensionless storativity of the aquifer

t= the time in days since pumping started.
The values of W(u) were calculated by substituting varies values of u

in equation(1a), and both were then plotted against each other on a log-log
paper. The curve obtained was called Theis type curve.
Cross-section of a pumped well fully penetrating a confined aquifer.

W(u)
u
1/u
Theis method permits the determination of the aquifer properties T
and S by means of pumping tests wells. He listed a number of assumptions
which should be taken into account prior to applying his method. They are
as follows:
1) The aquifer is confined;
2) The aquifer has a seemingly infinite areal extent;
3) The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic, and of uniform thickness;
4) Prior to pumping, the piezometric surface is horizontal;
5) The aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate;
6) The well penetrates the entire thickness of the aquifer and thus receives
water horizontal flow;
7) The water removed from storage is discharged instantaneously with
decline of head;
8) The diameter of the well is small, i.e. the storage in the well can be
neglected.
Application of Theis Method
In order to apply Theis’s method a curve matching technique, between

field data and Theis type curve, is used. The curve-fitting method is based on
the fact that if ‘s’ is plotted against ‘t’ and ‘W(u)’ against ‘u’ on the same
log-log paper, the resulting curves (the field data curve and Theis’s type
curve, respectively) will be of the same shape, but will be horizontally and
vertically. The two curves can be made to match. The coordinates of an
arbitrary matching point are the related values of s, t, u, and W(u), which can
be used to calculate T and S with Theis’s equations 1 and 2 (see figure
below).
Pumping Tests
The principle of a pumping test is that if we pump water from a well and
measure the discharge of the well and the drawdown in the well and in
piezometers at known distances from the well, we can analyze these data
using appropriate analytical methods to calculate the hydraulic
characteristics of the aquifer T and S.
I- Field Work
A- Preparations prior the test
1- Make sure that the water level in the steady-state Steady state. This is
done by taking several water level readings at different times and then
calculating the relative error (∞), by using the following equation:
∞ = (h1-h2 / h1) * 100

Where h1= the higher reading (m),
and h2 the smaller reading (m).
If ∞ is equal to 5% or less, then we can consider the flow is in steady

condition. If not then we must wait until it becomes constant.
2 -Measure the static water level.
3- Measure the total depth of the well.
4 - Measure the diameter of the well and the distance between the main well
and observation wells, if available.
5 – Prepare the stopwatch and the data sheet to register the data.
B- Conducting the Pumping Test:

1- Start the pump at moderate speed.
2- Start the stop watch as soon as you started pumping.
3- Measure the water level in the well at certain intervals of time and
write the measure data on the data sheet (see table).
4- Measure the well discharge (Q) several times and take their average.
5- When the water level becomes stable stop the pump, and start
measuring the water level recovery.
6 – Plot the time-drawdown data on log-log and semi-log sheets.
C- Necessary equipment for the pumping test:

1 – One main (pumped) well and one or two observation wells (or
piezometers),
2 – A pump
3-One or two stop watches,
4-A tape Meter,
.5 - A device for measuring the depth to the water level,
6- A device for measuring the rate of discharge of the well.
Pumping Test Data
Well Owner Area

Well No Well Diameter
Distance to Observation Well Total Depth of Well
Casing Length Casing Type
Initial depth to water level Final depth to water Level
Start time Stop time
Observer Date
Time Water level Drawdown
(min) Meter below reference point ( m)
Discharge rate
(m3 / day )
1
2
9‫ﻗﺭﺍﺀﺓ ﻜل ﺩﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻰ‬

10
12
14
16
20
25
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
360
‫ﺜﻡ ﻜل ﺴﺎﻋﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﻴﺔ‬
D- Instruments Used For Measuring Water Levels
1- The wetted-tape method

Air Line
Water Level Sounder
2- An electrical sounder
It consists of an electrode suspending at the tip of a long wire wrapped
around a reel. When the electrode comes in contact with the water a bulb is
lit and sound comes from a small microphone.
3- The Air Line:
It consists of a pipe of small diameter extending from the well head until
it reaches a depth several feet below the maximum expected drop of the
water level. The length of the pipe must be known accurately. The pipe is
connected through a T-shaped link to a pressure meter, which measures
the pressure in the pipe. The measured pressure is usually in foot. The
system is designed so that the pressure needed to push all the water out of
the submerged part of the tube is equal to the air pressure of a column of
water that has the same height. If the pressure is in foot, then it is
possible to calculate the depth of the water level in the well, by the
following equation:
D = L-H
Where:
D = depth of the water level in foot,
L = depth to the end of the air line,
H = the measured pressure in foot, represented by a water column height
equal to the length of the submersed part of the air line.
E- Instruments Used For Measuring Well Discharge
1-Use a known volume container and a Stopwatch:

A simple and accurate way to measure the rate of pumping is to fill a
container of known volume with water and determining the time needed to
fill it.
2 - Water Meter:
The commercial water meter (commonly use at homes) can be used to
measure the volume of water that is pumped in a given period of time.
3 -Circular orifice weir:

It consists of a round slab of steel with a circular hole in the center.
The orifice weir is about 1 / 16 inch thick. It is usually fitted at the end of a
horizontal discharge pipe 6 feet long. A hole is pierced in the horizontal pipe
24 inches ahead of the weir and a transparent pipe (piezometric tube) is
fitted in the hole. When water is pumped through the weir, the height of the
water in the piezometer represents the pressure inside the discharge pipe.
Special tables are used to determine the flow rate in gallon / min for
different diameters of both the weir and the discharge pipes. The discharge is
calculated using the following equation:
Q = 8.02AC √ h
Where:
Q = Discharge per unit time (gallon/min),
A = Cross-sectional area of the orifice (inch2),

C = Discharge constant for the orifice weir.
h = height of water level in the piezometer (inch).
Circular Orifice Weir

II- Office Work
The time-drawdown plots obtained from the pumping tests are plotted on
semi-logarithmic and /or log-lag papers. Each plot serves certain purposes:
1. Semi-logarithmic paper:
When using semi-log papers the pumping test data fall along straight lines.
They benefit the following purposes:
a- Determining the characteristics of the aquifers (T and S) using straight-
line methods.
b- Indicating the well-diameter effect.
C -Determining the well loss.
D – Indicating the possibility of application of Darcy law.
2. Logarithmic paper: Log-log paper

When using log-log papers the pumping test data form curves. They benefit
the following purposes:
a- Determine the aquifer characteristics (T &S) of the water-bearing
layer by curve matching techniques.
b- Estimating the nature of the homogeneity of aquifer.
c- If the initial readings fill on a straight line, the well has a large
diameter well.
d- If the final readings fill on a straight line, the aquifer is fractured.
e- Determining the aquifer type from the shape of the curve.
Jacob Methods ‫ﻁﺭﻕ ﺠﺎﻜﻭﺏ‬
(1) t vs.s (2) s vs.r (3) t/r2 vs.s
1-- The first method: indicates the relationship between time and the
drawdown (direct relationship), yields values of T & S using the late time-
drawdown data.
2 -The second method gives the relationship between the drawdown and the
distance (inverse relationship). At least 3 wells must be used and can be used
to calculate T & S in addition to radius of influence and well loss.
3 - The third method similar to the first and relates the drawdown with time
divided by the square of the distance.
Jacob methods were based on Theis’s formula and thus have the same
assumptions, plus:
1 - The value of u is very small (u <0.01)
2 – Time is long.
1- First method of Jacob
According to Theis formula:

From u = r2S/4Tt, it will be seen that u decreases as the time of pumping t

increases and the distance from the well r decreases. Accordingly, for
drawdown observations made in the near vicinity of the well after a
sufficiently long pumping time, the terms beyond (In u) in the series become
so small that they can be neglected. So for small values of u (u < 0.01), the
drawdown can be approximated by:
After being rewritten and changed into decimal logarithms, this equation
reduces to:
Because Q, T, and S are constant, if we use drawdown observations at a

short distance r from the well, a plot of drawdown s versus the logarithm oft
forms a straight line. If this line is extended until it intercepts the time-axis
where s = O, the interception point has the coordinates s = O and t = t0.
Substituting these values into the previous equation gives:
4πT
2
The' slope of the straight line, i.e. the drawdown difference Δs as per log
cycle of time (log t/to = 1), is equal to 2.30Q/4πT, hence:
T= 2.3Q (1a)
4πΔs
Similarly, it can be shown that, for a fixed time t, a plot of s versus r on

semi-log paper forms a straight line and the following equations can be
derived:
S= 2.25Tto (1b)
r2
2- Second Method of Jacob
Similarly, it can be shown that, for a fixed time t, a plot of Δs versus r on

semi-log paper forms a straight line and the following equations can be
derived:
T= 2.30Q (2a)
2π(Δs)r
Where (Δs)r
and S = 2.25Tt (2b)

r20
The well Loss
The well loss indicates the difference between the groundwater level
within the well and the area surrounding the well; this difference occurs
as a result of the deterioration of the well efficiency due to clogging of
well screen by fine sediments. The well loss is inversely proportional
with the aquifer permeability and the well radius.
Determining the well loss
1 - Plot the pumping test data (drawdown vs. distance) on a semi log
paper and draw a straight line through the points.
2 – Locate the point representing the well radius on the distance axis and
extend a vertical line from that point till it intersects with the data straight
line. Draw a horizontal line from the point of intersection until intersects
with the drawdown axis. The intersection point on s axis represents the
drawdown in the circulating the well.(sa).
3- Determine the well loss (Wl) from the relation:
Wl=sw-sa
Where sw the drawdown measured inside the well itself.

sa
Well
radius
3-Third Method of Jacob
If all the drawdown data of all piezometers are used, the values of s versus t
/r2 can be plotted on semi-log paper. Subsequently, a straight line can be
drawn through the plotted points. Continuing with the same line of reasoning
as above, we derive the following formulas:
1c
T
S=2.25T(t/r2)o 2c
‫ ﻁﺭﻴﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻴل‬Slope- Matching Method
Sen (1986) developed this method, which has the following

characteristics:
1 - Early data as well as late data can be used in the analysis and either can
be omitted.
2 – The method gives a series of values of S, T and on the basis of these
values it is possible to estimate the homogeneity of the aquifer.
3 - No plotting is required for the time-drawdown data.
Assumptions of this method are the same as those of Theis; however it does
not require the homogeneity of aquifer water.
Theory
Sen found that it is possible to calculate the slope of the Theis type curve at
any point by the equation:
∞ = - e-u (1)
W (u)
It was then possible to prepare a table relating the values of u to the

corresponding values of slope (∞); with the help of this table one can
calculate the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer using pumping test data
as follows:
Procedure
1 – Calculate the slope between the first two sets of data (∞i) for the time vs.
drawdown using the following equation:
∞i = [log (si / si-1)] / [log (ti-1/ti)] (2)
Where: i = 1,2,3,4,.., n, and n represents the number of readings of time vs.

drawdown.
Applying equation 2 on the first two sets of data yields:
∞i = [log (s2 / s1)] / [log (t1 / t2)] (3)
Note that the slope values are always negative.

2 - Abstract the value of u from the table that gives the relationship between
the slope (∞i) and the values of u.
3-Knowing the values of slope and u; it is now possible to calculate the

value of W(u) by equation 1 as follows:
W(u)= -e-u /∞i
4 - Calculate the values of T and S using the two equations of Theis,

respectively.
5 - Repeat these steps for all the time-drawdown readings.
6 - Calculate the arithmetic mean of the T and S values.
Note that the successive values of T and S can indicate the degree of
homogeneity of the aquifer, and whether the cone of depression enters a
more permeable to a less permeable zones or vise versa.
T and S calculations by the slope method

t S (∞i) U W(u)
3
T S
(min) (m) (m /day)
T1 s1 ∞1 u1 W(u)1 T1 S1
t2 s2 ∞2 u2 W(u)2 T2 S2
t3 s3 ∞3 u3 W(u)3 T3 S3
tn sn ∞n-1 un-1 W(u)n-1 Tn-1 Sn-1
‫ اﻵﺑﺎر ذات اﻷﻗﻄﺎر اﻟﻜﺒﯿﺮة‬Large-Diameter Wells

Large-diameter wells have large reserves of water that cannot be
neglected and must be taken into account in the estimating the aquifer
properties; the well discharge in this case has two sources; namely the well
itself (Qw) and the aquifer (Qa).
The contribution of these two sources varies as follows:
In the early times:
Q = Qw
In the intermediate times:

Q = Qa + Qw
In the late times it resembles Theis case whereby total discharge comes from
the aquifer: Q = Qa
Flow from the well is greater at the beginning of pumping and then
gradually it decreases at the expense of the increasing of the aquifer
discharge as shown herein:
Qw Qa
Well discharge Aquifer discharge
Time Time
The discharge of the well (Qw) can be found from the following equation:
Qw = Π r2w (dsw / dt)
Whereas the discharge of the aquifer (Qa) is estimated from the following
equation:
Qa = 2Π rT (dsw / dr)
The additional source of discharge contrasts with one of Theis’s method

assumptions, and therefore it is not possible to apply it on pumping tests data
obtained from such wells.
‫ ﻁﺭﻴﻘﺔ ﺒﺎﺒﺎﺩﻭﺒﻭﻟﺱ ﻭﻜﻭﺒﺭ‬Papadopulos Method, 1967
This method was built on Theis’s assumptions with the exception that:
1. The well diameter is not small; hence, storage in the well cannot be
neglected;
2 - The well loss is small.
For unsteady-state flow to a fully penetrating, large-diameter well in a

confined aquifer Papadopulos (1967) gives the following drawdown
equation:
T = Q F(uw ,β) (1)

4 Л sw
Where uw= r2w S (2)

4Tt
and β= r2w S (3)

2
rc
F(uw ,β) is the well function of Papadopulos,
rc= effective radius of the well screen or open hole,
rw= radius of the unscreened part of the well over which the water level is
changing.
Equation 1 has the same form as the Theis well function, but there are two
parameters in the integral: uw and β. On the basis of Equation 1,
Papadopulos (1967) developed a modification of the Theis curve-fitting
method, but instead of using one type curve, he uses a type curve for each
value of β (see below). We can match the pumping test data curves with
these type curves to calculate the properties of water-bearing layer with the
help of equations 1 and 2.
The type curves consist of three parts:

1 -A straight line (in the early times) inclined at an angle of 45 degrees and
represents the well discharge.
2 - A special curve for each value of β or S in the middle times and
represents the discharge of both the well and the aquifer.
3 -In the late times all the curves follow Theis curve indicating that the flow
is coming solely from the aquifer.
The middle part of the curves is important, since it gives the true values of
transmissibility, but the value of the coefficient of storage calculated in this
way is doubtful. This is because the data curve can be matched equally well
with more than one type curve. Moving from one type curve to another,
however, results in a value of S which differs an order of magnitude.
Large- diameter well penetrating a confined aquifer

F(uw ,β)
1/ uw
Papadopulos type curves for large diameter wells

‫ ﺍﻟﻁﺭﻴﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﻤﻴﺔ‬Volumetric Method

Sen (1983).
Sen found that it is possible to calculate the values of coefficient storage for
large diameter wells based on the following definition:
Volume of water obtained from aquifer, Vw(t)

S=
Volume of dewatered zone, Va(t)
Where Vw(t)= Volume of pumped water from large diameter wells at time t;
it equals:
Vw(t) = Q.t - Лr2w sw (t)
And Va(t)= volume of dewatered part of the aquifer at time t;
Va (t) = r2w Q {[exp( 4Л T sw (t) / Q)] -1}
4 T - Лr2w sw (t)
sw (t)= drawdown in the main well at time t.
Assumptions:
This method is based on Papadopulos assumptions.
Method Application:
For the application of this method we must determine the value of the
transmissivity in advance using the method of Papadopoulos and Cooper. A
value of drawdown sw(t) is chosen at time t and substituted in the equation
together with Q, T and the well radius (rw).
Discharge Calulation from Early Drawdown Data in Large-

Diameter Wells ( Sen , 1986)
‫ﺤﺴﺎﺏ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺭﻴﻑ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻵﺒﺎﺭ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻗﻁﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﻴﺭﺓ ﺒﺎﺴﺘﺨﺩﺍﻡ ﻗﺭﺍﺀﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﻨﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﻜﺭ‬
Due to difficulties that may face the hydrogeologists while determining the
rate of discharge from wells in the field, Sen suggested a simple way to
calculate discharge of large-diameter wells using the early data of the
pumping tests using the following equation:
Q = Лr2w dsw(t)
dt
Where rw is the well radius,

dsw(t)/dt =slope of straight line drawn for drawdown (sw) vs. time on an
arithmetic paper.
sw
t
Unconfined Aquifers
‫اﻟﺘﻜﺎوﯾﻦ اﻟﻤﺎﺋﯿﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺤﺼﻮرة‬
Figure below shows a pumped unconfined aquifer underlain by an
aquiclude. The pumping causes a dewatering of the aquifer and creates a
cone of depression in the watertable. As pumping continues, the cone
expands and deepens, and the flow towards the well has clear vertical
components. There are thus some basic differences between unconfined and
confined aquifers when they are pumped:
Cross-section of a pumped unconfined aquifer
- First, a confined aquifer is not dewatered during pumping; it remains fully

saturated and the pumping creates a drawdown in the piezometric surface;
whereas in unconfined the saturated thickness is reduced as a result of
pumping;
- Second, the water produced by a well in a confined aquifer comes from the
expansion of the water in the aquifer due to a reduction of the water
pressure, and from the compaction of the aquifer due to increased effective
stresses, whereas in unconfined aquifers the water comes from direct
dewatering of the aquifer;
- Third, the flow towards the well in a confined aquifer is and remains
horizontal, provided, of course, that the well is a fully penetrating one; there
are no vertical flow components in such an aquifer, however in unconfined
aquifers a vertical flow component forms due to lowering of the water table.
In unconfined aquifers, the water levels in piezometers near the well

often tend to decline at a slower rate than that described by the Theis
equation.
Time-drawdown curves on log-0log paper therefore usually show a
typical S-shape, from which we can recognize three distinct segments: a
steep early-time segment, a flat intermediate-time segment, and a relatively
steep late-time segment. Nowadays, the widely used explanation of this S-
shaped time-drawdown curve is based on the concept of ‘delayed watertable
response’.
Neuman’s method for unconfined aquifers with delayed yield
Boulton (1954, 1963) was the first to introduce this concept, which he
called ‘delayed yield’. He developed a semi-empirical solution that
reproduced all three segments of this curve. The concept of delayed
watertable response was further developed by Neuman.
The three time segments of the curve should be understood as follows:
- The steep early-time segment covers only a brief period after the start of
pumping (often only the first few minutes). At early pumping times, an
unconfined aquifer reacts in the same way as a confined aquifer: the water
produced by the well is released instantaneously from storage by the
expansion of the water and the compaction of the aquifer. The shape of the
early-time segment is similar to the Theis type curve;
- The flat intermediate-time segment reflects the effect of the dewatering
that accompanies the falling watertable. The effect of the dewatering on the
drawdown is comparable to that of leakage: the increase of the drawdown
slows down with time and thus deviates from the Theis curve. After a few
minutes to a few hours of pumping, the time-drawdown curve may approach
the horizontal;
- The relatively steep late-time segment reflects the situations where the
flow in the aquifer is essentially horizontal again and the time-drawdown
curve once again tends to conform to the Theis curve.
Assumptions:
This method is based on Theis’s assumptions except that:
- The aquifer is unconfined
Family of Neuman type curves: W(uA,) vs. l / uA and W(uY,) vs. 1/uW for
different values of .
Neuman’s drawdown equation:

Under early-time conditions, this equation describes the first segment of the
time drawdown curve:
(1A)
4πT
where
(1B)
4Tt
SA = volume of water instantaneously released from storage per unit surface

Under late-time conditions, the equation for the third segment of the time-
drawdown curve and reduces to:
2A
4πT
Where:
4Tt 2B
Sy = volume of water released from storage per unit surface area per unit
decline of the watertable, i.e. released by dewatering of the aquifer (=
specific yield).
Method Application
Prepare the observed data curve on a transparent sheet of log-log paper of

the same scale as that of Numan’s type curves by plotting the values of the
drawdown s against the corresponding time t for a single observation well at
a distance r from the pumped well;
- Match the early-time observed data plot with one of the type A curves.
Note the  value of the selected type A curve;
- Select an arbitrary point A on the overlapping portion of the two sheets and
note the values of s, t, l/uA, and W(u, ) for this point;
- Substitute these values into Equations 1A and 1B and, knowing Q and r,
calculate T and SA;
- Move the observed data curve until as many as possible of the late-time
observed data fall on the type B curve with the same  value as the selected
type A curve;
- Select an arbitrary point B on the superimposed sheets and note the values
of s, t, l/uB, and W(u, ) for this point;
- Substitute these values into Equations 2A and 2B and, knowing Q and r,
calculate T and Sy.
The final storativity S= SA + Sy. However, in situations where the effect of
delayed watertable response is clearly evident, SA << Sy, and the influence
of SA at larger times can safely be neglected, therefore S=Sy.
Applying methods of confined aquifers on unconfined aquifers
Although the aquifer is assumed to be of uniform thickness, this

condition is not met if the drawdown is large compared with the aquifer’s
original saturated thickness. A corrected value for the observed drawdown s
then has to be applied. Jacob (1 944) proposed the following correction:
s- = s - (s2/2D)
where
s- = corrected drawdown;
s = observed drawdown;
D = original saturated aquifer thickness.
Jacob’s correction is strictly applicable only to the late time drawdown data,
which fall on the Theis curve.
(‫ اﻟﺘﻜﺎوﯾﻦ اﻟﻤﺎﺋﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﮭﺮﯾﺒﯿﺔ )ﺷﺒﮫ اﻟﻤﺤﺼﻮرة‬Leaky aquifers (Semi-confined

aquifers)
In nature, leaky aquifers occur far more frequently than the perfectly
confined aquifers discussed in the previous chapter. Confining layers
overlying or underlying an aquifer are seldom completely impermeable;
instead, most of them leak to some extent. When a well in a leaky aquifer is
pumped, water is withdrawn not only from the aquifer, but also from the
overlying and underlying layers. In deep sedimentary basins, it is common
for a leaky aquifer to be just one part of a multi-layered aquifer system as
was shown in Figure below. The system in this figure consists of two
aquifers, separated by an aquitard. The lower aquifer rests on an aquiclude.
A well fully penetrates the lower aquifer and is screened over the total
thickness of the aquifer. The well is not screened in the upper unconfined
aquifer. Before the start of pumping, the system is at rest, i.e. the
piezometric surface of the lower aquifer coincides with the watertable in the
upper aquifer. When the well is pumped, the hydraulic head in the lower
aquifer will drop, thereby creating a hydraulic gradient not only in the
aquifer itself, but also in the aquitard. The flow induced by the pumping is
assumed to be vertical in the aquitard and horizontal in the aquifer. The
water that the pumped aquifer contributes to the well discharge comes from
storage within that aquifer and leakage through it from the overlying
unpumped aquifer.
As pumping continues, more of the water comes from leakage from
the unpumped aquifer and relatively less from aquitard storage. After a
certain time, the well discharge comes into equilibrium with the leakage
through the aquitard and a steady-state flow is attained. Under such
conditions, the aquitard serves merely as a water-transmitting medium, and
the water contributed from its storage can be neglected.
Unconfined
aquifer
Leaky aquifer
Hantush Inflection- Point Method
The assumptions and conditions underlying this method are similar to

Theis‘s assumption except that:
- The aquifer is leaky;
- The flow is unsteady, however the steady state drawdown must be
known.
Hantush (1956) developed the inflection point method. To determine the

inflection point P the steady state drawdown sm, should be known, either
from direct observations or from extrapolation. The curve of s versus t on
semi-log paper has an inflection point P where the following relations hold
(1)
4π T
where KO is the modified Bessel function of the second kind and zero order
(2)
4Ttp
The slope of the curve at the inflection point Δsp is given by:
(3)
4πT
At the inflection point, the relation between the drawdown and the slope of
the curve is given by:
(4)
Procedure:
1- Plot s versus t on semi-log paper (t on logarithmic scale) and draw the
curve that best fits through the plotted points (see figure below);
2- Determine the value of the maximum drawdown sm, by extrapolation.
This is only possible if the period of the test was long enough.
3- Calculate sp, with Equation 1: where sp =0.5sm. The value of sp on the
curve locates the inflection point P;
4- Read the value of tp, at the inflection point from the time-axis;
5- Determine the slope Δsp, of the curve at the inflection point. This can be
closely approximated by reading the drawdown difference per log cycle of
time over the straight portion of the curve on which the inflection point lies,
or over the tangent to the curve at the inflection point;
6- Substitute the values of sp, and Δsp into Equation 4 and find r/L by
interpolation from a special table of the function eXKo(x ) (See table below);
7- Knowing r/L and r, calculate L;
8- Knowing Q, s,, Asp, and r/L, calculate T from Equation 3, using the table
of the function eXKo(x);
9- Knowing T, tP,, r, and r/L, calculate S from Equation:
S=2Ttp r (5)
2
r L
10- Knowing KD and L, calculate c from the relation c = L2/T.
Application of inflection point method
Hydraulic resistance (c)
The hydraulic resistance characterizes the resistance of an aquitard to

vertical flow, either upward or downward. It is the reciprocal of the leakage
or leakage coefficient K’/D’ in Darcy’s law when this law is used to
characterize the amount of leakage through the aquitard; K’ = the hydraulic
conductivity of the aquitard for vertical flow, and D’ = the thickness of the
aquitard. The hydraulic resistance is thus defined as:
c = K '/ D'
and has the dimension of time. It is often expressed in days. Values of c vary
widely, from some hundreds of days to several ten thousand days; for
aquicludes, c is infinite.
Leakage factor (L)

The leakage factor is a measure for the spatial distribution of the leakage
through an aquitard into a leaky aquifer and vice versa. It is defined as:
L=√Tc
Large values of L indicate a low leakage rate through the aquitard, whereas
small values of L mean a high leakage rate. The leakage factor has the
dimension of Length, expressed, for example, in meters.
The following table gives types of leakage according to L values:
Type of Leakage L values (m)

High L < 1000
Moderate 1000 < L < 5000
Low 5000 < L < 10000
Negligible L > 10000
‫ اﻵﺑﺎر ذات اﻻﺧﺘﺮاق اﻟﺠﺰﺋﻲ‬Partially-Penetrating Wells
Some aquifers are so thick that it is not justified to install a fully

penetrating well. Instead, the aquifer has to be pumped by a partially
penetrating well. Because partial penetration induces vertical flow
components in the vicinity of the well, the general assumption that the well
receives water from horizontal flow is not valid. Partial penetration causes
the flow velocity in the immediate vicinity of the well to be higher than it
would be otherwise, leading to an extra loss of head. This effect is strongest
at the well face, and decreases with increasing distance from the well. It is
negligible if measured at a distance that is 1.5 to 2 times greater than the
saturated thickness of the aquifer, depending on the amount of penetration.
Hantush Modification of the Theis method
The Hantush modification of the Theis method can be used taking into
consideration Theis’s assumptions, with the exception of the following:
-The well does not penetrate the entire thickness of the aquifer.
- The aquifer is confined or unconfined;
- The time of pumping is relatively short.
For a relatively short period of pumping the drawdown in a piezometer at r

from a partially penetrating well is:
s = Q E(b/r, d/r, z/r) (1)
8 k(b-d)
Where:
(2)
u= r2Ss (3)
4Kt
-1
Where Ss =S/D = specific storage of the aquifer; it has a unit of (l ).
(4)
This function has numerical values listed in special tables (See text books).
Schematic diagram of a partially penetrating well
Procedure:
1-For one of the piezometers, determine the values of B1, B2, B3, and B4
and calculate, according to Equation 2, its E-function for different values of
u, using the tables of the function M(u,B);
2-Repeat this step several times, using different values of u every time;
3-On log-log paper, plot the values of E versus 1/u; this gives the type curve;
4- On another sheet of log-log paper of the same scale, plot s versus t for the
piezometer;
5- Match the data curve with the type curve. It will be seen that for relatively
large values oft the data curve deviates upwards from the type curve. This is
to be expected because the type curve is based on the assumption that the
pumping time is relatively short;
6- Select a point A on the superimposed sheets in the range where the curves
do not deviate, and note for A the values of s, E, l/u, and t;
7- Substitute the values of s and E into Equation 10.3 and, with Q, b, and d
known, calculate K;
8- Substitute the values of I/u and t into Equation 1 and, with r and K
known, calculate Ss;
9- If the data curve departs from the type curve, note the value of l/u at the
point of departure, l/Udep;
- Calculate D from the relation:
10- Calculate T and S using the relations:

T=KD, S=Ss D
(‫ اﺧﺘﺒﺎر اﻟﺮﺟﻮع )اﻻﺳﺘﻌﺎﺿﺔ‬Recovery Test
Recovery: The return of the water levels in wells after pump shut down to
its original position prior to pumping.
Residual drawdown : It is defined as the difference between the original

water level before the start of pumping and the water level measured at a
time t’ after the end of pumping.
Recovery test Characteristics:

-Recovery-test measurements allow the transmissivity of the aquifer to be
calculated, thereby providing an independent check on the results of the
pumping test, although costing very little in comparison with the pumping
test,
-Residual drawdown data are more reliable than pumping test data because
recovery occurs at a constant rate, whereas a constant discharge during
pumping is often difficult to achieve in the field,
- Discharge value (Q) used in pumping test is also substituted in recovery
test equation.
- It is not possible to calculate S value using this method.
‫ ﻃﺮﯾﻘﺔ اﻟﺮﺟﻮع ﻟﺜﺎﯾﺲ‬Theis’s recovery method

Procedure:
1- For each observed value of s‘, calculate the corresponding value of t/t’,
where t’= time after pumping shut down and t= time since pumping started;
2- For one of the piezometers, plot s‘versus t/t’ on semi-log paper (t/t’ on the
logarithmic scale) (see figure below);
3- Fit a straight line through the plotted points;
4- Determine the slope of the straight line, i.e. the residual drawdown
difference Δs’
5- Substitute the known values of Q and Δs‘ into the flowing equation and
calculate T:
T = 2.3Q / 4π Δs’
Where Δs’= slope of straight line drawn between two consecutive log
cycles.
Application of Theis recovery method

HYDROGEOLOGIC BOUNDARIES
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺩﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺩﺭﻭﺠﻴﻭﻟﻭﺠﻴﺔ‬
They are geological or hydrogeological formations that bound groundwater
aquifer from one direction or more and influence the groundwater flow in
the aquifer. They are divided into:
1- Barrier Boundary
2- Recharge Boundary
3- Multiple boundaries
1- Barrier Boundaries
These are geological impermeable formations that surround the
groundwater aquifer from one side or more and obstruct the movement of
ground water from or into the aquifer. If we assume the existence of an
impermeable barrier in the form of a straight line on one side of a confined
aquifer, the drop in the piezometric surface due to pumping will be greater
near the barrier compared to the one predicted by the Theis equation in the
infinite aquifers (see Figure).
To predict the drop of groundwater level in such a system we use the
METHOD of IMAGES. To achieve this, imagine a well drilled at a distance
(x) behind the barrier which equals the distance between the real well and
the barrier and discharging at the same rate (Q) and for the same period of
time. As a result a cone of depression will form on the other side of the
barrier in addition to the cone of depression formed by the real well.
Therefore the two cones will intersect at the boundary, and the resultant cone
of depression will be deeper near the boundary compared to that formed in
the infinite extent conditions.
The drawdown in an aquifer bounded by a barrier boundary is:
s = Q [W(u)r +W(u)i]
4ЛT
Where: ur = rr2 S / 4Tt
ui = ri2 S /4Tt
rr= distance between real well and observation well;
ri= distance between image well and observation well;
t= time since pumping started.
2-Recharge Boundaries
When an aquifer is surrounded from one side by a permanent recharge

boundary such as rivers and streams and the like, it is possible to estimate
the drawdown in the groundwater level in a well drilled in this aquifer near
the boundary of an assumed constant head using the method of images. If we
imagine a river cutting through the entire thickness of an aquifer, the
drawdown in a well fully penetrating this aquifer can be predicted if we
imagine a well on the other side of the boundary. The image well recharges
the aquifer at a constant rate Q equal to the constant discharge of the real
well. Both the real well and the image well are located on a line normal to
the boundary and are equidistant from the boundary. If we now sum the cone
of depression from the real well and the cone of impression from the image
well, we obtain an imaginary zero drawdown in the infinite system at the
real constant-head boundary of the real bounded system.
The water levels in wells drilled in the aquifers bounded by recharge
boundaries drop in the beginning of pumping from the real well and when
the effect of the image cone of the recharging well reaches the pumping well
the rate of drawdown changes. The drawdown rate continues to drop until it
reaches equilibrium state when the discharge equals the recharge. In this
case we can calculate the drawdown using the following equation:
s = Q [W(ur)-W(ui)]
4ЛT
3- Multiple Boundaries
Aquifers might be bounded from two sides or more by hydrogeological
boundaries. One example is the case of confined aquifers that are surrounded
by two aquicludes and might be also bounded by a third boundary cutting
the other two boundaries. There are cases where four boundaries cut each
other at certain angles (see figure below).
The drawdown in the bounded aquifer can be found by applying the
theory of image wells, taking into account the effects of image wells on the
on the hydrogeological boundaries.
Number of image wells (Ni) can be determined from the angle made by the
boundaries intersection (We) as follows:
Ni = 360 -1
We
Times Law
If we assume the existence of two observation wells at distances r1 and r2
from a well pump, the drawdown in those wells can be found by Jacob
equation as follows:
s1=2.3Q log 2.25Tt1

4ЛT r12S
s2=2.3Q log 2.25Tt2

4ЛT r22S
If we assume s1=s2,
log (2.25 Tt1) = log (2.25 Tt2)

r22 S r12 S
i.e.
t1/r12 = t2/r22
Times law states that for any certain aquifer the times at which drawdowns
in observation wells become equal is directly proportional to the square of
the distances separating the wells from the pumping well. In the case of a
large number of wells the relationship becomes:
t1 / r12 = t2 / r22 = t3 / r32 = ... = tn / rn2
To take advantage of this law in determining the distance between the real
well and the image well a pumping test is carried out on the real well while
measuring the water level drawdown in an observation well at a distance rr
from the main well. The pumping test data are then plotted on a semi-
logarithmic paper and the deviation of the straight line resulting from the
effect of the image well is observed (see figure below). A certain drawdown
value is chosen (prior to the deflection caused by the hydrogeological
boundary effect) and the time corresponding to that drawdown (tp) is noted.
An equal value for the drawdown after the deflection point is also chosen
and the corresponding time (ti) is noted. The distance between the image
well and the observation well (ri) can be found using the following equation:
ri = √r2r (ti / tp)
Where:
rr = the distance between the observation well and the real well,
ri= the distance between the observation well and the image,
tp= time after start of pumping (before the straight line deflection) that
corresponds to a chosen drawdown value,
ti = time after start of pumping (after straight line deviation as a result of the
image well effect) that corresponds to a drawdown value equal to that
chosen prior to straight line deviation.
pumping test
5
s2=2m 6
5
4.5
4
4
s(m)
3
3.5
s1=2m 3 2
2.5
1
20
100000 10000 1000 100 10 1
t (min)
Multiple Well Systems and Interference

‫اﻵﺑﺎر اﻟﻤﺘﺪاﺧﻠﺔ واﻟﺘﻌﺪد‬
Since each well has a cone of depression extends from the center of the
well to the point where drawdown of piezometric surface diminishes, any
wells drilled within this distance will be affected by pumping of that well
and the cone of depressions of these wells will interfere. As a result the rate
of drawdown in each well will increase. This case is called well interference.
For the economic exploitation of aquifers distances between adjacent
wells should be greater than the radii of influences of those wells to prevent
negative effects on groundwater levels and storage. However, this
phenomenon can be useful in drying swamps and lowering groundwater
levels in urban areas suffering from shallow groundwater levels that may
affect constructions.
The drop of the piezometric surface as a result of pumping several
wells penetrating a confined aquifer at the same time is equal to the sum of
drawdowns caused by each well separately. If the discharges of those wells
are Q1, Q2, Q3,.., Qn, the drawdown at any observation well at distances r1, r2,
r3,..rn from the pumped wells can be found from the Theis equation as
follows:
sw = Q W(u1) + Q W(u2) +....+ Q W(un)

4ЛT 4ЛT 4ЛT
Where:
ui = ri2 S / 4Tti , i= 1,2,3,...,n
ti is the passed since pumping started.


Groundwater Hydraulics (DR Tariq Hassan Bayumi)

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Tariq Bayumi EHG315

‫ﻫﻴﺩﺭﻭﻟﻴﻜﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻭﻓﻴﺔ‬

Dr. Tariq Hassan Bayumi

.‫ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻭﺩﻴﺔ‬-‫ ﺍﻟﺭﻴﺎﺽ‬.‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻭﻓﻴﺔ‬.‫ﻫـ‬1422 ،‫ ﻋﺒﺩﺍﻟﻌﺯﻴﺯ ﺍﻟﺒﺴﺎﻡ‬-6

C- Related internet websites:

Unsteady radial flow in confined aquifers (Theis method)

Large diameter wells- Papadopulos-Cooper method and volumetric method.

Unsteady radial flow in an unconfined aquifers

Unsteady radial flow in an leaky aquifers

Groundwater hydraulics is a branch of the hydrogeological sciences

Basic Concepts and Definitions

1- Porosity (η): The porosity of a rock is its property of containing pores or

2- Specific Yield (Sy): It is defined as the ratio of total drainable water

3- Specific Retention (Sr): It is defined as the ratio of total retained water

4- Storage Coefficient (S): The ability of an aquifer to store groundwater. It

S= Vw/(dh *A) (5)

For unconfined aquifers it ranges between 0.3-0.01, which is considered

5- Hydraulic Conductivity (K): It expresses the ability of rocks to let the

6- Transmissivity (T) ‫ﻤﻌﺎﻤل ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻭﻟﻴﺔ‬

5- Cone of depression ‫ﻤﺨﺭﻭﻁ ﺍﻻﻨﺨﻔﺎﺽ‬

water levels. In confined (artesian) aquifers, the cone of depression is a

6- Radius of influence (R) ‫ﻨﺼﻑ ﻗﻁﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭ‬

‫ﻗﻭﺍﻨﻴﻥ ﺤﺭﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻭﻓﻴﺔ‬

v=- Ki= K (∆h/∆L ) =- K (h2-h1/L)

Validiy of Darcy's Law

Darcy law is valid for NR=1- 10.

General Groundwater Flow Equations

qxi= - Txw (∂h/∂x )i qx0 = - Txw (∂h/∂x )I

Tx Transmissivity in the x direction, (∂h/∂x )0 and (∂h/∂x )I hydraulic

(qxi -qx0) + (qyi -qy0) = Sw (∂h/∂t )

Tx (∂h/∂x )i -(∂h/∂x )0 + Ty (∂h/∂y)i - (∂h/∂y) 0 = S (∂h/∂t)

(∂x2/ ∂2h)+(∂2h/∂y2) = S/T (∂h/∂t)

(∂2h/ ∂x2)+(∂2h/∂y2) + (∂2h/∂Z 2 ) = (S/T) (∂h/∂t)

2- Steady State Flow

(∂2h/∂r2) + (1/r)( ∂h/∂r) = (S/T)( ∂h/ ∂t)

Laplace equation for steady state radial flow is:

(∂2h/∂r2 )+ (1/r)( ∂h/∂r) = 0

Groundwater Hydraulics and Pumping Tests

By arranging and integrating: ∂r/r =(2 ЛT/Q) ∂h

In order to apply this equation a small diameter fully penetrating well is

When one well is used the equation becomes:

by rearranging: ∂ r/∂ r = (2 Л k / Q).h∂h

Replacing h by s, the equation becomes:

This is the simple form of Thiem’s Law for unconfined aquifers

Well in a Unconfined Aquifer with Uniform Vertical Recharge

the well increase as the well is approached, reaching a maximum of Qw at

Relationship between Discharge and Drawdown in Steady-State Flow

Water level drawdown in wells depends on the rate of discharge. It is

When plotting discharge vs. drawdown we obtain a curve of two parts:

The relation between specific discharge and drawdown is linear:

If we consider that the radius of influence of a well penetrating a

On the other hand, if we consider that the radius of influence of a well

Second -Unsteady- State Radial Flow

And u is the dimensionless time factor and is equal to

Where S= the dimensionless storativity of the aquifer

The values of W(u) were calculated by substituting varies values of u

Cross-section of a pumped well fully penetrating a confined aquifer.

In order to apply Theis’s method a curve matching technique, between

∞ = (h1-h2 / h1) * 100

If ∞ is equal to 5% or less, then we can consider the flow is in steady

B- Conducting the Pumping Test:

C- Necessary equipment for the pumping test: