EE8501 Notes PDF

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EE 501
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POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS
adEEE DEPARTMENT
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UNIT I
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32:(56<67(0
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Power system network
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SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
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It is a diagrammatic representation of a power system in
which the components are represented by their symbols.
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COMPONENTS OF A POWER SYSTEM
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1.Alternator
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2.Power transformer
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3.Transmission lines
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4.Substation transformer
5.Distribution transformer
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6.Loads
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MODELLING OF GENERATOR AND
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SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
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1Φ equivalent circuit of generator 1Φ equivalent circuit of synchronous motor
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MODELLING OF TRANSFORMER
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E2 N2
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I1
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K
E1 N1 I2
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R2
R 01 R1 R2 ' R1 =Equivalent resistance referred to 1o
K2
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X2
X 01 X1 X 2' X1 =Equivalent reactance referred to 1o
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K2
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MODELLING OF TRANSMISSION LINE
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Π type T type
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MODELLING OF INDUCTION MOTOR
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R r ( 1) =Resistance representing load
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R R S R r =Equivalent resistance referred to stator
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X X S X r =Equivalent reactance referred to stator
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per unit=actual value/base value
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Let KVAb=Base KVA
kVb=Base voltage
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Zb=Base impedance in
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2 2
kVb kVb
Zb
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MVAb KVAb
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1000
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Changing the base of per unit quantities
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Let z = actual impedance( )
Z b = base impedance ( )
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Z Z Z * MVAb
Z p.u
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2 2
Zb kVb kVb
MVAb
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Let kVb ,old & MVBb ,old represent old base values
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kVb ,new & MVBb ,new represent new base values
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Z * MVAb , old
Z p .u , old (1)
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2
kVb , old
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Z p .u , old * MVAb , old
Z 2
(2)
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kVb , old
Z * MVAb , new
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Z p .u , new 2
(3)
.p kVb , new
2
kVb , old MVAb , new
Z p .u , new Z p .u , old * *
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2
kVb , new MVAb , old
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ADVANTAGES OF PER UNIT CALCULATIONS
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The p.u impedance referred to either side of a 1Φ
transformer is same
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The manufacturers provide the impedance value in p.u
The p.u impedance referred to either side of a 3Φ
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transformer is same regardless of the 3Φ connections Y-
Y, -Y
p.u value always less than unity.
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IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM
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• This diagram obtained by replacing each component by
their 1Φ equivalent circuit.
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Following approximations are made to draw impedance
diagram
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1. The impedance b/w neutral and ground omitted.
2. Shunt branches of the transformer equivalent circuit
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neglected.
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REACTANCE DIAGRAM
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It is the equivalent circuit of the power system in which
the various components are represented by their
respective equivalent circuit.
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Reactance diagram can be obtained after omitting all
resistances & capacitances of the transmission line from
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impedance diagram
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REACTANCE DIAGRAM FOR THE GIVEN POWER SYSTEM
NETWORK
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PROCEDURE TO FORM REACTANCE
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DIAGRAM FROM SINGLE DIAGRAM
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1.Select a base power kVAb or MVAb
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2.Select a base voltage kVb
3. The voltage conversion is achieved by means of transformer kVb on LT
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section= kVb on HT section x LT voltage rating/HT voltage rating
4. When specified reactance of a component is in ohms
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p.u reactance=actual reactance/base reactance
specified reactance of a component is in p.u
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2
kVb , old MVAb , new
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X p .u , new X p .u ,old * 2
*
kVb , new MVAb , old
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p.u. calculation of 3 winding transformer
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Zp=Impedance of primary winding
Zs’=Impedance of secondary winding
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Zt’=Impedance of tertiary winding
Short circuit test conducted to find out the above 3
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impedances
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1
Zp Zps Zpt Zst '
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2
1
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Zs' Zps Zst ' Zpt
2
1
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Zt ' Zps Zpt Zst '
2
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Z ps = Leakage impedance measured in 1o with 2o short circuited
and tertiary open.
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Z pt = Leakage impedance measured in 1o with tertiary short
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circuited and 2o open.
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Z st ' = Leakage impedance measured in 2o with tertiary short

circuited and 1o open and referred to primary
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PRIMITIVE NETWORK
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It is a set of unconnected elements which provides information
regarding the characteristics of individual elements. it can be
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represented both in impedance & admittance form
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BUS ADMITTANCE(Y BUS) MATRIX
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Y BUS can be formed by 2 methods
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1.Inspection method
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2.Singular transformation
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Y11 Y12 Y1n
Y BUS =
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Y21 Y22 Y2 n
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Yn1 Yn 2 Ynn
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INSPECTION METHOD
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For n bus system
Diagonal element of Y BUS
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n
Yii yij
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j 1
Off Diagonal element of Y BUS

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Yij yij
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SINGULAR TRANSFORMATION METHOD
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Y BUS = A y A
Where [y]=primitive admittance
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A=bus incidence matrix
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ALGORITHM FOR FORMATION OF THE
BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX
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• Modification of Zbus matrix involves any one of the following 4 cases
Case 1:adding a branch impedance zb from a new bus p to
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the reference bus
Addition of new bus will increase the order the Zbus matrix by 1
Zbus,new ad
zoriginal 0
.p
0 zb
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(n+1)th column and row elements are zero except the diagonal
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diagonal element is zb
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Case 2: adding a branch impedance zb from a new bus p
to the existing bus q
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Addition of new bus will increase the order the Zbus matrix by 1
The elements of (n+1)th column and row are the elements of
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qth column and row and the diagonal element is Zqq+Zb
Case 3:adding a branch impedance zb from an existing bus p to
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the reference bus
The elements of (n+1)th column and row are the elements of
qth column and row and the diagonal element is Zqq+Zb and
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(n+1)th row and column should be eliminated using the following
formula
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Zj(n 1)Z(n 1)k
Zjk,act Zjk j 1,2...n;k 1,2..n
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Z(n 1)(n 1)
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Case 4:adding a branch impedance zb between existing buses h and q
elements of (n+1)th column are elements of bus h column –
bus q column and elements of (n+1)th row are elements of
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bus h row – bus q row the diagonal element= Z b Z hh Z qq 2 Z hq
and (n+1)th row and column should be eliminated using the following
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formula
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Zj(n 1)Z(n 1)k
Zjk,act Zjk j 1,2...n;k 1,2..n
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Z(n 1)(n 1)
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UNIT II
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POWER FLOW ANALYSIS
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BUS CLASSIFICATION
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1.Slack bus or Reference bus or Swing bus:
|V| and δ are specified. P and Q are un specified, and to be
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calculated.
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2.Generator bus or PV bus or Voltage controlled bus:
P and |V| are specified. Q and δ are un specified, and to be
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calculated
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3.Load bus or PQ bus:
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P and Q are specified. |V| and δ are un specified, and to be

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calculated
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ITERATIVE METHOD
n
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Ip YpqVq
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q 1
*
Sp Pp jQ p VP I p
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Pp jQ p n
YpqVq
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*
VP q 1
The above Load flow equations are non linear and

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can be solved by following iterative methods.
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1.Gauss seidal method
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2.Newton Raphson method

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3.Fast Decoupled method

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GAUSS SEIDAL METHOD
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For load bus calculate |V| and δ from Vpk+1 equation
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1 Pp jQp p 1 n
Vpk 1 YpqVqk 1 YpqVqk
Ypp (VPk )*
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q 1 q p 1
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For generator bus calculate Q from QPK+1 equation
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p 1 n
Qpk 1
1*Im (VPk )* YpqVqk 1
YpqVqk
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q 1 q p
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• Check Qp,calk+1 with the limits of Qp
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• If Qp,calk+1 lies within the limits bus p remains as PV bus
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otherwise it will change to load bus
• Calculate δ for PV bus from Vpk+1 equation
• Acceleration factor α can be used for faster convergence
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• Calculate change in bus-p voltage
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k 1
V p
k 1
V
p
k
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• If | Vmax |< ε, find slack bus power otherwise increase
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the iteration count (k)
• Slack bus power=
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SG SL
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NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD
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Pi Qi V i V j Y ij  ij
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i  j
j 1
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Pi V i V j Y ij c o s ( ij i  j)
j 1
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Qi V i V j Y ij s in ( ij i  j)
j 1
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P J1 J2 
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Q J3 J4 V
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Pi k Pi sc h Pi k
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k
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i Q i sc h Qik
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• Calculate |V| and δ from the following equation
i k 1
i k k
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Vi k 1
Vi k Vi k
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Pi k 
• If
Qi k 
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• stop the iteration otherwise increase the iteration count (k)
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FAST DECOUPLED METHOD
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J2 & J3 of Jacobian matrix are zero
P J1 0 
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Q 0 J4 V
P
P J1  
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
Q
Q J4 V V
V
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P
B' 
Vi
Q
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B '' V
Vi
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1 P
 B'
V
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1 Q
V B ''
V
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ik 1 ik k
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Vik 1 Vik Vik
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This method requires more iterations than NR
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method but less time per iteration
It is useful for in contingency analysis
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COMPARISION BETWEEN ITERATIVE
METHODS
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Gauss – Seidal Method
1. Computer memory requirement is less.
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2. Computation time per iteration is less.
3. It requires less number of arithmetic operations to
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complete an iteration and ease in programming.
4. No. of iterations are more for convergence and rate of
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convergence is slow (linear convergence
characteristic.
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5. No. of iterations increases with the increase of no. of
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buses.
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NEWTON – RAPHSON METHOD
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Superior convergence because of quadratic convergence.
It has an 1:8 iteration ratio compared to GS method.
More accurate.
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Smaller no. of iterations and used for large size systems.
It is faster and no. of iterations is independent of the no. of buses.
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Technique is difficult and calculations involved in each iteration are
more and thus computation time per iteration is large.
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Computer memory requirement is large, as the elements of jacobian
matrix are to be computed in each iteration.
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Programming logic is more complex.
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FAST DECOUPLED METHOD
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It is simple and computationally efficient.
Storage of jacobian matrix elements are60% of NR
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method
computation time per iteration is less.
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Convergence is geometric,2 to 5 iterations required for
accurate solutions
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Speed for iterations is 5 times that of NR method and 2-3
times of GS method
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UNIT III
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6<00(75,&$/)$8/7$1$/<6,6
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Need for fault analysis
To determine the magnitude of fault current throughout
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the power system after fault occurs.
To select the ratings for fuses, breakers and switchgear.
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To check the MVA ratings of the existing circuit breakers
when new generators are added into a system.
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BALANCED THREE PHASE FAULT
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All the three phases are short circuited to each other and to earth.
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Voltages and currents of the system balanced after the symmetrical fault
occurred. It is enough to consider any one phase for analysis.
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SHORT CIRCUIT CAPACITY
It is the product of magnitudes of the prefault voltage

.p
and the post fault current.
It is used to determine the dimension of a bus bar and the
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interrupting capacity of a circuit breaker.
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Short Circuit Capacity (SCC)
SCC V 0 IF
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VT
IF
ZT
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2
VT S b ,1
SCC 1 MVA / 
ZT ZT p .u
.p
S b ,3
SCC 3
MVA
ZT
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p .u
SCC *10 6
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3
If
3 * V L ,b *10 6
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Procedure for calculating short circuit capacity
and fault current
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Draw a single line diagram and select common base Sb
MVA and kV
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Draw the reactance diagram and calculate the total p.u
impedance from the fault point to source (Thevenin
impedance ZT)
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Determine SCC and If
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ALGORITHM FOR SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
USING BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX
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• Consider a n bus network. Assume that three phase fault
is applied at bus k through a fault impedance zf
• Prefault voltages at all the buses are
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V1 (0)
V2 (0)
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.
Vbus (0)
Vk (0)
.p
.
Vn (0)
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• Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit i.e Zeroing all voltage sources
and add voltage source V (0) at faulted bus k and draw the reactance
k
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diagram
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• The change in bus voltage due to fault is
V1
.n
.
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Vbus
Vk
.
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Vn
• The bus voltages during the fault is
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Vbus (F) Vbus (0) Vbus
• The current entering into all the buses is zero.the current entering
.p
into faulted bus k is –ve of the current leaving the bus k
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Vbus Zbus Ibus
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Z11 . Z1k . Z1n 0
.n
. . . . . .
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Vbus Zk1 . Zkk . Zkn Ik (F )
. . . . . .
ee
Zn1 . Znk . Znn 0
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Vk (F ) Vk (0) Zkk Ik (F )
Vk (F ) Z f Ik (F )
.p
Vk (0)
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Ik (F )
Zkk Z f
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Vi (F ) Vi (0) Zik Ik (F )
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UNIT IV
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816<00(75,&$/)$8/7$1$/<6,6
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INTRODUCTION
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UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS
o One or two phases are involved
o Voltages and currents become unbalanced and each phase is to be
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treated individually
o The various types of faults are
Shunt type faults
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1.Line to Ground fault (LG)
2. Line to Line fault (LL)
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3. Line to Line to Ground fault (LLG)
Series type faults
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Open conductor fault (one or two conductor open fault)
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FUNDAMENTALS OF SYMMETRICAL
COMPONENTS
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Symmetrical components can be used to transform
three phase unbalanced voltages and currents to
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balanced voltages and currents
Three phase unbalanced phasors can be resolved into
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following three sequences
1.Positive sequence components
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2. Negative sequence components
3. Zero sequence components
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Positive sequence components
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Three phasors with equal magnitudes, equally displaced from one
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another by 120o and phase sequence is same as that of original
phasors. Va1,Vb1,Vc1
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Negative sequence components
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Three phasors with equal magnitudes, equally displaced from one
another by 120o and phase sequence is opposite to that of original
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phasors. V , V , V
a2 b2 c2
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Zero sequence components
Three phasors with equal magnitudes and displaced from one another
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by 0o Va0 ,Vb0 ,Vc0
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UNBALANCED VECTORS
AND SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
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Va Va 0 Va1 Va 2
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Vb Vb 0 Vb1 Vb 2
Vc Vc 0 Vc1 Vc 2
ee
Va 1 1 1 Va 0
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Vb 1 a2 a Va1
Vc .p 1 a a2 Va 2
1 1 1
A 1 a2 a
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1 a a2
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Similarly we can obtain for currents also

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SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE
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Impedances offered by power system components to positive,
negative and zero sequence currents.
Positive sequence impedance
ee
The impedance of a component when positive sequence
currents alone are flowing.
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Negative sequence impedance
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The impedance of a component when negative sequence
currents alone are flowing.
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Zero sequence impedance
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The impedance of a component when zero sequence currents

alone are flowing.
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SEQUENCE NETWORK
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SEQUENCE NETWORK FOR GENERATOR
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Zero sequence network
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positive sequence network negative sequence network
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SEQUENCE NETWORK FOR
TRANSMISSION LINE
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positive sequence network negative sequence network Zero sequence network
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SEQUENCE NETWORK FOR
TRANSFORMER
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SEQUENCE NETWORK FOR LOAD
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SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT
et
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Ib 0
pz
Ic 0
Va Zf Ia
ee
Ia1 Ia2 Ia0 Ia /3
Ea
ad
Ia1
Consider a fault between phase a and Z1 Z2 Z0 3Z f
ground through an impedance zf
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LINE TO LINE (LL) FAULT
et
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Ia 0
pz
Ic Ib
Vb Vc Ib Z f
ee
Ia2 Ia1
Ia0 0
ad
Consider a fault between phase b and c Va1 Va2 Zf Ia1
through an impedance zf Ea
.p Ia1
Z1 Z 2 3Z f
jEa
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Ib Ic
Z1 Z2 3Z f
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DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND (LLG) FAULT
et
Ia0 0
.n
Ia1 Ia2 Ia0 0
pz
Vb =Vc Z f (Ib Ic ) 3Zf Ia0
Va0 Va1 Vb 3Zf Ia0
ee
Ea
Ia1
Z1 Z2 (Z0 3Z f )/(Z2 Z0 3Z f )
ad
Consider a fault between phase b and c
.p
through an impedance zf to ground
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UNBALANCED FAULT ANALYSIS USING
BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX
.n
pz
SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT USING Zbus
Consider a fault between phase a and ground through
an impedance zf at bus k
ee
For a fault at bus k the symmetrical
components of fault current
ad
Vk (0)
Ik 0 Ik 1 Ik 2
Zkk1 Zkk 2 Zkk 0 3Z f
.p
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LINE TO LINE (LL) FAULT
.n
Consider a fault between phase b and c through an impedance zf
pz
ee
Ik 0 0
1 2 Vk (0)
Ik Ik
ad
Z kk 1 Z kk 2 Z f
.p
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DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND (LLG) FAULT
.n
Consider a fault between phase b and c through an impedance zf to ground
pz
Vk (0)
ee
Ik1
Z kk 2 ( Z kk 0 3Z f )
Z kk 1
Z kk 2 Z kk 0 3Z f
ad
Vk (0) Z kk 1I k 1
Ik 2
Z kk 2
.p
0 Vk (0) Z kk 1I k 1
Ik
w
Z kk 0 3Z f
w
Ik ( F ) Ik b Ik c
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BUS VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
DURING FAULT
.n
pz
Vi 0 ( F ) 0 Z ik 0 I k 0
Vi 1 ( F ) Vi 0 (0) Z ik 1 I k 1
ee
Vi 2 ( F ) 0 Z ik 2 I k 2
ad
Vi 0 ( F ) V j 0 ( F )
I ij 0 .p Z ij 0
Vi 1 ( F ) V j 1 ( F )
I ij1
Z ij1
w
Vi 2 ( F ) V j 2 ( F )
w
I ij 2
Z ij 2
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UNIT V
.n
pz
ee
UNIT V
STABILITY ANALYSIS
ad
STABILITY ANALYSIS
.p
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.n
pz
STABILITY
The tendency of a power system to develop restoring
ee
forces equal to or greater than the disturbing forces to
maintain the state of equilibrium.
ad
Ability to keep the machines in synchronism with another
machine .p
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CLASSIFICATION OF STABILITY
.n
Steady state stability
pz
Ability of the power system to regain synchronism after small and
slow disturbances (like gradual power changes)
ee
Dynamic stability
Ability of the power system to regain synchronism after small
ad
disturbances occurring for a long time (like changes in turbine
speed, change in load)
.p
Transient stability
This concern with sudden and large changes in the network
conditions i.e. . sudden changes in application or removal of loads,
w
line switching operating operations, line faults, or loss of excitation.
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.n
pz
Steady state limit is the maximum power that can be
transferred without the system become unstable when
ee
the load in increased gradually under steady state
conditions.
ad
Transient limit is the maximum power that can be
.p
transferred without the system becoming unstable when
a sudden or large disturbance occurs.
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Swing Equation for Single Machine Infinite
Bus System
.n
pz
• The equation governing the motion of the rotor of a
synchronous machine
d 2m
ee
J 2 Ta Tm Te
dt
ad
where
J=The total moment of inertia of the rotor(kg-m2)
.p
 m =Singular displacement of the rotor
Tm=Mechanical torque (N-m)
w
Te=Net electrical torque (N-m)
Ta=Net accelerating torque (N-m)
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m smt  m
et
dm d m
.n
sm
dt dt
pz
d 2m d 2 m
dt 2 dt 2
ee
d 2 m
J m 2 pa pm pe
ad
dt
• Where pm is the shaft power input to the machine
.p
pe is the electrical power
pa is the accelerating power
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Jm M
d 2 m
M pa pm pe
dt 2
.n
2H
M S machine
 sm
pz
2 H d 2 m pa pm pe
 sm dt 2 S machine S machine
2 H d 2 H=machine inertia constant
ee
pa pm pe
 s dt 2
s 2 f
H d 2
ad
pa pm pe
 f 0 dt 2
d 2  f0  f0
dt 2
H
pm p 2 max sin 
H
pa p.u δ and ωs are in electrical
.p
d

radian
dt
w
d   f0 d 2
pa p.u
dt H dt 2
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Swing Equation for Multimachine System
.n
pz
S m a c h in e =machine rating(base)
S system
ee
=system base
ad
Hsystem d 2
2
pa pm pe p.u
f dt
.p Smachine
Hsystem Hmachine
Ssystem
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Rotor Angle Stability
.n
pz
• It is the ability of interconnected synchronous machines
of a power system to maintain in synchronism. The
ee
stability problem involves the study of the electro
mechanical oscillations inherent in power system.
ad
• Types of Rotor Angle Stability
1. Small Signal Stability (or) Steady State Stability
.p
2. Transient stability
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Voltage Stability
.n
pz
It is the ability of a power system to maintain steady
acceptable voltages at all buses in the system under
normal operating conditions and after being subjected to
ee
a disturbance.
The major factor for instability is the inability of the
ad
power system to meet the demand for reactive power.
.p
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.n
pz
• Mid Term Stability
It represents transition between short term and long
term responses.
ee
Typical ranges of time periods.
1. Short term : 0 to 10s
ad
2. Mid Term : 10 to few minutes
3. Long Term : a few minutes to 10’s of minutes
.p
• Long Term Stability
Usually these problem be associated with
w
1. Inadequacies in equipment responses.
2. Poor co-ordination of control and protection equipment.
w
3. Insufficient active/reactive power reserves.

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Equal Area Criterion
.n
pz
• This is a simple graphical method to predict the transient
stability of two machine system or a single machine
against infinite bus. This criterion does not require swing
ee
equation or solution of swing equation to determine the
stability condition.
ad
• The stability conditions are determined by equating the
areas of segments on power angle diagram.
.p
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.n
pz
ee
ad
Power-angle curve for equal area criterion
multiplying swing equation by on both sides

.p
w
w
Multiplying both sides of the above equation by dt and then integrating between two arbitrary angles δ0 and δc
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.n
pz
Once a fault occurs, the machine starts accelerating. Once the fault is cleared, the
machine keeps on accelerating before it reaches its peak at δc ,
ee
The area of accelerating A1
ad
The area of deceleration is given by A2
.p
w
If the two areas are equal, i.e., A1 = A2, then the power system will be stable
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.n
Critical Clearing Angle (δcr) maximum allowable value of the clearing time and angle for
the system to remain stable are known as critical clearing time and angle.
pz
δcr expression can be obtained by substituting δc = δcr in the equation A1 = A2
ee
ad
Substituting Pe = 0 in swing equation
.p
Integrating the above equation
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.n
pz
Replacing δ by δcr and t by tcr in the above equation, we get
the critical clearing time as
ee
ad
.p
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Factors Affecting Transient Stability
.n
pz
• Strength of the transmission network within the system
and of the tie lines to adjacent systems.
ee
• The characteristics of generating units including inertia of
rotating parts and electrical properties such as transient
reactance and magnetic saturation characteristics of the
ad
stator and rotor.
• Speed with which the faulted lines or equipments can be
.p
disconnected.
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Numerical Integration methods
.n
pz
Modified Euler’s method
ee
Runge-Kutta method
ad
.p
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MODIFIED EULER’S METHOD
.n
pz
• Using first derivative of the initial point next point is obtained
dX
• X1p X0 t the step t1 t0 t
dt
ee
• Using this x1p dx/dt at x1p=f(t1, x1p)
• Corrected value is
ad
dx dx
P
dt X dt X 1p
X X 0
t
1
.p 0
2
w
dx dx
dt dt
w
p
c X X
X i 1 X i
i i 1
t
2
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Numerical Solution of the swing equation
.n
pz
• Input power pm=constant
• At steady state pe=pm,
ee
1 pm
0 s in
p1 m ax
E' V
p1 m ax
ad
X1
• At synchronous speed
.p
0 0
E' V
w
p 2 max
X2
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The swing equation
.n
H d 2
pa pm pe
 f 0 dt 2
pz
d 2  f 0  f0
2
pm p2max sin  pa
dt H H
ee
d

dt
d 2
ad
d   f0
pa
dt H dt 2
Applying Modified Eulers method to above equation
.p
t1 t0 t
w
d
 i p1 i t
dt i
w
d 
 ip 1 i t
dt
w
i
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.n
pz
• The derivatives at the end of interval
d
 ip 1
dt  ip 1
ee
d   f0
pa
dt  ip1 H p
i 1
The corrected value
ad
d d
c
dt i dt ip 1
 i t
i 1
.p 2
w
d  d 
c
dt i dt  p
 i t
w
i 1
i 1
2
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Runge-Kutta Method
et
• Obtain a load flow solution for pretransient conditions
• Calculate the generator internal voltages behind transient reactance.
.n
• Assume the occurrence of a fault and calculate the reduced admittance matrix
• Initialize time count K=0,J=0
pz
• Determine the eight constants
K 1k f 1 ( k ,  k ) t
l1k f 2 ( k ,  k ) t
ee
K 1k l1k
K 2k f 1 ( k
, k ) t
2 2
K 1k l1k
l 2k f 2 ( k
, k
) t
ad
2 2
K 2k l 2k
K 3k f 1 ( k
, k
) t
2 2
K 2k l 2k
l 3k f 2 ( k
.p
, k
) t
2 2
K 3k l 3k
K 4k f 1 ( k
, k ) t
w
2 2
K 3k l 3k
l 4k f 2 ( k
, k
) t
2 2
w
k
K 1k 2 K 2k 2 K 3k K 4k

6
w
k k
2 l 3k l 4k
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 k
l 1 2l 2
6 86
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• Compute the change in state vector
et
k
K1k 2 K 2k 2 K3k K 4k

6
.n
k k
l
1 2l2 2l3k l4k
k
6
• Evaluate the new state vector
pz
k 1 k k
k 1 k k
ee
• Evaluate the internal voltage behind transient reactance using the relation
Epk 1 Epk cos pk 1 j Epk sin pk 1
ad
• Check if t<tc yes K=K+1
• Check if j=0,yes modify the network data and obtain the new reduced
admittance matrix and set j=j+1
• set K=K+1
.p
• Check if K<Kmax, yes start from finding 8 constants
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SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE TO FORM REACTANCE

Z st ' = Leakage impedance measured in 2o with tertiary short

Off Diagonal element of Y BUS

Case 1:adding a branch impedance zb from a new bus p to

Case 3:adding a branch impedance zb from an existing bus p to

P and Q are specified. |V| and δ are un specified, and to be

The above Load flow equations are non linear and

2.Newton Raphson method

3.Fast Decoupled method

It is the product of magnitudes of the prefault voltage

• The bus voltages during the fault is

Positive sequence components

Similarly we can obtain for currents also

The impedance of a component when zero sequence currents

3. Insufficient active/reactive power reserves.

multiplying swing equation by on both sides

The corrected value

Epk 1 Epk cos pk 1 j Epk sin pk 1

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