Ase L1 PDF

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ADVANCED
L1 ENGINE
PERFORMANCE
SPECIALIST
CHAPTER ONE
Basic Powertrain Diagnosis
CHAPTER TWO
Computerized Powertrain
Controls Diagnosis Including
OBD II
CHAPTER THREE
Ignition System Diagnosis
and Repair
CHAPTER FOUR
Fuel and Air Induction System
Diagnosis and Repair
CHAPTER FIVE
Emission Control System Failures
CHAPTER SIX
I/M Failure Diagnosis
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ADVANCED ENGINE PERFORMANCE

SPECIALIST
TEST BACKGROUND INFORMATION injection system uses a mass airflow sensor. The ignition
The purpose of the L1 test is to evaluate your knowledge of di- system is distributorless and uses one coil over each spark
agnosing powertrain driveability problems and emission fail- plug. The system uses no spark plug wires.
ures on electronically controlled systems. The ASE changed The major additions from the previous composite ve-
some of the test questions and updated the composite vehicle. hicle engine include VVT (Variable Valve Timing), TAC
(Electronic Throttle Control Actuator), data communica-
Test Content tions bus, anti-theft immobilizer system, electronically
Diagnostic area Number of controlled EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) and ORVR
questions (Onboard Refueling Vapor Recovery) evaporative emis-
General Powertrain Diagnosis 5 sion control system components.
Computerized Powertrain Control Diagnosis 13 Scan tool data includes on board diagnostic (OBD) II
(Including OBD II) system monitors, and readiness status.
Ignition System Diagnosis 7 The test may include engine cooling and exhaust system prob-
Fuel System and Air Induction Systems Diagnosis 7 lems. The use of the word “powertrain” means the technician
Emission Control Systems Diagnosis 10 must expect questions on electronic control of the transmis-
IM Failure Diagnosis 8 sion, and the effect of modifications on electronically con-
Total 50 trolled systems. Diagnosis includes scope waveform analysis of
crankshaft and camshaft sensors.
Note: Fuel system diagnosis is strictly of fuel injection systems,
The test may contain up to 15 additional questions for ASE re- and the subject of fuel quality has been added. Emission fail-
search purposes. Your answers to these questions do not affect ure diagnostic questions include: State emission inspection
your score. However, since you do not know which questions and maintenance (IM) 240, acceleration simulation mode
they are, you must answer all to the best of your ability and (ASM), and two speed idle (TSI) emissions tests results.
plan time for up to 65 questions. At press time, according to
ASE, the L1 certification and re-certification tests have the
ASE L1 TASK LIST
Carefully read the Task List, noting the areas in which your skills
same content.
are strong or weak. You can do this by checking off each task that
you do not perform often or do not understand completely.
Summary of the ASE L1 Test
You are expected to be certified in A8 engine performance and A. General Powertrain Diagnosis (5 questions)
have skill diagnosing problems or failures in the following 1. Inspect and test for missing, modified, inoperative, or
areas: tampered powertrain mechanical components.
• General powertrain 2. Locate relevant service information.
• Computerized powertrain controls 3. Research system operation using technical information
• Ignition systems to determine diagnostic procedure.
• Fuel systems and air induction systems 4. Use appropriate diagnostic procedures based on available
• Emission control systems vehicle data and service information; determine if available
• State emission inspection and maintenance programs information is adequate to proceed with effective diagnosis.
5. Establish relative importance of observed vehicle data.
To test your ability to read and understand shop manuals, the 6. Differentiate between powertrain mechanical and electrical/
ASE designed a composite vehicle reference book that you electronic problems, including variable valve timing (VVT)
must reference for some test questions. For those technicians systems.
that are re-certifying, note the following: 7. Diagnose engine mechanical condition using an exhaust
The new type 3 composite vehicle has a generic four cycle gas analyzer.
V6 engine. The engine has four chain driven overhead 8. Diagnose driveability problems and emission failures
camshafts and 24 valves. The sequential multi-port fuel caused by cooling system problems.
Advanced Engine Performance Specialist 601
9. Diagnose driveability problems and emission failures 20. Determine root cause of failures.
caused by engine mechanical problems. 21. Determine root cause of multiple component failures.
10. Diagnose driveability problems and emission failures 22. Determine root cause of repeated component failures.
caused by problems or modifications in the transmission 23. Verify effectiveness of repairs.
and final drive, or by incorrect tire size.
11. Diagnose driveability problems and emission failures C. Ignition System Diagnosis (7 questions)
caused by exhaust system problems or modifications. 1. Inspect and test for missing, modified, inoperative, or
12. Determine root cause of failures. tampered components.
13. Determine root cause of multiple component failures. 2. Locate relevant service information.
14. Determine root cause of repeated component failures. 3. Research system operation using technical information
to determine diagnostic procedure.
B. Computerized Powertrain Controls Diagnosis 4. Use appropriate diagnostic procedures based on avail-
Including OBD II (13 questions) able vehicle data and service information; determine if
1. Inspect and test for missing, modified, inoperative, or available information is adequate to proceed with effec-
tampered computerized powertrain control components. tive diagnosis.
2. Locate relevant service information. 5. Establish relative importance of displayed scan tool data.
3. Research system operation using technical information 6. Differentiate between ignition electrical/electronic and
to determine diagnostic procedure. ignition mechanical problems.
4. Use appropriate diagnostic procedures based on available 7. Diagnose no-starting, hard starting, stalling, engine
vehicle data and service information; determine if avail- misfire, poor driveability, spark knock, power loss, poor
able information is adequate to proceed with effective mileage, illuminated MIL, and emission problems on
diagnosis. vehicles equipped with distributorless ignition (DI)
5. Determine current version of computerized powertrain systems; determine needed repairs.
control system software and updates; perform repro- 8. Diagnose no-starting, hard starting, stalling, engine mis-
gramming procedures. fire, poor driveability, spark knock, power loss, poor
6. Research OBD II system operation to determine the enable mileage, illuminated MIL, and emission problems on
criteria for setting and clearing diagnostic trouble codes vehicles equipped with distributor ignition (DI) systems;
(DTCs) and malfunction indicator lamp (MIL) operation. determine needed repairs.
7. Interpret OBD II scan tool data stream, diagnostic trouble 9. Test for ignition system failures under various engine
codes (DTCs), freeze frame data, system monitors, monitor load conditions.
readiness indicators, and trip and drive cycle information to 10. Test ignition system component operation using wave-
determine system condition and verify repair effectiveness. form analysis.
8. Establish relative importance of displayed scan tool data. 11. Confirm base ignition timing and/or spark timing control.
9. Differentiate between electronic powertrain control 12. Determine root cause of failures.
problems and mechanical problems. 13. Determine root cause of multiple component failures.
10. Diagnose no-starting, hard starting, stalling, engine mis- 14. Determine root cause of repeated component failures.
fire, poor driveability, incorrect idle speed, poor idle, hes-
itation, surging, spark knock, power loss, poor mileage, D. Fuel Systems and Air Induction Systems
illuminated MIL, and emission problems caused by fail- Diagnosis (7 questions)
ures of computerized powertrain controls. 1. Inspect and test for missing, modified, inoperative, or
11. Diagnose failures in the data communications bus net- tampered components.
work; determine needed repairs. 2. Locate relevant service information.
12. Diagnose failures in the anti-theft/immobilizer system; 3. Research system operation using technical to determine
determine needed repairs. diagnostic procedure.
13. Perform voltage drop tests on power circuits and ground 4. Evaluate the relationships between fuel trim values, oxy-
circuits. gen sensor readings, and other sensor data to determine
14. Perform current flow tests on system circuits. fuel system control performance.
15. Perform continuity/resistance tests on system circuits 5. Use appropriate diagnostic procedures based on available
vehicle data and service information; determine if available L1
and components.
16. Test input sensor/sensor circuit using scan tool data information is adequate to proceed with effective diagnosis.
and/or waveform analysis. 6. Establish relative importance of displayed scan tool data.
17. Test output actuator/output circuit using scan tool, scan 7. Differentiate between fuel system mechanical and fuel
tool data, and /or waveform analysis. system/electronic problems.
18. Confirm the accuracy of observed scan tool data by di- 8. Differentiate between air induction system mechanical and
rectly measuring a system, circuit, or component for the air induction system electrical/electronic problems, includ-
actual value. ing electronic throttle actuator control (TAC) systems.
19. Test and confirm operation of electrical/electronic cir- 9. Diagnose hot or cold no-starting, hard starting, stalling,
cuits not displayed in scan tool data. engine misfire, poor driveability, spark knock, incorrect
602 Advanced Engine Performance Specialist
idle speed, poor idle, flooding, hesitation, surging power 5. Use test instruments to observe, recognize and interpret
loss, poor mileage, dieseling, illuminated MIL, and emis- electrical/electronic signals.
sion problems on vehicles equipped with fuel injection 6. Analyze HC, CO, NOx, CO2, and O2 readings; deter-
fuel systems; determine needed action. mine diagnostic test sequence.
10. Verify fuel quality, fuel system pressure, and fuel system 7. Diagnose the cause of no-load I/M test HC emission
volume. failures,
11. Evaluate fuel injector and fuel pump performance (me- 8. Diagnose the cause of no-load I/M test CO emission
chanical and electrical operation). failures.
12. Determine root cause of failures. 9. Diagnose the cause of loaded-mode I/M test HC
13. Determine root cause of multiple component failures. emission failures.
14. Determine root cause of repeated component failures. 10. Diagnose the cause of loaded-mode I/M test CO
emission failures.
E. Emission Control Systems Diagnosis 11. Diagnose the cause of loaded-mode I/M test NOx
(10 questions) emission failures.
1. Inspect and test for missing, modified, inoperative, or 12. Evaluate the MIL operation for onboard diagnostic I/M
tampered components. testing.
2. Locate relevant service information. 13. Evaluate monitor readiness status for onboard diagnos-
3. Research system operation using technical information tic I/M testing.
to determine diagnostic procedure. 14. Diagnose communication failures with the vehicle dur-
4. Use appropriate diagnostic procedures based on available ing onboard diagnostic I/M testing.
vehicle data and service information; determine if available 15. Perform functional I/M tests (including fuel cap tests).
information is adequate to proceed with effective diagnosis. 16. Verify effectiveness of repairs.
5. Establish relative importance of displayed scan tool data.
6. Differentiate between emission control systems mechanical
ABOUT THIS STUDY GUIDE
This study guide does not attempt to instruct you in ASE A8 level
and electrical/electronic problems.
subjects. If you need a review of those subjects, we recommend
Note: Tasks 7 though 11 refer to the following emission
the Chek-Chart ASE A8 Study Guide. The Chek-Chart ASE A6
control subsystems: Positive crankcase ventilation, ignition
Study Guide should also be helpful if you need brushing up in
timing control, idle and deceleration speed control, exhaust
the electrical area. The Chek-Chart Scan Tool and Lab Scope
gas recirculation, catalytic converter system, secondary air
Guide would make an excellent companion to this study guide.
injection system, intake air temperature control, early fuel
This guide begins by presenting a diagnostic path and
evaporation control, and evaporative emission control (in-
thought process. This path describes a slightly different diag-
cluding ORVR).
nostic approach for driveability problems than it does for
7. Determine need to diagnose emission control subsystems.
emission failure problems. The guide gives a review of diag-
8. Perform functional tests on emission control subsystems;
nostic tests and values used in testing basic engine systems.
determine needed repairs.
Emission control systems in the ASE task list are discussed by
9. Determine the effect on exhaust emissions caused by a
comparing symptoms to problems. In addition, there are
failure of an emission control component or subsystem.
chapters on the ASE composite vehicle and OBD II system di-
10. Use exhaust gas analyzer readings to diagnose the failure
agnosis, and the I/M failure diagnosis, ignition systems, and
of an emission control component or subsystem.
fuel and air induction systems. In the back of the guide, you
11. Diagnose hot or cold no-starting, hard starting, stalling,
will find a helpful glossary and sample test and discussion.
engine misfire, poor driveability, spark knock, incorrect
idle speed, poor idle, flooding, hesitation, surging, power
RECOMMENDED TEST PREPARATION
loss, poor mileage, dieseling, illuminated MIL, and emis-
Study and review the diagnosis of defects in the following sub-
sion problems caused by a failure of emission control
ject areas:
components or subsystems.
12. Determine root cause of failures. • Engine: mechanical, air intake, cylinder sealing, valve
13. Determine root cause of multiple component failures. train, cooling, and exhaust systems.
14. Determine root cause of repeated component failures. • Transmission: torque converter lock up and electronic
15. Verify effectiveness of repairs. shift control.
• Ignition system: distributor and distributorless types.
F. I/M Failure Diagnosis (8 questions) • Fuel injection system: fuel quality, fuel delivery, and fuel
1. Inspect and test for missing, modified, inoperative, or control.
tampered components. • Emission systems: PCV, electronic timing control, deceler-
2. Locate relevant service information. ation emission controls, idle speed controls, EGR, exhaust
3. Evaluate emission readings obtained during an I/M test catalysts, secondary air injection, intake air temperature
to assist in emission failure diagnosis and repair. controls, early fuel evaporation systems, and evaporative
4. Evaluate HC, CO, NOx, CO2, and O2 gas readings; de- systems.
termine the failure relationships. • IM: visual, functional, and tailpipe test failures
CHAPTER ONE
BASIC POWERTRAIN DIAGNOSIS
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES has a proven cure. Check the technical service bulletins (TSBs)
• The technician will complete the ASE task list on Basic Pow-
for the vehicle in your shop’s reference library or electronic files.
ertrain Diagnosis. In some cases, you will want to look up OEM system op-
• The technician will be able to answer 5 questions dealing with eration to know correct OEM system operation prior to test-
the Basic Powertrain Diagnosis section of the L1 ASE Test. ing it. Before performing a test on a device or system, note the
specifications and any OEM special pre-test requirements or
procedures.
DIAGNOSTIC PATH AND THOUGHT PROCESS
Locating electrical parts can be difficult and time con-
To diagnose powertrain driveability or emission problems and
suming. An electrical component locator manual can some-
determine the root cause of a symptom, you must use your
times indicate where to begin the search.
knowledge of the following systems:
To find this or other information, you will need to prop-
• Engine mechanical: Air intake, cylinder sealing, valve- erly identify the vehicle application. You will need to use the
train, and exhaust following information:
• Ignition: Triggering, primary, and secondary
• Fuel injection: Pump, regulator, lines, hoses, injectors, idle • Vehicle year
air control, cranking, and open loop fuel control • Make
• Emission controls: Positive crankcase ventilation (PCV), • Model
ignition timing control, deceleration enleanment, ex- • Production date
haust gas re-circulation (EGR), catalyst, closed loop fuel • VIN
control, secondary air injection, intake air temperature • Engine size
control, and evaporative emission control (EVAP) • Emissions certification type
• Transmission and final drive: Electronic control of torque Since the symptom has to do with engine performance or
converter lock-up and shift control tailpipe emission, you should check the engine’s mechanical
Keep the driveability or tailpipe emission symptom in mind. condition first, then make the customer aware of any expen-
Begin with a visual inspection, looking for obvious flaws such sive problems. At this point, it is the customer’s choice whether
as missing, modified, disconnected, or defective components. or not to proceed.
The term visual inspection may be misleading; moving things The right approach to the diagnosis depends on the symp-
out of your way, flexing and wiggling wire and vacuum con- tom and the amount of preliminary information available to
nections, and tapping on components are an important part of you. Think of the problem as existing somewhere in a pyramid
visual inspections. Also take the time to verify that all ECM and of systems, figure 1-1.
sensor grounds are clean and tight. Perform a ground circuit Depending on the information already at hand, you could
voltage drop test if necessary. start the search for the cause of the symptom using a tailpipe
Don’t waste time looking for the solution to a problem for gas analysis. Check any emissions-related trouble code. Then
which the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) already work from the top of the pyramid down.
L1
Catalyst: A substance that speeds or aids in a chemical reaction.

Cylinder Sealing Parts: Engine parts that contain compression or combustion in the cylinder, piston rings, valves, and headgasket.
Emissions Certification Type: A reference to whether the vehicle has a Federal or California emissions system configuration.
Enleanment: To make leaner, as in adding less fuel to the mixture.
Final Drive: Usually refers to the driveshaft, differential gears, and drive axles.
Fuel Control: A statement of whether or not the PCM is able to deliver the correct, and quickly varying, fuel mixture to satisfy the needs
of a three-way catalytic converter.
Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM): The manufacturer that made the component for its original assembly when new.
Voltage Drop: The measurement of the loss of voltage caused by unwanted resistance in a circuit connection, conductor, or device.
604 Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis
ELECTRONIC
CONTROLS
EMISSION CONTROL
SUB-SYSTEM
FUEL DELIVERY
SYSTEM
IGNITION
SYSTEM
ENGINE
MECHANICAL
TRANSMISSION
FINAL DRIVE
Fig. 1-1. The pyramid of powertrain systems is made up of vehicle systems that can cause engine performance or emissions symptoms.
In Chapter 5, Emission Control System Failures, you will • If the problem occurs at certain temperatures, such as on
be guided to the next step of this diagnostic path, to uncover cold starts or after a hot soak
the causes of emission failures. • What all the symptoms are, noises, vibrations, smells, per-
Your actual diagnostic path may be guided by: formance, or any combination
• Whether the problem has occurred before, and what was
• State emissions test failure flow charts
done to repair it
• Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) no-code drive-
• When the vehicle was last serviced and what work was
ability flow charts
performed
• OEM trouble code diagnostic flow charts
• Company policies The actual symptom may be different from the customer’s de-
scription of it, or your understanding of it may be different
Insight from the customer’s. Having the customer accompany you on
Remember, some flow charts do not tell you to check the a test drive to pinpoint symptoms as they occur would be ideal.
basics, or the obvious; they take it for granted it has been There is nothing better than your own observation of the
done! symptom. Just make sure you are working on the right one.
Verifying the Driveability Symptom Verifying the Emission Symptom

Knowing the symptom helps organize your approach. The oper- The customer’s description of a symptom may, or may not, be
ator of the vehicle is a good source for this information. Get the relevant to the emission failure. In this case, the customer’s de-
driver to describe the symptom in as much detail as possible. It scription of an unrelated symptom may mislead you from the
is important to know what the complaint is, the conditions under true cause of the emissions test failure. Use your best judgment.
which it occurs, and the severity of the symptoms. Typically, you Begin with the vehicle inspection report (VIR) or per-
want to know: form your own inspection.
Verify the type of failure first:
• Whether it occurs regularly or at random, and if it is hap-
pening now • Visual
• If certain conditions, such as accelerating or climbing • Functional
hills, cause or contribute to the symptom • Tailpipe emission
• If the problem exists all the time or some of the time Then compare your inspection results to the VIR.
Hot Soak: A period of time after shutting down a warm engine where heat saturates the combustion chambers, valvetrain, intake, and
residual fuel.
Vehicle Inspection Report (VIR): Reports the results of a state emissions inspection.
Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis 605
Intuitive Diagnosis The ampere is the unit that indicates the rate of electric cur-
At this point, you may be tempted to use an intuitive approach. rent flowing through a circuit.
This approach relies on working knowledge and experience,
Ammeter
based on past successes fixing problems. You are counting on
An ammeter is a gauge that is used to measure the current flow
the high likelihood that the cause is the same as previous ex-
in a circuit. Typical ammeters are connected in series with the
perience has shown.
circuit or component to be tested. The meter bridges the gap in
Use this method to guide you only to systems that need
an open circuit so that all the current flows through the meter,
testing. Do not let this method lead you to replace parts until
figure 1-4. The second type of ammeter uses an inductive pick-
the proper testing is done. Make sure the success of this repair
up clamp around the circuit being tested. The meter reads the
is verified with care. The intuitive method can be a valuable ad-
strength of the electromagnetic field created by the current
dition to your diagnostic skill.
passing through the inductive clamp. Digital ammeters have
high input impedance that results in an extremely low amount
ELECTRICAL REVIEW of current being drawn off the circuit when connected in series.
To help you make better diagnoses, this section begins with a
Since all ammeters have low resistance, they will act as a jumper
brief refresher on electrical behavior and explains measuring the
wire to short a circuit if connected in parallel.
different aspects of an electrical charge using common test equip-
Observing correct polarity is important when using an
ment. It is important to understand the fundamental behavior of
ammeter with an inductive pickup. Most inductive clamps are
electricity before you attempt to troubleshoot an electrical or
marked with an arrow, which points in the direction of current
electronic problem. There is no mystery to electricity, and how it
flow when properly connected, figure 1-5.
behaves under any given circumstance is entirely predictable. The
section concludes with a short discussion of Ohm’s Law and how
to apply it to diagnostic situations. LAMP
Electrical Current
Electricity is a form of energy that results when electrons, CURRENT FLOW
which are negatively charged atomic particles, transfer from
one atom to another. This electron transfer occurs most read-
ily in materials known as conductors and can be activated by BATTERY
an external force, such as heat, friction, or a magnetic field.
Electrons tend to move at random but can be organized and
directed. Electric current is the controlled flow of electrons CONDUCTOR
from atom to atom within a conductor.
To control the flow of electrical power a path must be pro-
vided for the current to follow. These pathways, or circuits, route
the electrical charge to various points, where it is used to per- Fig. 1-2. No matter how simple or complex, an electrical circuit
form work. In order to function, a circuit must form a complete must form a complete loop in order for current to flow.
loop so that electron transfer remains uninterrupted, figure 1-2.
Automotive circuitry begins at one battery terminal, travels
LAMP
through the wiring harnesses, and returns to the other battery
terminal. If there is a break, or open, in the circuit, current can- BATTERY
not flow since the electrons have nowhere to go, and no work
can be performed, figure 1-3.
Amperage
The amount of current flowing through a circuit, conductor, CONDUCTOR
or electrical device is rated in amperage or amps. Amperage is
determined by counting the number of electrons that move
past a certain point in the circuit in a given amount of time. Fig. 1-3. Any break or open in a circuit prevents current flow.
L1
Ampere (AMP): The unit of measure for electric current.

Ammeter: A test instrument which measures current flow in a circuit.
Conductor: A material that readily allows current flow.
Current: The flow of electrons through a conductor.
Electron: Negatively charged atomic particles.
Impedance: Resistance to current flow often used in rating test meters.
Jumper Wire: A length of wire with probes or clips at each end used to bypass a portion of a circuit.
Ohm’s Law: A series of formulas that are used to determine the values in an electrical circuit. Any two of the values can be multiplied or
divided to determine the third unknown value.
• If the current flow is greater than normal, some of the nor-

OFF
~
V Hz~
V Hz
mal circuit resistance is being bypassed by a short. This can
°%
RPM
be caused by faulty components or defective wire insulation
A °C °F
RPM+ V
10A COM Electromotive Force

To flow current through a circuit requires an action that organizes
all of the randomly drifting electrons and pushes them in one di-
IGNITION BALLAST rection. This action is known as electromotive force (EMF), or
IGNITION
SWITCH RESISTOR
COIL DISTRIBUTOR voltage. Voltage can be measured as the potential difference that
exists between two points in a circuit, such as the two terminals of
a battery. One of these points must have a negative charge, and the
other must have a positive charge. The strength of the force de-
pends upon the strength of the charges at each point.
Voltage
Fig. 1-4. A traditional ammeter is always connected in series to Voltage is a force that is applied to a circuit and can exist even
measure the current flow of a circuit. when there is no current flowing. In automotive applications,
voltage is supplied by the battery and the generator. Chemical
reaction creates a difference in electromotive force between the
positive and negative terminals of a battery, while mechanical
energy is converted to electrical energy in a generator to keep
the battery charged. A voltmeter is used to measure voltage
and results are recorded in units called volts. The actual value
of a volt is the amount of energy required to move one amp
from the point of lower potential to the point of higher poten-
tial. In practical terms, one volt is the amount of force required
to move one ampere of current through one ohm of resistance.
Voltmeter
A voltmeter can be either a digital or analog instrument. It is
normally connected in parallel with a circuit or across a voltage
source. As with ammeters, digital voltmeters have high imped-
ance, which prevents high current from damaging the meter and
limits the load the meter places on the circuit. An internal resis-
Fig. 1-5. Observing correct polarity is critical for ammeter tor protects an analog voltmeter from too much current flow.
testing; inductive pickup clamps usually have an arrow to Digital voltmeters also have an internal resistor that is in paral-
indicate their polarity. lel to the circuit being tested. This resistor must be at least
1 megaohm, and a good digital meter will use a 10 megaohm
resistor. Meters used on electronic circuits should have a mini-
Once you get an accurate reading on the ammeter, compare
mum impedance of 10 megaohms. The high internal resistance
the reading to the current specifications provided by the vehicle
of a digital voltmeter draws very little current from a circuit and,
manufacturer. Current specifications are not always available, so
when connected in parallel, the effect of the voltmeter on circuit
you may need to use Ohm’s law and calculate the proper amount
voltage drop is insignificant.
of current flow for a particular circuit. In general:
• If the ammeter shows no current flow, the circuit is open Testing with a Voltmeter
at some point. This indicates no continuity Typically, a voltmeter is used to:
• If the ammeter shows less current flow than is normal, the • Measure the source voltage of a circuit
circuit is complete but contains too much resistance. This • Measure the voltage drop caused by a load
can be caused by improper or defective components or by • Check for circuit continuity
loose or corroded connections • Measure voltage at any point in a circuit
Electromotive Force (EMF): The force that causes the electrons to move from atom to another atom. More commonly known as
voltage.
Generator: A device that produces electrical energy by passing a magnetic field through a coil of wire. Known for many years as an
alternator due to the fact that alternating current is produced in the stator assembly; J1930 (OBD II) term for alternator (generating
device that uses a diode rectifier).
Ohm: The unit of measure for resistance to current flow.
Volt: The unit of measure for electrical pressure or electromotive force.
Voltmeter: An electrical test meter that measures electrical pressure (EMF).
ENGINE
OFF
~
VHz~
VHz
GROUND
%
RPM
~
OFF VHz~
A CF VHz
RPM V
+ %
10A COM RPM
A CF
RPM V
+
10A COM
+ –
BATTERY
+ –
Fig. 1-8. Voltage drop testing is one of the best ways to check
BATTERY
the integrity of a circuit or electrical device. This meter is
Fig. 1-6. A voltmeter is connected in parallel across a voltage displaying 0.18 voltage drop across the engine ground and
source. This meter is displaying open-circuit battery voltage. the battery.
VOLTMETER #1 VOLTMETER #2
OFF
~
V Hz~
V Hz
OFF
~
V Hz~
V Hz
voltage drop can be the result of a high-resistance connection
°%
RPM
°%
RPM
VOLTMETER #3
or failed component.
A
RPM+
°C °F
V
A
RPM+
°C °F
V
Checking voltage drop is one of the most important tests
10A COM 10A COM
OFF
~
V Hz~
V Hz
you can perform on a circuit. Voltage drops can cause major
°%
RPM
driveability symptoms in onboard computer systems. A voltage
A
RPM+
°C °F
V
drop on an engine control module (ECM) power ground can
IGN.SWITCH MOTOR SWITCH
10A COM
cause sensor voltage references to be higher than normal, throw-
ing off the overall sensor calibration of the entire control system.
M To check voltage drop, the circuit must be powered up and
MOTOR
have current flowing. The circuit must also have the maximum
amount of current flowing under normal conditions for which
the circuit was designed. The amount of voltage drop that is con-
Fig. 1-7. Source voltage can also be checked anywhere along a sidered acceptable will vary by circuit. Low-current circuits that
circuit by grounding the negative meter lead and probing the draw milliamps will be affected by very small voltage drops, while
circuit with the positive meter lead. the same amount of voltage drop will have a negligible affect on
a high-current circuit. In general, voltage drop on a power
To measure voltage or voltage drop, connect the voltmeter in ground circuit should be less than 0.1 volt.
parallel. To perform a continuity check, connect the voltmeter To measure voltage drop, connect the meter in the same
in series with the portion of the circuit being tested. fashion used to take system voltage readings. Leave the negative
Checking Source Voltage meter lead attached to the negative battery terminal, and use the
The source, or available, voltage within a circuit can be mea- positive meter lead to probe at various points in the circuit to
sured with or without current flowing through the circuit. The check a power ground, figure 1-8. You can compute voltage drop
battery is the voltage source for all DC automotive circuits. It by checking available voltage on both sides of a load, then sub-
is checked by connecting the positive lead of the voltmeter to tracting the voltage reading of the ground side from the reading
the positive battery (B⫹) terminal and the negative lead to the on the positive side of the load. You can take direct voltage drop
negative battery (ground) terminal, figure 1-6. This measures readings by connecting the positive meter lead to the power side
no-load, or open-circuit, battery voltage, which should be of a load and connecting the negative meter lead to the ground
about 12.2 volts with the engine not running. side of the component. Check electronic sensor voltage drop in L1
Source voltage can be checked in a similar fashion, at any a similar way. Connect the digital multimeter (DMM) negative
point along a circuit, by grounding the negative meter lead and lead to the sensor ground terminal and probe the signal line with
probing the supply wire with the positive meter lead, fig- the positive meter lead. Remember, the sum of all the voltage
ure 1-7. Low source voltage in a circuit is the result of high drops in a circuit will equal the source voltage.
resistance, and loose or corroded connections are often at fault.
Checking Continuity
A loss of source voltage indicates an open in the circuit.
Continuity testing is similar to no-load voltage testing, since both
Checking Voltage Drop procedures tell you if system voltage is being applied to a part of
Voltage drop is the amount of voltage that an electrical device the circuit. However, for a continuity check, the voltmeter is con-
normally consumes to perform its task. However, excessive nected in series with the circuit rather than in parallel.
5. The condition of the conductor. Broken strands of a cable

or a partially cut wire reduces the cross-sectional area of
the conductor and raises resistance. Loose, dirty, or cor-
roded connections have the same effect and are a major
cause of electrical problems
Ohms
An ohm is the unit established to measure electrical resistance.
One ohm is equal to the amount of resistance present when
one volt of electromotive force pushes one ampere of current
through a circuit. The resistance of any electrical device or cir-
cuit can be measured two ways:
• Directly with an ohmmeter measuring the resistance of-

fered by the device or circuit in ohms
• Indirectly with a voltmeter, measuring the voltage drop
across the device or circuit
Since every electrical device, or load, in a circuit offers some re-

sistance, voltage is reduced as it pushes current through each
load. Voltage drop testing was detailed earlier in this chapter.
Tips for Using an Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is a self-powered test instrument that can only
be used when there is no voltage applied to the circuit device
being tested. Any current flow from an outside source will
Fig. 1-9. Check continuity with a voltmeter by connecting it in damage the meter. Before testing with an ohmmeter, make sure
series with the device being tested and energizing the circuit. the circuit is not under power, or remove the component to be
tested from the circuit, figure 1-10.
Ohmmeters, whether analog or digital, operate on the
To check continuity with a voltmeter, open the circuit at the
voltage drop principle. When you connect the leads of an ohm-
test point by disconnecting the power wire. Then, attach the
meter to a device for testing, the meter directs a low-voltage
positive voltmeter lead to the source voltage side of the open cir-
current from its power source through the device. Since the
cuit and connect the negative voltmeter lead to the ground side
source voltage and the internal resistance of the meter are
of the test point. Next, energize the circuit and note the volt-
known, the resistance of the test device can be determined by
meter reading, figure 1-9. If the voltmeter reads system voltage,
the amount of voltage dropped as current flows through it. The
the circuit is complete. If the voltmeter reads near zero voltage,
ohmmeter makes this calculation and directly displays the re-
the circuit is open. Due to the high resistance of the DMM, the
sistance of the test device in ohms.
circuit cannot carry current so the meter reads source voltage.
Be aware, ohmmeter testing may not always be conclusive.
Resistance Resistance faults in wiring and connections often generate heat,
Voltage forces current through a conductor, but all conductive which further increases the resistance of an operating circuit. In
materials oppose current flow to some extent. This opposition, these cases, the fault may not be apparent unless the circuit is
known as resistance, exists in some degree in all electrical de- under power. The device may be able to relay the low-voltage sig-
vices. If you know how much resistance a circuit should have, nal of an ohmmeter, but not be able to carry the signal when sys-
you can quickly determine the overall condition of the circuit tem voltage is applied to it. Another consideration is the fact that
by measuring its resistance. There are five factors, or charac- most ohmmeters will only read as low as 0.1 ohm, yet smaller
teristics, that determine how much resistance is present in an amounts of resistance can cause problems, especially on elec-
electrical circuit. These are: tronic circuits. These low-resistance faults can only be determined
1. The atomic structure of the material. All conductors have through voltage drop testing. However, an ohmmeter has definite
some resistance, but the low resistance in a good conduc- advantages for many test situations and is particularly useful to:
tor will flow current when a fraction of a volt is induced • Measure the resistance of parts that have specific resis-
2. The length of the conductor. The longer a piece of wire or tance values that fall within the usable range of the meter
cable, the higher its resistance • Measure high-resistance items, such as secondary ignition
3. The cross-sectional area of the conductor. The thinner a cables and electronic pickup coils
piece of wire or cable, the higher its resistance • Test internal parts of components that require disassem-
4. The temperature of the conductor. In most cases, the bly to reach the test points
higher the temperature of the conducting material, the • Bench test parts such as switches, circuit breakers, and re-
higher its resistance. However, some sensors are designed lays before assembly or installation
to operate exactly the opposite • Check circuit continuity of components
V
VOLTAGE
A R
AMPERAGE RESISTANCE
Fig. 1-11. This diagram is an easy way to remember the

relationship of the three elements of Ohm’s Law; when one is
missing you can calculate it based on the other two.
Even though you may never need to use one of these equa-
tions to figure out the missing characteristic, it is important to
understand the logic behind them.
Suppose you are dealing with a fused circuit operating on
system voltage that keeps blowing the fuse after a short period of
time. A quick check tells you 12 volts are available on either end
of the circuit, and you know the fuse is rated at 10 amps. There-
fore, Ohm’s Law tells you there is low resistance in the circuit be-
cause amperage is equal to voltage divided by resistance. So, if
voltage is constant, a drop in resistance is the only condition that
will allow enough current to flow through the circuit to overload
the fuse.
Very few, if any, automotive problems will require you to
actually calculate Ohm’s Law equations to repair them. How-
Fig. 1-10. Using an ohmmeter to measure the resistance of an
ever, you will find it much easier to locate faults in electric and
electronic fuel injector. Note, the multi-plug has been
disconnected to prevent current flow through the injector.
electronic circuitry once you understand the relationships of
current, voltage, and resistance expressed in Ohm’s Law.
In an automotive electrical system, DC voltage originates
Ohm’s Law at the battery, and the open-circuit, or no-load, voltage of a
The relationship between current flow, electromotive force, good battery will be about 12.6 volts. With the engine running,
and resistance is predictable for any electrical, or electronic, a typical charging system regulates output between 13.5 and
circuit or device. This relationship was first stated as a theory 14 volts. This is the source, or system, voltage that provides
by George Ohm in 1827 and has since become known as power to all of the circuits on the vehicle. Therefore, voltage
Ohm’s Law. Ohm determined that there are three characteris- should remain fairly stable, unless there is an unexpected
tics at work in an electrical device: voltage, amperage, and change in resistance. Low voltage in a vehicle electrical system
resistance. If you know two of them you can always calculate is often the result of either a charging system problem or a bad
the third, since the relationship of these three never changes, battery. If resistance is unchanged, a drop in system voltage re-
figure 1-11. sults in less current flow, and a rise in system voltage will in-
According to Ohm’s Law, when a force of one volt pushes crease amperage, or current flow, as well. Ohm’s Law says:
one ampere of current through a circuit, the resistance present • Voltage and amperage are directly proportional to each
is 1 ohm. This establishes and gives a value to the ohm, the unit other as long as resistance remains the same. Both must
with which resistance is measured. Now, you can use one of L1
move in the same direction, figure 1-12
three simple mathematic equations to calculate the missing
factor: Resistance in an electrical circuit should only be that of the load
devices specified by the engineer. This includes all switches, re-
• To calculate voltage, multiply amperes by resistance lays, motors, solenoids, lamps, and other parts that create resis-
V⫽A⫻R tance to perform usable work. The resistance of all the loads de-
• To calculate amperage, divide voltage by resistance termines the circuit amperage. Remember, system voltage
A⫽V⫼R should remain stable and within its designed range unless there
• To calculate resistance, divide voltage by amperage is a battery or charging system problem. Therefore, the circuit
R⫽V⫼A with the greatest total resistive load will flow the least amount of
10 10
A D
EC
SE
M R HIGH
EA
P EA
R
E SE
C
R IN AMPERAGE
A
G
E
0 0
FIXED RESISTANCE
10 10
V
O
L
SE
DE
T
EA
CR
A
R
EA
G RESISTANCE
C
IN
SE
E
LOW
0 0
Fig. 1-12. Voltage and amperage increase or decrease directly in VOLTAGE

proportion to each other as long as resistance remains constant.
CONSTANT
Fig. 1-14. High amperage overloading a fuse is often the effect

HIGH
of low resistance allowing too much current to flow.
RESISTANCE
connection, frayed wire, broken insulation, or a defective com-
ponent, will change the designed resistance of the circuit.
When the battery and charging system are in good condition,
a change in resistance will increase or decrease amperage in the
circuit. Excessive amperage will cause blown fuses, while
reduced amperage can cause slow motor operation, dim bulbs,
sluggish solenoid or relay response, and less than peak perfor-
AMPERAGE mance from other circuit devices.
LOW Diodes
Diodes serve as one-way check valves in an electrical system.
VOLTAGE
They allow current to flow in one direction, but prevent cur-
rent flow in the other. A diode is used to direct current flow
CONSTANT and protects solid state devices from voltage spikes. Each diode
has two halves, an anode and a cathode. The diode allows cur-
Fig. 1-13. Amperage and resistance are inversely proportional
when voltage is constant, so if either one increases the other rent flow through the cathode to the anode. Diodes are used in
must decrease. circuits to re-direct current flow. A good example of diodes
being used is in an alternator, where they modify current from
current, and the circuit with the least resistance will allow the alternating current to direct. A standard silicon diode causes a
greatest amperage flow. According to Ohm’s Law: voltage drop of approximately 0.6V.
• Amperage and resistance are inversely proportional to Clamping Diodes
each other as long as voltage remains the same. They move Clamping diodes are diodes placed in a circuit in parallel with
in opposite directions, figure 1-13 a magnetic coil. When the magnetic field produced by the coil
Under normal circumstances, you will not see a situation collapses because power is removed, it produces a voltage spike
where amperage is held constant while voltage and resistance with polarity opposite that of normal current flow. The diode
change. Amperage is the strength of the electrical charge mov- is wired in parallel with the coil so when the field collapses, the
ing through a conductor, and it responds to changes in voltage spike is blocked from flowing in the circuit. The diode pre-
or resistance. Although high amperage is the cause of many vents the spike from reaching a computer or other solid state
blown fuses, it is most often the effect of low circuit resistance component.
rather than the cause of the problem, figure 1-14. For example, when a relay is de-energized, the resulting
Understanding the inverse relationship of amperage to re- voltage spike can exceed 40 volts. A starter relay can produce a
sistance at a steady voltage is an important diagnostic aid. Any voltage spike of nearly 200 volts. Clamping diodes protect the
circuit damage, whether an open or short, poor or corroded vehicle computers from these spikes.
Alternator: See Generator.

Diode: An electronic component designed to allow current flow in one direction only. Used in control circuits and in rectifier assemblies
in the generator.
Series Circuits When you know the current and the individual resistances of
In a series circuit, the current has only one path to follow. In a series circuit, you can calculate the voltage drop across each
figure 1-15, using conventional current flow theory, you see load. The sum of these drops equals the source voltage. For the
that the current must flow from the battery through the resis- 2 ohm resistor in figure 1-17:
tor, and back to the battery. The circuit must be continuous, or I⫻R⫽E
have continuity. If one wire is disconnected from the battery, 2 ⫻ 2 ⫽ 4 volts
the circuit is broken and there is no current. If electrical loads
are wired in series, they must all be switched on and working For the 4 ohm resistor in figure 1-17:
or the circuit is broken and none of them work. A simplified I⫻R⫽E
example of a series circuit is shown in figure 1-16. Current 2 ⫻ 4 ⫽ 8 volts
flows from the battery through the horn switch, through the The sum of the volts is 4 volts ⫹ 8 volts ⫽ 12 volts, which is the
horn, and then back to the battery. source voltage.
Series Circuits and Ohm’s Law Parallel Circuits
Ohm’s law can easily be applied to a series circuit. If any two of When current can follow more than one path to complete a
the values are known, the third can be calculated using Ohm’s circuit, that circuit is called a parallel circuit. The points where
Law. Some characteristics of a series circuit are: current paths split and rejoin are called junction points. The
• Current is the same everywhere in the circuit. Since there separate paths that split and meet at junction points are called
is only one path for current, the same amount of current branch circuits or shunt circuits. A parallel circuit is shown in
must be available at all points of the circuit figure 1-18. In an automobile, the headlamps are wired in par-
• Voltage drops may vary from load to load if the individual allel with each other, figure 1-19.
resistances vary, but the sum of all voltage drops in the se-
Parallel Circuits and Ohm’s Law
ries is equal to source voltage
The features of a parallel circuit are:
• The total resistance is the sum of all individual resistances
in the series • The voltage applied to, or measured across, each branch
of the circuit is the same
In figure 1-15, the circuit consists of a 3 ohm resistor connect-
• The total current in a parallel circuit is the sum of the cur-
ed to a 12 volt battery. The amperage is found by using
rent in each branch
Ohm’s Law:
• The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than
E⫼R⫽I the lowest individual resistance. The reason is that when
12 ⫼ 3 ⫽ 4 amperes you add resistors in parallel, you are actually adding more
conductors, or paths in which current can flow, which re-
duces the total resistance
Fig. 1-15. A simple series circuit.
Fig. 1-17. A series circuit with more than 1 resistor.
L1
Fig. 1-16. This horn circuit diagram illustrates a simple series

circuit. Fig. 1-18. A parallel circuit.
Parallel Circuit: An arrangement that provides separate power supplies and ground paths to several loads.
Series Circuit: An arrangement in which current must flow through one load before another. Each load shares the power supply with
the other loads in the circuit.
Shunt: A parallel electrical connection or branch circuit, in parallel with another branch circuit or connection.
Fig. 1-20. A series-parallel circuit.
Through the 3 ohm resistor, it is:

E⫼R⫽I
12 volts ⫼ 3 ohms ⫽ 4 amps
Total circuit current is 2 amps ⫹ 4 amps ⫽ 6 amps.
If the resistance of a branch is unknown, dividing the source
voltage by the branch current gives the branch resistance. In
figure 1-18, for the first branch:
R1 ⫽ 12 volts ÷ 2 amps ⫽ 6 ohms
For the second branch:
R2 ⫽ 12 volts ÷ 4 amps ⫽ 3 ohms
Fig. 1-19. The headlamps are wired in parallel with each other in Total resistance of the circuit can be calculated using the product-
all headlamp circuits. over-the-sum method:
Rt ⫽ (6 ohms ⫻ 3 ohms) (6 ohms ⫹ 3 ohms) ⫽ 2 ohms
Or, if all you need is the equivalent circuit resistance, divide the
There are two ways to calculate the total resistance, or equiva- source voltage by the total circuit amperage as follows:
lent resistance, in a parallel circuit. One formula for any num-
ber of resistors is: Rt ⫽ 12 volts ⫼ 6 amps ⫽ 2 ohms
Rt ⫽ 1 ⫼ (1 ⫼ R1 ⫹ 1 ⫼ R2 ⫹ 1 ⫼ R3) To determine source voltage, multiply the total circuit current
by the total circuit resistance. Or, since the voltage is the same
Note: Rt ⫽ Total circuit resistance. across all branches, multiply one branch current by the same
For the circuit illustrated in figure 1-18: branch resistance. In figure 1-18:
R ⫽ 1 ⫼ (1 ⫼ 6 ⫹ 1 ⫼ 3) ⫽ 2 ohms I⫻R⫽E
Another way to calculate total resistance is the product-over- 6 amps ⫻ 2 ohms ⫽ 12 volts
the-sum method: Or, (branch I) ⫻ (branch R) ⫽ E:
R1 ⫽ (R1 ⫻ R2) ⫼ (R1⫹R2) Branch 1: 2 ⫻ 6 ⫽ 12 volts
This formula can be used for only two resistances at a time. If Branch 2: 4 ⫻ 3 ⫽ 12 volts
more than two are wired in parallel, you must calculate their
Series-Parallel Circuits
values in pairs until you determine one total resistance for the
As the name suggests, series-parallel circuits combine the two
circuit. For the circuit in figure 1-18:
types of circuits already discussed. Some of the loads are wired
R1 ⫽ (6 ⫻ 3) ⫼ (6 ⫹ 3) ⫽ 2 ohms in series, but there are also some loads wired in parallel, figure
To apply Ohm’s Law to a parallel circuit, sometimes you must 1-20. The entire headlamp circuit of an automobile is a series-
treat branches as independent circuits and sometimes you parallel circuit, figure 1-21. The headlamps are in parallel with
must deal with the entire circuit, depending upon which val- each other, but the switches are in series with the battery and
ues are unknown. To find current, you must treat each branch with each lamp. Both lamps are controlled by the switches, but
separately because of the different current in each branch. one lamp still lights if the other is burned out. Most of the cir-
Voltage is applied equally across all branches, so the source cuits in an automobile electrical system are series-parallel.
voltage is divided by the branch resistance to determine the Series-Parallel Circuits and Ohm’s Law
current through that branch. Adding the current in all the Values in a series-parallel circuit are figured by reducing the par-
branches gives the total current in the circuit. In the circuit allel branches to equivalent values for single loads in series. Then
shown, figure 1-18, current through the 6 ohm resistor is: the equivalent values and any actual series loads are combined.
E⫼R⫽I To calculate total resistance, first find the resistance of all
12 volts ⫼ 6 ohms ⫽ 2 amps loads wired in parallel. If the circuit is complex, it may be
Series-Parallel Circuit: An arrangement that combines two or more loads in parallel with one or more loads in series.
With this summary of electrical theory, you can perform

more accurate diagnoses, resulting in more efficient repairs,
and a higher percentage of satisfied customers.
MORE DIAGNOSTICS
Check the Basics
Some mechanical and electrical systems are not monitored by
the electronic powertrain control system. Failures here can
cause driveability or emission problems without setting codes.
Other problems may not be detected by a scan tool or lab
scope. Some problems may be the root cause of a code or a
sensor that is out of range, even though it is on a system that is
not monitored by the electronic powertrain control system.
The following tests, described over the next several pages,
may be performed to detect these types of problems. The tests
are not necessarily in the order they should be performed. This
is a reminder list. The list does not have a specific order or spe-
cific procedures.
Fig. 1-21. A complete headlamp circuit, with all bulbs and No-Start Diagnosis
switches, is a series-parallel circuit. To run, an engine requires four things: air, fuel, compression
and ignition, all at the right time. Perform the following tests
handy to group the parallel branches into pairs and treat each
to find what the problem is:
pair separately. Then add the values of all loads wired in series
to the equivalent resistance of all the loads wired in parallel. In • Observe the engine’s cranking speed; if it is too slow, check
the circuit shown in figure 1-20: the battery and starting system
• Check fuel pressure and volume
Rt ⫽ (6 ⫻ 3) ⫼ (6 ⫹ 3) ⫹ 2 ⫽ 4 ohms
• Verify the electrical signal to the injector with a 12V test
In the illustration, the equivalent resistance of the loads in par- light, figure 1-22, depending on the OEM’s recommen-
allel is: dation
(6 ⫻ 3 ) ⫼ (6 ⫹ 3) ⫽ 2 ohms • Use a properly gapped spark tester to check for spark
• Check compression by performing a cranking vacuum or
The total of the branch currents is 1 ⫹ 2 ⫽ 3 amps, so the volt-
compression test
age drop is:
• Check the ignition timing
I⫻R⫽E • Verify camshaft drive integrity and valve timing
3⫻2⫽6
Battery
The voltage drop across the load in series is 2 [⫻] 3 ⫽ 6 volts. Perform a preliminary visual inspection and check the elec-
Add these voltage drops to find the source voltage: trolyte level. The battery should measure 12.6V or higher, if it
6 ⫹ 6 ⫽ 12 volts is fully charged. The minimum state of charge needed to per-
To determine the source voltage in a series-parallel circuit, you form a load or capacity test is 12.4V.
must first find the equivalent resistance of the loads in paral- If the state of charge is too low, perform a “3 minute (sulfa-
lel, and the total current through this equivalent resistance. tion) test” while charging. To do this, connect the charger and set
Figure out the voltage drop across this equivalent resistance it on high. In three minutes, check the charging voltage. If at the
and add it to the voltage drops across all loads wired in series. end of three minutes, the charging voltage is above 15.8V, the bat-
To determine total current, find the currents in all paral- tery may be considered sulfated. It should be replaced because it
lel branches and add them together. This total is equal to the may never accept a full charge. If the battery passes, continue
current at any point in the series circuit. In figure 1-20: charging at a normal rate until it is fully charged. A capacity test L1
should be performed with a load of half the cold cranking
I ⫽ (E ⫼ R1) ⫹ (E ⫼ R2) ⫽ (6 ⫼ 6) ⫹ (6 ⫼3) ⫽ 1 ⫹ 2 ⫽ 3 amperes applied for 15 seconds. By the end of this time, the bat-
amps tery should not have dropped below 9.6V. If it does, replace it.
Notice that there are only 6 volts across each of the branch cir- Sometimes, a battery’s state of charge is low because of a
cuits because another 6 volts have already been “dropped” key OFF drain. To test for a key OFF drain, disconnect the
across the 2 ohm series resistor. negative battery cable connection. Connect a (known good)
Electrolyte: The chemical solution in a battery that conducts electricity and reacts with the plate materials.
Integrity: Soundness, intactness of a component, or a person’s adherence to a code of values.
Lab Scope: An oscilloscope used to observe electronic sensor and actuator waveforms, usually not capable of reading high secondary
ignition voltage.
for a small (parasitic) drain. If you measure zero, check the am-
meter’s circuit protection. There are electronic control devices
that need power even with the key OFF. You will need to look up
their normal parasitic drain, to know if there is an abnormal
drain on the system.
Starting
Disable both ignition and fuel, or just the fuel system. This not
only prevents startup, but also prevents crankcase oil dilution
caused by gasoline washing past the rings while performing
cranking tests. Limit cranking tests to 15 seconds to protect the
starter from overheating. The starter should crank the engine
at normal speed and not draw more current than specified.
Battery voltage during a “15-second starter draw test” should
not drop below 9.6V and the amperes should stay within OEM
specifications. Keep in mind that some electronic engine con-
trol systems require at least 10.5V during normal startup. Volt-
age lower than 10.5V may cause a no-start.
When the starter cranks too slowly and draws high current,
the problem may be caused by:
• A short in the starter
Fig. 1-22. Using a 12V test light to verify electrical signal to an • Excessive mechanical load
injector.
When the starter cranks too slowly and draws low current, the
problem may be caused by:
• Poor battery capacity
• Excessive resistance in the circuit
OFF
~
VHz~
VHz
• Excessive resistance in the starter
°%
RPM
When the starter cranks too fast and draws low current, the
A °C°F
problem is probably a low compression problem—often a
RPM
+ V
camshaft drive defect.
10A COM
If the starter engages the flywheel but does not release, or
makes unusual noise during cranking, the problem may be
TEMPORARY caused by:
SHUNT
• Improper pinion to flywheel clearance
• Bad starter drive
+ -
• Shorted starter solenoid or relay
• Starter not aligned properly
When the starter spins but does not engage the flywheel, the
cause may be:
• Defective starter drive
BATTERY
• Starter mounting bolts loose
Fig. 1-23. Using a jumper (shunt) to protect an ammeter during
a battery drain test. When the solenoid clicks but the starter does not spin, the
problem may be caused by:
• A defective solenoid switch
12-volt test light in series with the battery post and the battery • Excessive resistance in the starter control circuit
cable terminal connector. If the light illuminates, there is a
large drain. If the test light does not illuminate, remove it and Charging
proceed to the next test. Begin by checking the alternator belt condition and tension.
Temporarily connect a jumper (shunt) in series between the Check battery voltage with the ignition key in the OFF position.
negative battery post and the disconnected cable’s battery ter- Test the charging system voltage at the battery, with the engine
minal connector. Connect an ammeter across the battery post running at idle speed and accessories turned on. If there is no
and the battery terminal connector, figure 1-23. The shunt will OEM specification available, it should maintain a minimum of
protect your meter from a current increase while the vehicle’s at least 0.5V above the battery’s key OFF voltage with the ac-
capacitors are charging up. Wait 3–4 minutes, then disconnect cessory loads on.
the jumper before measuring. Use the highest meter range first, If the system voltage is low, first be sure engine idle speed
usually 10 or 20 amps. Then scale down to milliamps to check is correct, then look for high resistance in a wire or connection.
antifreeze/water in all but the coldest climates. A 70/30 mix is

the maximum ratio allowed for all but a few vehicle applica-
OFF
~
VHz~
VHz
tions. Look for corrosion or contamination in the system. Use
°%
RPM
the radiator cap pressure specification when pressurizing the
A °C°F
system to perform a leak check.
Proper engine temperature is critical for clean emissions and
RPM V
+
10A COM
optimal engine operation. Use a scan tool to accurately determine

and confirm thermostat operation. A lower temperature, stuck-
open thermostat, or no thermostat may cause a long warmup
time, or in cool weather no warmup. This in turn may cause:
- +
• Extended high idle speed
• High Carbon Monoxide (CO) tailpipe emission
Left uncorrected, other symptoms may be:
• Fouled spark plugs
• High hydrocarbon (HC) tailpipe emission
Fig. 1-24. Voltage drop testing the positive side of the charging • High fuel consumption
circuit.
• Abnormal fuel trim readings
• Carbon build up
To do this, perform a voltage drop test on the charging circuit, • Oxygen (O2) sensor carbon contamination
figure 1-24. Check both the positive and ground side of the cir- • Catalyst damage
cuit. It is important to turn on enough accessories to cause a
Engine cooling fan systems are often controlled by the ECM.
load of at least 20 amperes on the alternator. This will ensure
The ECM uses the coolant temperature signal to know when
that the flaw in the circuit is revealed. If this does not uncover
to activate a relay to control the cooling fan. A system that is
the problem, verify that the field circuit voltage or amperage is
bypassed to make the fan run constantly may cause the same
at specification.
high CO symptoms as a thermostat that is stuck open.
Check for overcharging. Measure the voltage at the battery
Overheating problems are caused by:
with the engine running at 2000 rpm and the accessories
turned off. It should not be above the OEM’s specified charg- • Low coolant level
ing system voltage limit. • Poor or no coolant circulation
Other tests include performing: • Inoperable auxiliary fan
• Lack of airflow
• An oscilloscope alternator diode ripple test
• Alternating Current (AC) volt leakage test. AC voltage An engine overheating during an emissions test may cause the
above 0.5V is the rule of thumb for a failed alternator test to be aborted. However, an engine running hotter than nor-
• Current leakage test using an ammeter in the charging mal, but not overheating, may cause a NOx emission test failure.
circuit
Engine Cylinder Power Contribution Test
Insight A cylinder power contribution test tells you which cylinder or
Think of the powertrain systems affected by a weak battery or cylinders’ combustion is not as efficient as the others. It does
defective charging system: starting, ignition, fuel delivery, fuel not tell you which system is at fault, figure 1-25.
control, emission controls, and transmission controls. Low or A low power contribution by one or more cylinders may
high system voltage will affect tailpipe emissions. When a be caused by:
engine control module (ECM) goes into a “limited operation
• A vacuum leak
strategy” because of low system voltage, it may disable the
• Compression loss
EGR, causing higher emission of Nitrogen Oxides (NOx).
• Poor valve lift
Cooling • Weak spark
Check the coolant condition and the level with a coolant tester • Fuel injector defect
(hydrometer). Most manufacturers recommend a 50/50 mix of • Primary ignition wiring fault L1
Carbon Monoxide: An odorless, colorless, tasteless poisonous gas. A pollutant produced by the internal combustion engine.
Fouled: Contaminated, like a spark plug contaminated (fouled) with carbon.
Fuel Trim (FT): Fuel delivery adjustments based on closed-loop feedback. Values above the central value (0%) indicate increased
injector pulse width. Values below the central value indicate decreased injector pulse width. Short Term Fuel Trim is based on rapidly
switching oxygen sensor values. Long Term Fuel Trim is a learned value used to compensate for continual deviation of the Short Term
Fuel Trim from its central value. (Term means time. Short Term Fuel Trim makes an immediate correction for O2 sensor bias. Long
Term Fuel Trim makes a correction for Short Term Fuel Trim bias).
Ripple Test: A test that checks for unwanted A/C. voltage leaking from an alternator rectifier bridge.
distribution problem, since fuel is delivered by a TBI system. It

would be a good idea, at this point, to perform a running com-
pression test. It may show low-running compression on cylin-
der number 2. A worn camshaft lobe should be suspect, but any
part of the valvetrain that is causing this cylinder’s valve to not
open enough would reduce its power contribution.
However, if this engine in the example had a multiport
fuel-injection system, a fuel injector problem would have to be
considered a possible cause. The O-ring seal on number 2 in-
jector should be checked for a vacuum leak. A fuel-injector
volume or pressure drop test should be performed, to see if
number 2 injector delivers a proper amount of fuel.
As this example illustrates, you must consider system con-
figuration in your analysis, or you will not be aware of all the
possible causes of a symptom.
Fig. 1-25. Oscilloscope power balance test control panel. Insight
Most problems that affect engine power contribution cause a
• ECM failure rise in HC emission. Only those problems that cause a rich
• Fuel injector electrical circuit defect condition cause a proportional rise in CO emission. The more
effect the problem has on power contribution, the higher the
Do not forget that on a multiport system, a fuel injector with a
HC emission will be.
bad intake O-ring seal can cause a vacuum leak that has more
effect on its own cylinder. So use your favorite vacuum leak
Engine Mechanical Condition Tests
detection method and include injector O-ring seals in your
A cranking compression test will reveal a cylinder with a seal-
search. Exhaust gas leaking into the intake from an Exhaust Gas
ing problem. Testing dry and then wet with a few squirts of oil
Recirculation (EGR) valve has an unequal effect on cylinder
will indicate whether you have ring or valve problems. The
power loss. The cylinders closest to the EGR are affected most.
fastest compression test is an automated relative compression
This effect is more severe at low rpm than at high rpm.
test performed on an engine analyzer.
Diagnosing Different Configurations Use a leak down test to locate the cause of a compression
Since there are so many different valvetrain, fuel system, and ig- leak. A leak of 20 psi or greater during a leak down test is seri-
nition system configurations, seriously consider system config- ous. Listen to find where the air is escaping. You will hear it
uration when analyzing test results. To understand this better, coming from the:
look at the following example: • Tailpipe when the exhaust valve is leaking
Configuration • Intake if an intake valve is leaking
Inline 4-cylinder engine • Crankcase if the rings are bad or the piston is damaged
Distributor ignition • Cooling system filler if the block is cracked, the head is
Throttle-body fuel injection cracked, or the head is warped and the head gasket is leaking
Power Contribution Test Results But none of these tests will disclose an engine breathing prob-
CYLINDER NUMBER RPM DROP lem, such as a worn camshaft lobe or a valvetrain problem that
1 110 prevents the proper amount of air from entering the cylinder.
2 30 However, a running compression test will uncover this problem
3 115 and you should perform it when other tests are inconclusive.
4 105 Carbon deposits on intake valves can be a difficult prob-
lem to diagnose. Intake valve deposits can cause an engine to
Compression Test Results run lean while cruising and accelerating, and rich during
All cylinders within specification deceleration.
Ignition Scope Check During lean conditions, NOx emission is high. During
All cylinders appear O.K. rich conditions, CO emission is high. Intake valve deposits can
The above engines’ symptoms are: runs rough, has poor also cause driveability problems such as a rough idle, stumble,
idle quality, and HC emission is high. The cylinder power hesitation, and loss of power under load.
contribution test result shows number 2 does not contribute its Often, an engine that displays a rough idle problem runs
share of power because the drop in engine speed is only 30 rpm. smooth after a fuel-injector cleaning service is performed. Intake
The fuel system configuration dictates that it cannot be a fuel valve deposits that were also removed by the fuel-injector service
Configuration: The organization of related components in a specific order.

Hesitation: A sudden loss of power or forward motion.
Fig. 1-27. A borescope can help spot defects even after a tear
down.
THROTTLE BODY
ASSEMBLY
Fig. 1-26. Use a flexible fiber optic borescope to see where you AIR
normally cannot see. DUCT
could have been the reason performance improved. All that was
really needed was a carbon clean solution administered through
the intake manifold, by way of a manifold vacuum port.
A borescope inspection is one way to know for sure if
there are excessive deposits on the intake valves. By inserting it
AIRFLOW
through the intake, you can see the back sides of the valves. SENSOR
Try a borescope inspection to actually see some problems
Fig. 1-28. Air leaks at the air duct connections or breaks in the
such as intake valve deposits, or to check for a cracked head or air duct would cause a lean condition.
block before condemning the head gasket, figure 1-26. A
borescope can eliminate some tear down inspections and im-
prove on others, figure 1-27. This can be a real time-saver for
enough to cause a misfire, NOx emission will fall and HC
you and a great value for the customer.
emission will increase dramatically.
Insight On systems that use a Manifold Absolute Pressure
A final thought to remember that will aid your diagnosis: Most (MAP) sensor, a vacuum leak will cause the engine speed to in-
mechanical engine problems that cause engine performance crease. The faster speed of the engine produces more total mass
symptoms do so by affecting combustion efficiency, which in- or volume of emissions. However, the emissions remain pro-
creases HC emission. portionally the same. HC emission will increase if the vacuum
leak causes a power imbalance.
Air Intake System Problems
Dirty air filters, unless extremely restricted, are usually
Remember to check for vacuum leaks. Keep in mind that a vac-
compensated for by today’s modern fuel injection systems.
uum leak does not cause a power imbalance but increases en-
However, air filters must still be changed when needed because
gine speed. If the system uses an airflow sensor, any leak, even
they do protect an expensive airflow sensor and engine.
in an intake air duct, is air that was not measured, figure 1-
28. Whether it’s an air duct leak or vacuum leak, if too large, Insight L1
the system cannot compensate, resulting in a lean combustion Carbureted vehicles built in the ’80s experiencing an air intake
problem. Lean combustion will cause HC and NOx emissions problem could cause a power imbalance and an rpm decrease
to increase. When the lean combustion problem is severe at idle.
Borescope: A device used to look inside areas of the engine that usually cannot be seen without disassembly.
Misfire: Incomplete combustion resulting in increased emissions and the possibility of catalyst damage.
Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP): The pressure in the intake manifold referenced to a perfect vacuum. Since manifold vacuum is the
difference between manifold absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure, all the vacuum readings in the Composite Vehicle
Preparation/Reference Booklet are taken at sea level (where standard atmospheric pressure equals 101 kPa or 0 in. Hg).
Idle System Problems Low octane gasoline can cause spark knock or engine ping
Curb idle is usually controlled by the ECM on most late-model and increase NOx emission.
vehicles. However, most have what is called a minimum air rate, Refineries control seasonal gasoline volatility. Higher fuel
minimum throttle angle, or minimum idle speed adjustment. volatility on an unseasonably warm day can increase NOx
Check the tune-up procedure section of your shop manual for production. It can also vaporize in the fuel delivery system,
the proper procedure. If the minimum air rate is incorrect, the causing a leaner fuel mixture. The leaner mixture will cause an
vehicle may suffer from: increase of HC emission. When the vaporization problem is se-
vere enough, fuel starvation from vapor lock occurs. Lower
• Off-idle hesitation gasoline volatility in cold weather can cause hard starting and
• Idle load compensation problems driveability problems during cold engine operation.
• Low or high idle speed When in doubt about the fuel, it is best to test it or replace
• Rough idle quality it with fresh fuel of the proper octane.
• Stall on deceleration
Fuel System Tests
If the Throttle Position (TP) sensor is adjustable, adjustment
Visual inspection for fuel leaks is a first step when there is a
usually accompanies a minimum idle adjustment.
lean combustion problem, or a fuel odor complaint. In tight
Inspect behind the throttle plate for carbon build-up.
places where there is poor visibility, the gas analyzer can help
Look in the throttle bore and the bypass port, figure 1-29. This
you search for a leak. Watch the HC reading on the analyzer
build-up of carbon will affect the minimum air rate. Check the
and use the sample probe to sniff out the leak.
OEM recommendations before cleaning. Some throttle bores
Do not neglect to perform fuel pressure and volume tests,
have a special coating that may be removed by cleaner, expos-
figure 1-30. Even if access is difficult, they are absolutely nec-
ing it to corrosion and carbon build-up. Carbon build-up in
essary for diagnosing both rich and lean mixture problems.
the throttle bore or bypass port may cause:
Use pressure and volume tests to help diagnose defects of the:
• Low idle speed
• Fuel pump
• Rough idle quality
• Rest or static pressure check valve
• Off-idle hesitation
• Fuel pressure regulator
• Fuel injector
Fuel Quality
Check for fuel quality problems such as water contamination Fuel injectors can fail in many different ways. Most defects
or alcohol content. Too much alcohol not only decreases en- affect a pressure drop or volume flow test. Refer to OEM spec-
gine power, it also damages fuel delivery system components. ifications. Some shops try injector cleaning first, replacing
Test kits are available to check for fuel contamination. injectors only if cleaning does not solve the problem. Be sure
Stale or old gasoline that has been stored for a long time to check the OEM’s recommendations because cleaning dam-
may cause hard starting. Old gas can also increase HC due to ages some types of injectors. In this case, the only safe alterna-
misfires, but seldom prevents starting. tive is replacement.
THROTTLE
BORE
EGR
BYPASS PASSAGE
PORT
Fig. 1-29. Check the throttle bore, throttle plate, and bypass port
for carbon build-up. Fig. 1-30. Fuel system pressure test with pressure gauge.
Check Valve: A valve that permits flow in only one direction.

Compensation: To correct for too much or too little of something.
Fuel Starvation: The lack of fuel available for efficient combustion.
Fuel Volatility: The lower the temperature at which a fuel vaporizes, the higher the volatility.
Vapor Lock: When fuel vaporizes in a line or device and blocks the flow of liquid fuel, usually causes engine stall.
An increase of CO emission, caused by the fuel delivery

system, is usually one of the following high-pressure problems:
• Defective pressure regulator 15 30
• Pinched return hose
• Crushed return line
10 20
• Fuel injector nozzle leak
If the system is allowed to continue with these rich conditions,
5 10
it may foul the spark plugs, causing a misfire, resulting in in-
creased HC emission.
If a high CO emission, rich condition is so severe it causes 0 0
all available combustion O2 to be used up, HC emission will
also increase.
An increase of HC and NOx emissions caused by the fuel-
injection system is usually due to one of the following low pres-
sure or volume problems:
• Weak fuel pump
• Restricted fuel filter
• Restricted fuel line
15 30
• Pinched fuel delivery hose
• External fuel leak
• Dirty fuel injector or poor spray pattern 10 20
• Punctured fuel pressure regulator diaphragm
If the lean condition is so severe it causes a misfire, NOx emis- 5 10
sion will decrease and HC emission will increase dramatically.
Ignition System Problems 0 0
First, let’s clear up some OBD II ignition terms: EI is an Elec-
tronic Ignition system that is a direct ignition system using either
two spark plugs per coil, or a direct ignition system with one coil
per spark plug. DI is an ignition system that uses a distributor.
Unless you have an engine that is a no-start or an obvious Fig. 1-31. Examples of common ignition secondary problems
ignition wire problem to repair, start by checking the ignition displayed on an oscilloscope.
timing first. Regardless of whether it is an EI type, or not, if it
has a specification and a procedure available, be sure to check
it. Few crank sensors are adjustable and will change initial Remember, two things will not change: High voltage on
timing if not adjusted properly. You should verify the timing the scope means high resistance in the circuit. Low voltage
advance capability of most models. on the scope means low resistance, or short circuit problems,
Acceptable type spark testers, like a High Energy Ignition figure 1-31.
Tester (HEI), are great for a no-start diagnosis. However, it is Any ignition problem that affects combustion increases
difficult to say for certain that the spark is adequate, just by HC emission.
watching it jump the gap of a spark tester. Oscilloscope checks
of secondary voltage are best for showing a spark plug, spark Insight
plug wire, distributor cap, or rotor problem. When any type of misfire occurs, it may cause the O2 sensor to
EI systems give some problems with scope hook-up, but send a low voltage signal to the ECM. The ECM interprets this
most manufacturers now have methods for connecting, even to mean the system is lean, when in reality it is not. Unless
on EI systems that have no plug wires. the ECM recognizes this as a fault, the ECM will adjust the
L1
Diaphragm: A thin flexible wall, separating two cavities, used to turn a change of vacuum or pressure into mechanical movement, such
as the diaphragm in a vacuum advance.
Electronic Ignition (EI): An ignition system that has coils dedicated to specific spark plugs (one or two spark plugs) and does not use a
distributor; often referred to as distributorless ignition.
On Board Diagnostics (OBD): A diagnostic program contained in the PCM that monitors computer inputs and outputs for failures.
OBD II is an industry-standard, second generation OBD system that monitors emissions control systems for degradation as well as
failures.
Nozzle: The opening through which a substance flows.
Short Circuit: A condition in which a path is provided around the circuit load to another circuit or ground.
injector on time and fuel trim to increase fuel delivery. How- pretty strange readings. The problem with an exhaust leak is that
ever, no amount of fuel will lower the amount of oxygen pass- it lets air into the exhaust, as well as letting exhaust gas out.
ing the O2 sensor from the misfire. During this time, the sys- The extra air can cause sudden combustion of hot exhaust
tem will be rich and CO emission will be higher. gas. The extra air also dilutes the exhaust stream, causing unre-
If the ECM recognizes the signal is false, it will set a code liable gas analyzer readings.
and remain in open-loop mode. This mode does not necessar- To check for the location of an exhaust leak, have a helper
ily mean the system will be rich because some systems actually cover the tailpipe outlet to cause backpressure. Listen for a
default lean. hissing sound, at the site of a leak, along the length of the ex-
haust system.
Exhaust System Problems
Sometimes, a loss of power can be caused by a restricted or Transmission and Final Drive Problems
clogged exhaust system. A first step to check for a restricted ex- State emission inspections performed on dynamometers have
haust is a vacuum test. To perform this test, warm the engine and created another reason for periodic drivetrain inspection and
attach a vacuum gauge to the manifold vacuum. Run the engine repair.
to at least 1500 rpm. Vacuum should be steady at 17 to 21 inches A drivetrain problem can be the cause of an aborted or failed
of mercury (in-hg), depending on engine condition. If the exhaust emission test. It is important to realize during your drivetrain in-
is restricted severely enough, the vacuum may never reach this spection that any modification of tire circumference, or final gear
value. The vacuum will drop as the exhaust backpressure builds. ratio, will change the ratio of engine speed to vehicle speed. A
Be aware, some other engine performance problems can simple change of tire size now has an effect on emissions.
cause the same vacuum test results. These include a loss of fuel One example would be certain OEM’s ECM strategies for
pressure or volume, weak spark, or low charging voltage. EGR system operation. Some systems monitor a ratio of en-
The next step is exhaust backpressure testing. Use a pounds gine speed to vehicle speed for decisions about opening and
per square inch (psi) pressure gauge in the O2 sensor threaded
mounting hole, figure 1-32, in the EGR backpressure transducer
exhaust port hose, an OEM gas analyzer exhaust gas test port (if SOLENOID OFF
you are lucky), or an aftermarket exhaust gas backpressure test
kit. If you cannot find an OEM specification, use a specification ARMATURE
of 3psi maximum backpressure at 1500 rpm. Another option is
to disassemble and visually inspect to find the restriction.
Exhaust system air leaks can cause a safety problem for pas-
EXHAUST
sengers. Poisonous emissions from the leak could reach the pas- SPRING TO SUMP
senger compartment. Exhaust leaks can cause annoying popping
sounds in the exhaust and cause your gas analyzer to give some SEAT
TO SHIFT VALVE
(PRESSURE LOWER FROM SOLENOID
THAN INPUT) REGULATOR VALVE
ADAPTER
SOLENOID ON
ARMATURE
O2 SENSOR
GAUGE
BALL VALVE (SEATED)
FULL PRESSURE
EXHAUST TO SHIFT VALVE FROM SOLENOID
MANIFOLD REGULATOR VALVE
Fig. 1-32. Using a pressure gauge to test exhaust system Fig. 1-33. Two position solenoids are on/off switches that open
backpressure. and close passages to regulate fluid flow in the transmission.
Drivetrain: A reference that describes the parts from the engine to the drive axle(s).
Monitor: To watch, observe, or check something.
On time: The time when an actuator is energized, as when a fuel injector is signaled to allow fuel to flow.
modulating the EGR valve. A modification here could cause a variable signal. Sample the exhaust gases both at idle and at
state emission test failure. 2,500 RPM. If a dynamometer is used, test under simulated
A drivetrain problem can create an unsafe condition that highway load conditions as described by the manufacturer.
would cause an emissions test to be aborted. Diagnosing drive- Refer to Chapter 6 for additional information.
train safety problems requires much the same approach as en-
gine problems. Visual inspection of CV boots, U-joints, or axle Abnormal HC and CO Readings
vibration dampers requires grasping, pushing, and pulling to High HC levels indicate unburned fuel in the exhaust caused
check for worn joints. Listen while test driving to see if you hear by incomplete combustion. The source of high HC emissions
that telltale clicking noise on turns, indicating a bad CV joint. can often be traced to the ignition system, but mechanical or
Some defects can affect emissions by adding or changing fuel system problems also can increase HC emissions. High
engine load conditions. Check levels and condition of fluids. levels of HC emissions result from:
Use pressure tests to help diagnose automatic transmission • Advanced ignition timing
problems. Perform electrical checks of transmission fluid tem- • Ignition misfire from defective spark plug wires or fouled
perature (TFT), transmission turbine speed (TSS), and the spark plugs
transmission range (TR) switch, as well as engine and vehicle • An excessively rich or lean air-fuel mixture
speed (VSS) sensors. Electrically check the torque converter • Leaking vacuum hoses, vacuum controls, or seals
clutch lock-up and shift control solenoids, figure 1-33. • Low engine compression
• Defective valves, valve guides, valve springs, lifters,
EXHAUST GAS ANALYZERS camshaft, or incorrect valve lash
To properly diagnose fuel system concerns an exhaust gas an- • Defective rings, pistons, or cylinder walls
alyzer should be used. The analyzers are available in many • Clogged fuel injectors causing a lean misfire
styles and designs. Current models are designed to sample and
analyze either four or five gasses present in the exhaust from The amount of CO in the exhaust stream is directly propor-
the vehicle. The newest models are designed for five gas detec- tional to the amount of O2 contributing to the combustion
tion and normally provide digital and/or printed results of process. Richer air-fuel mixtures, with lower oxygen content,
each test. Either piece of equipment is generally suitable for di- produce higher CO levels; leaner air-fuel mixtures, with higher
agnosing basic fuel system abnormalities and driveability oxygen content, produce lower CO levels. High CO emissions
problems. may result from one or more of the following abnormal con-
ditions:
Five-Gas Analyzers • Clogged or dirty intake air passages
Five-gas analyzers measure the parts per million (ppm) of hy-
• Plugged air filter element
drocarbons (HC), the percentage of carbon monoxide (CO),
• Throttle body coking
the percentage of oxygen (O2), the percentage of carbon diox-
• Rich fuel mixture
ide (CO2) and the percentage of oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
• Incorrect idle speed
Most properly tuned computer-controlled vehicles will pro-
• Excessive fuel pressure
duce about 50 ppm of HC, less than 0.5 percent CO, 1.0 to 2.0
• Leaking fuel injectors
percent O2 and 13.8 to 15.0 percent CO2.
Both HC and CO levels reading high at the same time may be
Four-Gas Analyzers caused by the following conditions:
Four-gas analyzers measure HC, CO, CO2 and O2. They do
not provide data as to the levels of NOx in the exhaust. • Defective positive crankcase ventilation system
• Defective catalytic converter
Diagnosing Exhaust Gasses • Defective manifold heat control valve
For an accurate analysis of fuel combustion on catalytic con- • Defective air pump
verter-equipped vehicles, prevent the air injection system from • Defective thermostatic air cleaner
supplying oxygen into the exhaust stream. This decreases the
amount of O2 at the tailpipe and the efficiency of the converter. Abnormal CO2 and O2 Readings
The air injection system may be disabled by several means. On Since the catalytic converter reduces HC and CO, these emis-
some vehicles, disconnecting the air injection pump or plug- sions are unreliable for determining the air fuel ratio. Howev-
er, CO2 and O2 readings can be useful, provided that the air
L1
ging the pulse air injection system is effective. For others, the
probe of the analyzer can be connected to a port installed up- injection system has been disabled.
stream of the catalytic converter or to the exhaust opening for When air and fuel entering the engine burns with the least
the EGR valve. Next, make sure that the engine is at operating amount of wasted energy, at the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio,
temperature, in closed loop, and the HO2S is transmitting a the engine emits the highest amount of CO2. Look for readings
Carbon Monoxide: An odorless, colorless, tasteless poisonous gas. A pollutant produced by the internal combustion engine.
CV Boot: The flexible cover used to prevent road dirt contamination of a CV joint.
Hydrocarbons: Chemical compounds in various combinations of hydrogen and carbon. A major pollutant from an internal combustion
engine. Gasoline, itself, is a mixture of hydrocarbons.
between 13.8 and 15 percent. As the air-fuel ratio of the mix- hydraulic valve lifters. If test results are below specifications,
ture leans or enriches, the CO2 level drops. To determine internal engine repairs are required to restore performance.
whether a low CO2 level indicates a lean or rich condition, ex-
amine the O2 reading. Levels of O2 below approximately 1.0 Variable Valve Timing
percent indicate a rich running engine; above 2.0 percent indi- The variable valve timing system advances or retards camshaft
cates a lean running engine. timing to increase engine output, improve fuel efficiency and de-
To perform adequately and operate efficiently, an engine crease emissions. A hydraulic actuator on the cam drive uses oil
must be in sound mechanical condition. Therefore it is im- pressure to rotate the cam’s position slightly, increasing valve du-
portant to determine the overall mechanical condition of the ration. Cam timing is determined by the engine control module
engine before attempting to isolate or repair the cause of a drive- (ECM) using the crankshaft position (CKP) sensor and
ability or performance problem. camshaft position sensor (CMP 1 and CMP 2) signals.
Perform a compression or cylinder leakage test to deter- Each intake camshaft has a separate camshaft position
mine the internal sealing capabilities of the engine. When test sensor, hydraulic actuator, and control solenoid. If little or no
results are marginal and indicate valve seating problems, per- oil pressure is received by a hydraulic actuator, it is designed to
formance can often be restored by adjusting lash or servicing mechanically default to the fully retarded position.
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
1. Voltage drop in a circuit always equals: 8. The voltage drop across an electrical 13. True of false? When you believe a loss
a. The resistance of each component component depends on the voltage of power is being caused by a restricted
b. The current flow through the applied and the _______ of the or clogged exhaust system, the first
ground circuit component. step to check for a restricted exhaust
c. The source voltage a. Size system is to perform an exhaust
d. None of the above b. Resistance backpressure test.
c. Electron a. True
2. A diode is designed to: d. Weight b. False
a. Allow current flow in both directions
b. Prevent current flow in both 9. When performing a no-start diagnosis, 14. Technician A says a five-gas exhaust
directions if fully charged, a battery should gas analyzer is used to measure HC,
c. Add extra resistance to control measure: CO, O2, CO2, and NOx. Technician B
circuits a. 12.3V says a five-gas analyzer is used to
d. Allow current flow in one direction b. 12.4V measure HC, CO, O2, CO2, and N2.
only c. 12.5V Who is right?
d. 12.6V a. A only
3. When diagnosing a starting problem, b. B only
disabling the ignition and fuel or just 10. A long warm-up time may be caused c. Both A and B
the fuel system prevents start up. by: d. Neither A nor B
What else is prevented while a. Low ambient temperature
performing cranking tests? b. Stuck-open thermostat 15. While diagnosing a starting problem, it
a. Crankcase oil dilution c. No thermostat is determined that the solenoid clicks
b. Excessive fuel backwash d. All of the above but does not spin.Technician A says
c. False scan tool readings that a defective solenoid may be
d. Parasitic drains 11. An engine breathing problem, such as causing the problem.Technician B
a worn camshaft lobe or valvetrain says it might be due to excessive
4. In a series circuit with three 4 ohm problem that prevents the proper resistance in the starter control circuit.
bulbs and 12 volts applied, the total amount of air entering the cylinder, Who is right?
circuit voltage drop will be: may be diagnosed by running which a. A only
a. 12 volts test? b. B only
b. 4 volts a. Compression test c. Both A and B
c. 8 volts b. Running compression test d. Neither A nor B
d. 1 volt c. Engine mechanical test
d. Standing rhinostatic test 16. In a series circuit containing three
5. The unit of measure for current flow in 4 ohm bulbs with 12 volts applied,
a circuit is: 12. Technician A says that watching a resistance total is:
a. Amps spark jump a gap of a spark tester is a. 3 ohms
b. Volts adequate to determine whether there is b. 12 ohms
c. Ohms a spark problem. Technician B says it’s c. 4 ohms
d. Watts important to run an oscilloscope check d. 1 ohm
of secondary voltage to determine
6. The unit of measurement for whether the problem exists in a spark 17. In a series circuit with three 4 ohm
resistance in a circuit is: plug wire. Who is right? bulbs and 12 volts applied, current
a. Volts a. A only flow is:
b. Ohms b. B only a. 1 amp
c. Watts c. Both A and B b. 12 amps
d. Amps d. Neither A nor B c. 4 amps
d. 8 amps
7. A circuit that has one path for current
flow is called a: L1
a. Complex circuit
b. Series circuit
c. Parallel circuit
d. Bias circuit
CHAPTER TWO
COMPUTERIZED POWERTRAIN
CONTROLS DIAGNOSIS INCLUDING OBD II
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES airflow-type closed-loop sequential multiport fuel injection

• The technician will complete the ASE task list on Computer-
system. The Engine Control Module (ECM) receives input
ized Powertrain Controls Diagnosis Including OBD II. from sensors, calculates ignition and fuel requirements, and
• The technician will be able to answer 13 questions dealing with controls engine actuators to provide the desired driveability,
the Computerized Powertrain Controls Diagnosis Including fuel economy, and emissions control, figure 2-1. The ECM also
OBD II section of the L1 ASE Test. controls the vehicle’s charging system. The powertrain control
This chapter focuses on the operation and diagnosis of com- system has OBD II-compatible sensors and diagnostic
puterized powertrain control systems. The industry is placing capabilities. The ECM receives power from the battery and
more emphasis on the technician’s ability to diagnose these ignition switch and provides a regulated 5 volt supply for most
complex control system defects and failures. If you need addi- of the engine sensors. The engine is equipped with a single
tional information on engine control systems refer to the A8 exhaust system and a three-way catalytic converter, without any
study guide. secondary air injection. Engine control features include variable
As with any diagnostic routine once you have verified the valve timing, electronic throttle actuator control (TAC), a data
customer’s concern, begin your diagnosis by checking for communications bus, a vehicle anti-theft immobilizer system,
missing, modified, inoperative, or tampered computerized and onboard refueling vapor recovery (ORVR) EVAP com-
powertrain control components. If any are found, repair or re- ponents. The control system software and OBD II diagnostic
place and retest the system before continuing. procedures stored in the ECM can be updated using factory
Most OEMs provide diagnostic information for the com- supplied calibration files and PC-based interface software, along
puterized powertrain control systems either in the Service with a reprogramming device or scan tool that connects the PC
Manual or in a separate Diagnostic Manual. Locate the correct to the vehicle’s data link connector (DLC).
diagnostic information for the vehicle being serviced. Keep in
mind that it is very important to take into account the follow- Fuel System
ing when looking up information: • Sequential Multiport Fuel Injection (SFI)
• Returnless Fuel Supply with electric fuel pump mounted
• Model year
inside the fuel tank
• Manufacturer/Make
• Fuel pressure is regulated to a constant 50 psi (345 kPa) by
• Model
a mechanical regulator in the tank. Minimum acceptable
• Production date
fuel pressure is 45 psi (310 kPa). The fuel system should
• VIN
maintain a minimum of 45 psi (310 kPa) for two minutes
• Engine size
after the engine is turned off.
• Emissions certification type
Most service and diagnostic procedures begin with a short Ignition System
description of system operation to familiarize you with the • Electronic (Distributorless) Ignition (EI) with six ignition
designed operating strategies for the system. Make it a habit coils (coil-over-plug)
to always read this information before jumping into the diag- • Firing order: 1-2-3-4-5-6
nostic routine. • Cylinders 1, 3, and 5 are on Bank 1; cylinders 2, 4, and 6
are on Bank 2
COMPOSITE VEHICLE TYPE 3 INFORMATION • Ignition timing is not adjustable
General Description • Timing is determined by the ECM using the Crankshaft
This generic four cycle, V6 engine has four overhead chain- Position (CKP) sensor signal
driven camshafts, 24 valves, distributorless ignition, and a mass • The ignition control module is integrated into the ECM
Sequential Multiport Fuel Injection (SFI): A fuel injection system that uses one electronic fuel injector for each cylinder. The injectors
are pulsed in the sequence of each cylinder’s intake stroke.
Chapter Two: Computerized Powertrain Controls Diagnosis Including OBD II 625
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Fig. 2-1. The ASE composite vehicle Type 3 wiring diagram shows ECM sensors, actuators, and related circuits. (Part 1 of 3)
626 Chapter Two: Computerized Powertrain Controls Diagnosis Including OBD II
Fig. 2-1. The ASE composite vehicle Type 3 wiring diagram shows ECM sensors, actuators, and related circuits. (Part 2 of 3)
Fig. 2-1. The ASE composite vehicle Type 3 wiring diagram shows ECM sensors, actuators, and related circuits. (Part 3 of 3) L1
Idle Speed Automatic Transmission
• Non-adjustable closed throttle stop (minimum air • Four-speed automatic overdrive transaxle, with shifting
rate) controlled by a transmission control module (TCM). The
• Normal no-load idle range is 850 to 900 rpm with an idle TCM communicates with the ECM and other modules
air control value of 15% to 25% through the data bus.
Overdrive: A condition in which the drive gear rotates slower than the driven gear. Output speed of the driven gear is increased, while
output torque is reduced. A gear ratio of 0.70:1 is an overdrive gear ratio.
Transaxle: The combination of a transmission and differential gears, used in front wheel drive and rear engine vehicles.
• The TCM provides its own regulated 5 volt supply, per- position will provide a fast idle speed of 1400 to 1500
forms all OBD II transaxle diagnostic routines, and stores rpm, with no load and all accessories off.
transaxle diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs). The control • Normal no-load idle range is 850 to 900 rpm at 5% to
system software and OBD II diagnostic procedures stored 10% throttle opening.
in the TCM can be updated in the same way as the ECM. • No idle relearn procedure is required after component
• Failures that result in a pending or confirmed DTC relat- replacement or a dead battery.
ed to any of the following components will cause the TCM
to default to fail-safe mode: range switch, shift solenoids, Data Communications Bus
turbine shaft speed sensor, and the vehicle speed sensor. • The serial data bus is a high-speed, non-fault tolerant,
The TCM will also default to fail-safe mode if it is unable two wire twisted pair communications network. It
to communicate with the ECM. allows peer-to-peer communications between various
• When in fail-safe mode, maximum line pressure will be electronic modules, including the engine control
commanded, the transmission will default to 2nd gear and module (ECM), transmission control module (TCM),
the torque converter clutch will be disabled. instrument cluster (including the MIL), immobilizer
control module, and a scan tool connected to the data
Variable Valve Timing link connector (DLC).
• Intake camshaft timing is continuously variable using a • The Data-High circuit switches between 2.5 (rest state)
hydraulic actuator attached to the end of each intake and 3.5 volts (active state), and the Data-Low circuit
camshaft. Engine oil flow to each hydraulic actuator is switches between 2.5 (rest state) and 1.5 volts (active
controlled by a camshaft position actuator control sole- state). The data bus has two 120 ohm terminating resis-
noid. Exhaust camshaft timing is fixed. tors: one inside the instrument cluster, and another one
• A single timing chain drives both exhaust camshafts and inside the ECM.
both intake camshaft hydraulic actuators. While valve • Any of the following conditions will cause the data com-
overlap is variable, valve lift and duration are fixed. munications bus to fail and result in the storage of net-
• Cam timing is determined by the ECM using the crank- work DTCs: either data line shorted to power, to ground,
shaft position (CKP) sensor and camshaft position sensor or to the other data line.
(CMP 1 and CMP 2) signals. At idle, the intake camshafts • The data bus will remain operational when one of the two
are fully retarded and valve overlap is zero degrees. At modules containing a terminating resistor is not connect-
higher speeds and loads, the intake camshafts can be ad- ed to the network. The data bus will fail when both termi-
vanced up to 40 crankshaft degrees. nating resistors are not connected to the network.
• Each intake camshaft has a separate camshaft position • Data communication failures do not prevent the ECM
sensor, hydraulic actuator, and control solenoid. If little or from providing ignition and fuel control.
no oil pressure is received by a hydraulic actuator (typi-
cally at engine startup, at idle speed, or during a fault con- Immobilizer Anti-Theft System
dition), it is designed to mechanically default to the fully • When the ignition switch is turned on, the immobilizer
retarded position (zero valve overlap), and is held in that control module sends a challenge signal through the an-
position by a spring-loaded locking pin. tenna around the ignition switch to the transponder chip
in the ignition key. The transponder key responds with an
Electronic Throttle Control encrypted key code. The immobilizer control module
• The vehicle does not have a mechanical throttle cable, a then decodes the key code and compares it to the list of
cruise control throttle actuator, or an idle air control registered keys.
(IAC) valve. Throttle opening at all engine speeds and • When the engine is started, the ECM sends a request to
loads is controlled directly by a throttle actuator control the immobilizer control module over the data bus to ver-
(TAC) motor mounted on the throttle body housing. ify the key validity. If the key is valid, the immobilizer
• Dual accelerator pedal position (APP) sensors provide control module responds with a “valid key” message to
input from the vehicle operator, while the actual throttle the ECM to continue normal engine operation.
angle is determined using dual throttle position (TP) • If an attempt is made to start the vehicle with an invalid ig-
sensors. nition key, the immobilizer control module sends a message
• If one APP sensor or one TP sensor fails, the ECM will over the data bus to the instrument cluster to flash the anti-
turn on the malfunction indicator lamp (MIL) and limit theft indicator lamp. If the ECM does not receive a “valid
the maximum throttle opening to 35%. If any two (or key” message from the immobilizer control module within
more) of the four sensors fail, the ECM will turn on the 2 seconds of engine startup, the ECM will disable the fuel
MIL and disable the electronic throttle control. injectors to kill the engine. Cycling the key off and cranking
• In case of failure of the electronic throttle control system, the engine again will result in engine restart and stall.
the system will default to limp-in operation. In limp-in • The immobilizer control module and ECM each have their
mode, the spring-loaded throttle plate will return to a own unique internal ID numbers used to encrypt their
default position of 15% throttle opening, and the TAC messages, and are programmed at the factory to recognize
value on the scan tool will indicate 15%. This default each other. If either module is replaced, the scan tool must
be used to program the replacement module, using the behind the balancer pulley. Each tooth is ten crankshaft de-
VIN, the date, and a factory-assigned PIN number. grees apart, with one space for a “missing tooth” located 60 de-
• Up to eight keys can be registered in the immobilizer con- grees before top dead center of cylinder number 1, figure 2-2.
trol module. Each key has its own unique internal key
Camshaft Position (CMP 1 and CMP 2) Sensors
code. If only one valid key is available, or if all keys have
A pair of three-wire solid state (Hall-effect or optical-type)
been lost, the scan tool can be used to delete lost keys and
sensors that generate a signal once per intake camshaft revolu-
register new keys. This procedure also requires the VIN,
tion. The leading edge of the bank 1 CMP signal occurs on the
the date, and a factory-assigned PIN number.
cylinder 1 compression stroke, and the leading edge of the bank
• The ECM, TCM, and the immobilizer control module do
2 CMP signal occurs on the cylinder 4 compression stroke,
not prevent operation of the starter motor for anti-theft
figure 2-2.When the intake camshafts are fully retarded (zero
purposes.
valve overlap), the signals switch at top dead center of cylinders
On-Board Refueling Vapor Recovery (ORVR) 1 and 4. When the intake camshafts are fully advanced (maxi-
EVAP System mum valve overlap), the signals switch at 40 crankshaft degrees
• The on-board refueling vapor recovery EVAP system before top dead center. These signals allow the ECM to deter-
causes fuel tank vapors to be directed to the EVAP char- mine fuel injector and ignition coil sequence, as well as the
coal canister during refueling, so that HC vapors do not actual intake valve timing. Loss of one CMP signal will set a
escape into the atmosphere DTC, and valve timing will be held at the fully retarded posi-
• The following components have been added to the tradi- tion (zero valve overlap). If neither CMP signal is detected dur-
tional EVAP system for QRVR capability: a one inch I.D. fill ing cranking, the ECM will store a DTC and disable the fuel
pipe, a one-way check valve at the bottom of the fill pipe, a injectors, resulting in a no-start condition. Located at the rear
fuel vapor control valve inside the fuel tank, and a 1⁄2 inch I.D. of each valve cover, with an interrupter mounted on the intake
vent hose from the vapor control valve to the canister. camshafts to generate the signal.
• The fuel vapor control valve has a float that rises to seal the Mass Airflow (MAF) Sensor
vent hose when the fuel tank is full. It also prevents liquid Senses airflow into the intake manifold. The sensor reading
fuel from reaching the canister and blocks fuel from leak- varies from 0.2 volt (0 gm/sec) at key-on, engine-off, to 4.8 volts
ing in the event of a vehicle roll-over. (175 gm/sec) at maximum airflow, figure 2-3. At sea level, no-
load idle (850 rpm), the sensor reading is 0.7 volt (2.0 gm/sec).
SENSORS Located on the air cleaner housing.
Crankshaft Position (CKP) Sensor Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) Sensor
A magnetic-type sensor that generates 35 pulses for each Senses intake manifold absolute pressure. The MAP sensor
crankshaft revolution. It is located on the front engine cover, signal is used by the ECM for OBD II diagnostics only. The
with a 35-tooth iron wheel mounted on the crankshaft just sensor reading varies from 4.5 volts at 0 in. Hg vacuum I 101 kPa
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Fig. 2-2. CKP and CMP sensor waveforms.
Hall-Effect Sensor: A signal-generating switch that develops a transverse voltage across a current-carrying semiconductor when
subjected to a magnetic field.
Magnetic Type Sensor: Magnetic pulse generator, a signal-generating device that creates a voltage pulse as magnetic flux changes
around a pickup coil.
Optical Sensor: Uses a light-emitting diode and shutter blade to trigger the switching of a photo-sensitive transistor, sends a square
wave signal used for engine rpm and/or piston position.
Fig. 2-3. MAF signal voltage increases as airflow increases.
Fig. 2-4. MAP sensor signal voltage increases as intake manifold vacuum decreases and manifold absolute pressure increases.
pressure (key on. engine off, at sea level) to 0.5 volts at 24 in. of one TP sensor will set a DTC and the ECM will limit the
Hg vacuum /20.1 kPa pressure, figure 2-4. At sea level, no-load maximum throttle opening to 35%. Failure of both TP sen-
idle with 18 in. Hg vacuum (40.4 kPa absolute pressure); the sors will set a DTC and cause the throttle actuator control to
sensor reading is 1.5 volts. Located on the intake manifold. be disabled, and the spring-loaded throttle plate will return
to the default 15% position (fast idle). Located on the throt-
Throttle Position (TP 1 and TP 2) Sensors
tle body.
A pair of redundant non-adjustable potentiometers that
sense throttle position The TP 1 sensor signal varies from Engine Coolant (ECT) Sensor
4.5 volts at closed throttle to 0.5 volts at maximum throttle A negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor that
opening (decreasing voltage with increasing throttle posi- senses engine coolant temperature. The sensor values range
tion), figure 2-5. The TP 2 sensor signal varies from 0.5 volts from -40°F to 248°F (-40°C to 120°C). At 212°F (100°C), the
at closed throttle to 4.5 volts at maximum throttle opening sensor reading is 0.46 volt, figure 2-6. Located in the engine
(increasing voltage with increasing throttle position). Failure block water jacket.
Fig. 2-5. TPS signal voltage increases as the throttle is opened.
Potentiometer: A variable resistor with three terminals. Signal voltage comes from a terminal attached to a movable contact that
passes over the resistor.
Fig. 2-6. ECT, IAT, and TFT sensors signal voltage decreases as temperature increases.
Accelerator Pedal Position when the valve is fully opened, figure 2-8. Located on top of
(APP 1 and APP 2) Sensors the EGR valve.
A pair of redundant non-adjustable potentiometers that sense
accelerator pedal position. The APP 1 sensor signal varies from Knock Sensor
0.5 volts at the released pedal position to 3.5 volts at maximum A two-wire piezoelectric sensor that generates an AC voltage
pedal depression (increasing voltage with increasing pedal po- spike when engine vibrations within a specified frequency
sition), figure 2-7. The APP 2 sensor signal varies from 1.5 volts range are present, indicating spark knock. The signal is used
at the released pedal position to 4.5 volts at maximum pedal by the ECM to retard ignition timing when spark knock is de-
depression (increasing voltage with increasing pedal position, tected. The sensor signal circuit normally measures 2.5 volts
offset from the APP 1 sensor signal by 1.0 volt). The ECM in- DC with the sensor connected. Located in the engine block.
terprets an accelerator pedal position of 80% or greater as a re-
quest for wide open throttle. Failure of one APP sensor will set Intake Air Temperature (IAT) Sensor
a DTC and the ECM will limit the maximum throttle opening A negative temperature coefficient (NTC) sensor that senses
to 35%. Failure of both APP sensors will set a DTC and cause air temperature. The sensor values range from -40°F to 248°F
the throttle actuator control to be disabled, and the spring- (-40°C to 120°C). At 86°F (30°C), the sensor reading is 2.6
loaded throttle plate will return to the default 15% position volts, figure 2-6. Located in the air cleaner housing.
(fast idle). Located on the accelerator pedal assembly.
Vehicle Speed Sensor (VSS)
EGR Valve Position Sensor A magnetic-type sensor mat senses rotation of the final drive
A three-wire non-adjustable potentiometer that senses the and generates a signal that increases in frequency as vehicle
position of the EGR valve pintle. The sensor reading varies speed increases. The TCM uses the VSS signal to control
from 0.50 volts when the valve is fully closed to 4.50 volts upshifts, downshifts, and the torque converter clutch. The
L1
Fig. 2-7. APP sensors signal voltage increases as the accelerator pedal is depressed.
Downshift: To shift into a lower gear ratio.

Frequency: A measurement in Hertz (cycles per second) of how often something occurs in a specific amount of time.
Upshift: To shift into a higher gear ratio.
Fig. 2-8. EGR valve position sensor signal voltage increases as sensor is opened.
TCM communicates the VSS signal over the data communica- stream sensor signals are used for closed loop fuel control and
tions bus to the ECM to control high-speed fuel cutoff, and to OBD II monitoring. Sensor 1⁄2 is mounted in the exhaust pipe
the Instrument Cluster for speedometer operation The signal after the catalytic converter (downstream). See figure 2-9 to
is displayed on the scan tool in miles per hour and kilometers view the relative locations of upstream and downstream
per hour. Located on the transaxle housing. HO2S sensors. The HO2S sensor signal is used for OBD II
monitoring of catalytic converter operation. The sensor out-
Heated Oxygen Sensors (HO2S 1⁄1, HO2S 2⁄1 puts vary from 0.0 to 1.0 volt. When a sensor reading is less
and HO2S 1⁄2) than 0.45 volt, oxygen content around the sensor is high;
Electrically heated zirconia sensors that measure oxygen con- when a sensor reading is more than 0.45 volt, oxygen content
tent in the exhaust stream. Sensor 1⁄1 is located on the Bank around the sensor is low. No bias voltage is applied to the
1 exhaust manifold (cylinders 1, 3, and 5). Sensor 2⁄1 is located on sensor signal circuit by the ECM. With the key on and engine
the Bank 2 exhaust manifold (cylinders 2, 4, and 6). Both up- off, the sensor readings are zero volts. Battery voltage is con-
tinuously supplied to the oxygen sensor heaters whenever the
ignition switch is on.
Fig. 2-9. ASE Composite Type 3 vehicle. (Part 1 of 2). Fig. 2-9. ASE Composite Type 3 vehicle. (Part 2 of 2).
Power Steering Pressure (PSP) Switch the sensor reading is 3.5 volts. Used by the ECM when test-
A switch that closes when high pressure is detected in the ing the evaporative emission (EVAP) system. Located in the
power steering system. The signal is used by the ECM to adjust fuel tank.
idle airflow to compensate for the added engine load from the
power steering pump. Located on the P/S high pressure hose. Fuel Tank (EVAP) Pressure Sensor
Senses vapor pressure or vacuum in the evaporative emission
Brake Pedal Position (BPP) Switch (EVAP) system compared to atmospheric pressure, figure 2-11.
A switch that closes when the brake pedal is depressed (brakes The sensor reading varies from 0.5 volt at 1/2 psi (14 in. H2O)
applied). The signal is used by the ECM to release the torque vacuum to 4.5 volts at 1/2 psi (14 in. H20) pressure. With no
converter clutch. Located on the brake pedal. pressure or vacuum in the fuel tank (gas cap removed), the
A/C On/Off Request Switch sensor output is 2.5 volts. Used by the ECM for OBD II evap-
A switch that is closed by the vehicle operator to request A/C orative emission system diagnostics only. Located on top of the
compressor operation. Located in the climate control unit on fuel tank.
the instrument panel. Transmission Fluid Temperature (TFT) Sensor
A/C Pressure Sensor A negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor that
A three-wire solid-state sensor for A/C system high-side senses transmission fluid temperature. The sensor values range
pressure, figure 2-10. The sensor reading varies from 0.25 volt from -40°F to 248°F (-40°C to 120°C). At 212°F (100°C), the
at 25 psi to 4.50 volts at 450 psi. The signal is used by the ECM sensor reading is 0.46 volts. This signal is used by the TCM to
to control the A/C compressor clutch and radiator fan, and to delay shifting when the fluid is cold, and control torque con-
adjust idle air flow to compensate for the added engine load verter clutch operation when the fluid is hot. Located in the
from the A/C compressor. The ECM will also interrupt com- transaxle oil pan.
pressor operation if the pressure is below 40 psi or above
Transmission Turbine Shaft Speed (TSS) Sensor
420 psi. Located on the A/C high side vapor line.
A magnetic-type sensor that senses rotation of the torque con-
Fuel Level Sensor verter turbine shaft (input/mainshaft) and generates a signal
A potentiometer that is used to determine the fuel level. that increases in frequency as transmission input speed
The reading varies from 0.5 volt/0% with an empty tank to increases. Used by the ECM to control torque converter clutch
4.5 volts/100% with a full tank. When the fuel tank is 1⁄4 full, operation and sense transmission slippage. Located on the
the sensor reading is 1.5 volts. When the fuel tank is 3⁄4 full, transaxle housing.
Fig. 2-10. A/C pressure sensor signal voltage increases as high-side pressure increases.
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Fig. 2-11. Fuel Tank (EVAP) pressure sensor signal voltage increases as pressure increases.
A/C Compressor Clutch: An electromagnetic device that engages the otherwise freewheeling A/C pulley.
Atmospheric Pressure: The pressure caused by the weight of the earth’s atmosphere. At sea level, this pressure is 14.7 psi (101 kPa).
Transmission Range (TR) Switch causes the actuator to retard the camshaft position. When the
A six-position switch that indicates the position of the ECM determines that the desired camshaft position has been
transaxle manual select lever: Park/Neutral, Reverse, Manual achieved, the duty cycle is commanded to 50% to hold the ac-
Low (1), Second (2), Drive (3), or Overdrive (OD). Used by the tuator so that the adjusted camshaft position is maintained.
PCM to control transmission line pressure, upshifting, and The solenoid winding resistance spec is 12 ± 2 ohms.
downshifting. Located on the transaxle housing.
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Valve
A duty cycle–controlled solenoid that, when energized, lifts the
ACTUATORS
spring-loaded EGR valve pintle to open the valve. A value of
All coils, injectors, solenoids, and relays receive a constant bat-
0% indicates an ECM command to fully close the EGR valve,
tery positive voltage feed from the ignition switch and are con-
and a value of 100% indicates an ECM command to fully open
trolled by the ECM providing a ground connection.
the EGR valve The solenoid is enabled when the engine coolant
Fuel Pump Relay temperature reaches 150°F (66°C) and the throttle is not closed
When energized, this relay supplies battery voltage (B+) to the or wide open. The solenoid winding resistance spec is 12 ± 2
fuel pump. The relay coil resistance spec is 48 ± 6 ohms. ohms.
Fan Control (FC) Relay Fuel Injectors
When energized, this relay provides battery voltage (B+) to the Electro-mechanical devices used to deliver fuel to the intake
radiator/condenser fan motor. The ECM will turn the fan on manifold at each cylinder. Each injector is individually ener-
when engine coolant temperature reaches 210°F (99°C) and gized once per camshaft revolution timed to its cylinder’s in-
off when coolant temperature drops to 195°F (90°). The fan take stroke. The injector winding spec is 12 ± 2 ohms.
also runs whenever the A/C compressor clutch is engaged. The
relay coil resistance spec is 48 ± 6 ohms. Ignition Coils
These six coils, mounted above the spark plugs, generate a high
A/C Clutch Relay voltage to create a spark at each cylinder individually. Timing
When energized, this relay provides battery voltage (B+) to the and dwell are controlled by the ECM directly, without the use
A/C compressor clutch coil. The relay coil resistance spec is of a separate ignition module. The coil primary resistance spec
48 ± ohms. is 1 ± .5 ohms. The coil secondary resistance spec is 10K ± 2K.
Throttle Actuator Control (TAC) Motor Generator Field
A bidirectional pulse-width modulated DC motor that controls The ECM supplies this variable-duty cycle signal to ground the
the position of the throttle plate. A scan tool data value of 0% field winding of the generator (alternator), without the use of a
indicates an ECM command to fully close the throttle plate, and separate voltage regulator. Increasing the duty cycle results in a
a value of 100% indicates an ECM command to fully open the higher field current and greater generator (alternator) output.
throttle plate (wide open throttle). Any throttle control actua-
tor motor circuit fault will set a DTC and cause the throttle ac- Evaporator Emission (EVAP) Canister Purge
tuator control to be disabled, and the spring-loaded throttle A duty cycle-controlled solenoid that regulates the flow of va-
plate will return to the default 15% position (fast idle). When pors stored in the canister to the intake manifold. The solenoid
disabled, the TAC value on the scan tool will indicate 15%. is enabled when the engine coolant temperature reaches 150°F
(66°C) and the throttle is not closed. A duty cycle of 0% blocks
Malfunction Indicator Lamp (MIL) vapor flow, and a duty cycle of 100% allows maximum vapor
The MIL is part of the instrument cluster and receives com- flow. The duty cycle is determined by the ECM, based on en-
mands from the ECM and TCM over the data communica- gine speed and load. The solenoid is also used for OBD II test-
tions bus. If the instrument cluster fails to communicate with ing of the evaporative emission (EVAP) system. The solenoid
the ECM and TCM, the MIL is continuously lit by default. winding resistance spec is 48 ± 6 ohms. There is also a service
Under normal conditions, when the ignition switch is turned port with a Schrader valve and cap installed on the hose be-
on the lamp remains lit for 15 seconds for a bulb check. After- tween the purge solenoid and the canister.
ward, the MIL will light only for emissions related concerns.
Whenever an engine misfire severe enough to damage the cat- Evaporative Emission (EVAP)
alytic converter is detected, the MIL will flash on and off. Canister Vent Solenoid
When energized, the fresh air supply hose to the canister is
Camshaft Position Actuator Control Solenoids blocked. The solenoid is energized only for OBD II testing of
A pair of duty cycle–controlled solenoid valves that increase or
the evaporative emission (EVAP) system. The solenoid wind-
decrease timing advance of the intake camshafts by controlling
ing resistance spec is 48 ± 6 ohms.
engine oil flow to the camshaft position actuators. When the
duty cycle is greater than 50%, the oil flow from the solenoid Torque Converter Clutch (TCC) Solenoid Valve
causes the actuator to advance the camshaft position. When A duty cycle–controlled solenoid valve that applies the
the duty cycle is less than 50%, the oil flow from the solenoid torque converter clutch by redirecting hydraulic pressure in the
Duty Cycle: Describes the time of a complete cycle of action, including both the on (energized) and off (deenergized) time of a solenoid.
transaxle. With a duty cycle of 0%, the TCC is released. When Clear Flood Mode
torque converter clutch application is desired, the pulse width When the throttle is wide open (throttle opening of 80% or
is increased until the clutch is fully applied. The solenoid will greater) and the engine speed is below 400 rpm, the ECM turns
then maintain a 100% duty cycle until clutch disengagement is off the fuel injectors.
commanded. Then the pulse width is decreased back to 0%. If
the brake pedal position switch closes, the duty cycle is cut to
Run Mode: Open and Closed Loop
0% immediately. The solenoid is enabled when the engine Open Loop
coolant temperature reaches 150°F (66°C), the brake switch is When the engine is first started and running above 400 rpm,
open, the transmission is in 3rd or 4th gear, and the vehicle is at the system operates in open loop. In open loop, the ECM does
cruise (steady throttle) above 40 mph. In addition, whenever not use the oxygen sensor signal. Instead, it calculates the fuel
the transmission fluid temperature is 248°F (120°C) or more, injector pulse width from the throttle position sensor, the
the ECM will command TCC lockup. The solenoid winding coolant and intake air temperature sensors, the MAF sensor,
resistance is 48 ± 6 ohms. and the CKP sensor. The system will stay in open loop until all
of these conditions are met:
Transmission Pressure Control (PC) Solenoid
This pulse width modulated solenoid controls fluid in the • Both upstream heated oxygen sensors are sending varying
transmission valve body that is routed to the pressure regula- signals to the ECM
tor valve. By varying the duty cycle of the solenoid, the ECM • The engine coolant temperature is above 150°F (66°C)
can vary the line pressure of the transmission to control shift • Ten seconds has elapsed since startup
feel and slippage. When the duty cycle is minimum (10%), the • Throttle position is less than 80%
line pressure will be maximized. When the duty cycle is maxi- Closed Loop
mum (90%) the line pressure will be minimized. The solenoid When the oxygen sensor, engine coolant temperature sensor, and
winding resistance spec is 6 ± 1 ohms. time conditions are met, and the throttle opening is less than
Transmission Shift Solenoids (SS1 and SS2) 80%, the system goes into closed loop. Closed loop means that
These solenoids control fluid in the transmission valve body that the ECM adjusts the fuel injector pulse widths for Bank 1 and
is routed to the 1-2, 2-3, and 3-4 shift valves. By energizing or Bank 2 based on the varying voltage signals from the upstream
de-energizing the solenoids, the ECM can enable a gear change, oxygen sensors. An oxygen sensor signal below 0.45 volt causes
figure 2-12. The solenoid winding resistance is 12 ± 4 ohms. the ECM to increase injector pulse width. When the oxygen
sensor signal rises above 0.45 volt in response to the richer mix-
ture, the ECM reduces injector pulse width. This feedback trims
SFI SYSTEM OPERATION the fuel control program that is based on the other sensor signals.
AND COMPONENT FUNCTIONS
Acceleration Enrichment Mode
Starting Mode During acceleration, the ECM uses the increase in mass airflow
When the ignition switch is turned on, the ECM energizes the and the rate of change in throttle position to calculate in-
fuel pump relay for 2 seconds, allowing the fuel pump to build creased fuel injector pulse width. During wide open throttle
up pressure in the fuel system. Unless the engine is cranked operation, the control system goes into open loop mode.
within this two-second period, the fuel pump relay is de-ener-
gized to turn off the pump. The fuel pump relay will remain Deceleration Enleanment Mode
energized as long as the engine speed (CKP) signal to the ECM During deceleration, the ECM uses the decrease in mass air-
is 100 rpm or more. flow, the vehicle speed value, and the rate of change in throttle
position to calculate decreased fuel injector pulse width.
Fuel Cut-Off Mode
The ECM will turn off the fuel injectors, for safety reasons,
when the vehicle speed reaches 110 mph, or if the engine speed
exceeds 6000 rpm.
OBD II SYSTEM OPERATION

L1
Comprehensive Component Monitor
The OBD II diagnostic system continuously monitors all
engine and transmission sensors and actuators for shorts,
Fig. 2-12. This chart shows transmission solenoid applications opens, and out-of-range values, as well as values that do not
for the complete vehicle. logically fit with other powertrain data (rationality).
Comprehensive: Inclusive or complete.

Freeze Frame: Operating conditions that are stored in the memory of the PCM at the instant a diagnostic trouble code is set. (The current
stored PCM data of what was sensed and what commands were being given at the instant in time the most current trouble was set).
On the first trip during which the comprehensive com- ENGINE THERMOSTAT — This monitor confirms that the en-
ponent monitor detects a failure that will result in emissions gine warms up fully within a reasonable amount of time. If the
exceeding a predetermined level, the ECM will store a DTC, coolant temperature remains too low for too long, a DTC is set.
illuminate the MIL, and store a freeze frame.
OXYGEN SENSORS — This monitor checks the maximum and
System Monitors minimum output voltage, as well as switching and response times
The OBD II diagnostic system also actively tests some systems for all oxygen sensors. If an oxygen sensor signal remains too low
for proper operation while the vehicle is being driven; fuel or too high or switches too slowly or not at all, a DTC is set.
control and engine misfire are checked continuously. Oxygen
sensor response, oxygen sensor heater operation, catalyst effi- OXYGEN SENSOR HEATERS — This monitor checks the
ciency, EGR operation, EVAP integrity, variable valve timing, time from cold start until the oxygen sensors begin to operate.
and thermostat operation are tested once or more per trip. If the time is too long, a DTC is set. Battery voltage is contin-
When any of the System Monitors detects a failure that will re- uously supplied to the oxygen sensor heaters whenever the
sult in emissions exceeding a predetermined level on two con- ignition switch is on.
secutive trips, the ECM will store a diagnostic trouble code Monitor Readiness Status
(DTC) and illuminate the malfunction indicator lamp (MIL). The monitor readiness status indicates whether or not a par-
Freeze frame data captured during the first of the two consec- ticular OBD II diagnostic monitor has been run since the last
utive failures are also stored. time that DTCs were cleared from ECM and TCM memory. If
FUEL CONTROL—This monitor will set a DTC if the system the monitor has not yet run, the status will display on the Scan
fails to enter Closed Loop mode within 5 minutes of startup, Tool as “Not Complete.” If the monitor has been run, the sta-
or the Long Term Fuel Trim is excessively high or low anytime tus will display on the scan tool as “Complete.” This does not
after the engine is warmed up, indicating the loss of fuel con- mean that no faults were found, only that the diagnostic mon-
trol. This is always the case when the Long Term Fuel Trim itor has been run. Whenever DTCs are cleared from memory
reaches its limit (⫹30% or -30%). or the battery is disconnected, all monitor readiness status in-
dicators are reset to “Not Complete.” Monitor readiness status
ENGINE MISFIRE —This monitor uses the CKP sensor sig-
indicators are not needed for the Comprehensive Component,
nal to continuously detect engine misfires both severe and
Fuel Control, and Engine Misfire monitors because they run
non-severe. If the misfire is severe enough to cause catalytic
continuously. The readiness status of the following system
converter damage, the MIL will blink as long as the severe
monitors can be read on the scan tool:
misfire is detected.
Oxygen Sensors
CATALYTIC CONVERTER — This monitor compares the sig- Oxygen Sensor Heaters
nals of the two upstream heated oxygen sensors to the signal Catalytic Converter
from the downstream heated oxygen to determine the ability EGR System
of the catalyst to store free oxygen. If the converter’s oxygen EVAP System
storage capacity is sufficiently degraded, a DTC is set. Variable Valve Timing
EGR SYSTEM — This monitor uses the MAP sensor signal to Engine Thermostat
detect changes in intake manifold pressure as the EGR valve is
commanded to open and close. If the pressure changes too lit- Warm-Up Cycle
Warm-up cycles are used by the ECM for automatic clearing of
tle or too much, a DTC is set.
DTCs and Freeze Frame data. To complete one warm up cycle,
EVAP SYSTEM — This monitor first turns on the EVAP vent the engine coolant temperature must rise at least 40°F (22°C)
solenoid to block the fresh air supply to the EVAP canister. and reach a minimum of 160°F (71°C).
Next, the EVAP purge solenoid is turned on to draw a slight
vacuum on the entire EVAP system, including the fuel tank. Trip
Then the EVAP purge solenoid is turned off to seal the system. A trip is a key-on cycle in which all enable criteria for a particu-
The monitor uses the fuel tank (EVAP) pressure sensor signal lar diagnostic monitor are met and the diagnostic monitor is run.
to determine if the EVAP system has any leaks. If the vacuum The trip is completed when the ignition switch is turned off.
decays too rapidly, a DTC is set. In order to run this monitor,
Drive Cycle
the engine must be cold (below 86°F/30°C) and the fuel level
Most OBD II diagnostic monitors will run at some time during
must be between 1⁄4 and 3⁄4 full.
normal operation of the vehicle. However, to satisfy all of the
VARIABLE VALVE TIMING — This monitor compares the different trip enable criteria and run all of the OBD II diagnos-
desired valve timing with the actual timing indicated by the tic monitors, the vehicle must be driven under a variety of con-
CMP sensors. If the timing is in error, or takes too long to reach ditions. The following drive cycle will meet the enable criteria
the desired value, a DTC is set. to allow all monitors to run on the composite vehicle.
Decay: To decline or decrease gradually in activity, strength, or performance.

Degraded: Worn down, performing at less than usual standards.
1. Ensure that the fuel tank is between 1⁄4 and 3⁄4 full OBD II SYSTEM DIAGNOSTICS
2. Start cold (below 86°F/30°C) and warm up until engine
temperature is at least 160°F (71°C) — one minute OBD II General Description
minimum On-board Diagnostics Second Generation (OBD II) is a
3. Accelerate to 40–55 mph at 25% throttle and maintain government-mandated system designed to monitor fuel sys-
speed for five minutes tem performance, engine misfire, and emission systems oper-
4. Decelerate without using the brake (coast down) to ation during normal vehicle operation.
20 mph or less, then stop the vehicle. Allow the engine to The system includes industry-wide standardization in-
idle for 10 seconds, turn the key off, and wait one minute tended to improve the diagnostic process by allowing all tech-
5. Restart and accelerate to 40–50 mph at 25% throttle and nicians (dealership and aftermarket) equal access to on-board
maintain speed for two minutes computer information using a Generic Scan Tool (GST). Im-
6. Decelerate without using the brake (coast down) to 20 portant features common to all OBD II vehicles include:
mph or less, then stop the vehicle. Allow the engine to • A common Data Link Connector (DLC)
idle for 10 seconds, turn the key off, and wait one minute • Access to on-board vehicle information using a GST
• Standardized Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs)
Freeze Frame Data • MIL operation
A Freeze Frame is a miniature “snapshot” (one frame of data) • Standardized terminology for fuel, ignition, and emission
that is automatically stored in the ECM/TCM memory when an systems components
emissions-related DTC is first stored. If a DTC for fuel control • Expanded emissions related on-board testing (readiness
or engine misfire is stored at a later time, the newest data are tests and system monitors)
stored and the earlier data are lost. All parameter ID (PID) val- • New emission related diagnostic procedures
ues listed under “Scan Tool Data” are stored in freeze frame • Performance feedback from selected actuators (bi-direc-
data. The ECM/TCM stores only one single freeze frame record. tional actuator control)
Storing and Clearing DTCs & Freeze Frame Data Link Connector (DLC)
Data, Turning the MIL On & Off OBD II standards establish guidelines for the DLC. It is a 16-
ONE TRIP MONITORS: A failure on the first trip of a “one pin connector, figure 2-14, used to access on-board computer
trip” emissions diagnostic monitor causes the ECM to immedi- information through a GST. The DLC must be located in a
ately store a DTC and freeze frame, and turn on the MIL. All standard position, in plain view under the driver’s side dash,
comprehensive component monitor faults require only one trip. and be easily accessed by the technician. Between 1994 and
TWO TRIP MONITORS: A failure on the first trip of a “two 1996, locations varied slightly because manufacturers were al-
trip” emissions diagnostic monitor causes the ECM to store a lowed a grace period to make production changes.
temporary DTC. If the failure does not recur on the next trip, the
temporary DTC is cleared from memory. If the failure does recur Generic Scan Tool (GST)
on the next trip, the ECM will store a DTC and freeze frame, and The GST connects to the 16 pin DLC connector and relays spe-
turn on the MIL. All the system monitors are two trip monitors. cific OBD II information used in enhanced diagnosis. The
Engine misfire that is severe enough to damage the catalytic con- technician can also use the GST to activate selected actuators
verter is a two trip monitor, with the additional condition that when performing a system diagnosis. Although manufactured
the MIL will blink while the severe misfire is occurring. by numerous companies, the GST has the following features
that are required by OBD II regulation:
AUTOMATIC CLEARING: If the vehicle completes three con-
• Record and display the OBD II alphanumeric, five digit
secutive “good trips” (three consecutive trips in which the
DTCs
monitor that set the DTC is run and passes), the MIL will be
• Display the status of on-board computer “readiness tests”
turned off, but the DTC and freeze frame will remain stored in
• Record and display freeze frame data
ECM memory. If the vehicle completes 40 warm-up cycles
• Display sensor and actuator information when requested
without the same fault recurring, the DTC and freeze frame are
by technician
automatically cleared from the ECM memory.
• Clear DTCs and freeze frame data from vehicle computer
MANUAL CLEARING: Any stored DTCs and Freeze Frame memory L1
data can be erased using the scan tool, and the MIL (if lit) will
be turned off. Although it is not the recommended method, Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs)
DTCs and Freeze Frame data will also be cleared if the ECM DTCs identify faults in ECM system sensors and circuits or
power supply of the battery is disconnected. indicate individual system conditions. An OBD II DTC is a five-
character, alphanumeric fault identifier, figure 2-15. Since a let-
Scan Tool Data ter is included in every DTC, the only way to retrieve codes is
Figure 2-13 shows the different types of information that can with a scan tool. The first character of an OBD II DTC is a let-
be displayed on the OBD II scan tool. ter. Composite vehicle questions in the L1 test will refer to
Snapshot: A technician-recorded scan tool record or “movie” of PCM data during an event, so that the data can be played back.
Fig. 2-13. The above data can be accessed by the technician using the OBD II scan tool and the Data Link Connector (DLC).
• 3 - Ignition system or misfire faults

• 4 - Auxiliary emission controls
• 5 - Vehicle speed control and idle control system
• 6 - Computer output circuit faults
• 7 - Transmission
• 8 - Transmission
The fourth and fifth characters indicate the actual problem as-
sociated with the code, (e.g., signal voltage low, system always
lean, etc.) The intent of OBD II code designation is to help the
Fig. 2-14. The Data Link Connector (DLC) has the same shape technician identify the system at fault, then pinpoint the ac-
and pin designations for all OBD II vehicles. tual problem or specific circuit causing the fault. Once a prob-
lem is identified by code, the technician must use appropriate
powertrain codes, designated by a capital “P.” Powertrain codes service manuals to complete the diagnosis and repair.
tell the technician there is a problem in the fuel, air metering, ig-
nition, or an emission control system. Refer to figure 2-15 for an MIL Operation
explanation of other letter codes. The second character is a The most significant difference to remember when using the
number that indicates if the code is common to all OBD II MIL to begin diagnosis on an OBD II vehicle is that there are
vehicles (0) or specific to one vehicle manufacturer (1). Re- no soft codes. If the MIL is on, a DTC and freeze frame data are
member, only emissions related, P0 codes will activate the MIL. recorded in computer memory and there is definitely a prob-
The third character is a number used by all manufacturers to lem. The OBD I practice of clearing codes and driving the
identify which system has a fault. This designation will be the vehicle to see if codes reset must not be used on OBD II vehi-
same for P0 (OBD II) or P1 (manufacturer’s) codes. Following cles. All system monitor codes and many comprehensive com-
is the established numbering system: ponent monitor codes require specific driving conditions
• 1 - Air/Fuel metering system input faults before they will test a system or set a DTC. A quick trip around
• 2 - Air/Fuel metering output faults the block to confirm repairs often will not set a DTC, so the
Fig. 2-15. OBD II DTCs use a standard format to help all technicians interpret problems more easily.
technician has no way of knowing if the problem still exists. cycle, the readiness status will be “NO.” If there is an electrical
It is best to clear DTCs only when instructed to do so by the problem or component failure in a monitored system, the mon-
manufacturer’s diagnostic procedure, because freeze frame data itor will not run. A DTC may be recorded that points to the elec-
and readiness test status are also erased when DTCs are cleared. trical or component failure, but the system cannot be tested by
Instead, use the stored freeze frame data to see what driving the monitor, so the readiness status will be “NO.” A readiness sta-
conditions were present when the code was set. Look for un- tus of “NO” for any of the five monitored systems, catalyst, EGR,
usual readings from other sensors that may give a clue to the EVAP, Oxygen sensors, and Oxygen sensor heaters, does not
cause of the problem. Try to develop a “total picture” of vehicle mean a failed monitor, only that the monitor has not been com-
operating conditions at the time the DTC was recorded. The pleted. At the same time, a “YES” status does not mean the sys-
same information is useful to help simulate driving conditions tem passed the monitor, only that the test was completed. In both
on a test drive as you verify the symptoms. cases, you must check for codes to investigate further.
Remember, the MIL will be activated only for failures that
Fuel Control Monitor
cause excessive emissions. Problems in related systems or com-
The fuel control monitor is designed to constantly check the
ponents may be recorded in ECM memory as OBD II (P0) or
ability of the ECM to control the air/fuel ratio. On the com-
manufacturer-designated (P1) DTCs. All powertrain codes
posite vehicle, the ECM program that fine tunes the air/fuel
should be reviewed and investigated as part of the diagnostic
ratio is called Fuel Trim. It is divided into a short term program
process for driveabilty complaints.
and a long term program. Both trim programs are presented
Comprehensive Component Monitors as diagnostic data when a freeze frame is recorded. Separate
Comprehensive component monitors are most like the OBD I short term and long term data are displayed for cylinder bank
monitoring system that watches engine and transmission sensor 1 and cylinder bank 2.
inputs and actuator outputs for shorts, opens, and out-of-range The oxygen sensor (HO2S) drives the fuel trim program
values. OBD II computer (ECM) programs are enhanced to anytime the vehicle is in closed loop. The starting point for fuel
include identification of sensor values that don’t logically fit with trim is 0% correction, figure 2-16. When the ECM sees a lean
other powertrain data. For instance, if the Throttle Position (low voltage) signal from an upstream HO2S, the fuel trim
Sensor (TPS) is reporting wide-open throttle (4.5 volts on the program adds fuel to compensate for the detected leaness. The
composite vehicle), but other sensors are reporting idle speed short term fuel trim display on the scan tool will move to the
values, the ECM will set a DTC for the TPS. positive (+) side of 0% to indicate more fuel is being added.
Remember, comprehensive component monitors are one When the ECM sees a rich (high voltage) signal from the
trip monitors. The ECM will activate the MIL and store DTC HO2S, the fuel trim program subtracts fuel to lean the mix-
and freeze frame data the first time an emissions-related fault ture. The scan tool will display a percentage on the negative
is detected. If a misfire or fuel control problem is detected after (-) side of 0%. If short term fuel trim is necessary in one di-
the original DTC was recorded, freeze frame date for the mis- rection (rich or lean correction) for a period of time, the ECM
fire or fuel control code will replace the original data. will command a correction of long term fuel trim. When A/F L1
control is out of acceptable range for too long a time, a DTC
Readiness Status and System Monitors will set. On the composite vehicle, if long term fuel trim reaches
You will recall that the monitor readiness status tells the techni- +30% (lean correction) or -30% (rich correction) on two
cian if a particular diagnostic monitor (test) has been completed
since the last time DTCs were cleared from memory. There are
two important concepts to understand when viewing monitor
readiness status: First, the vehicle must be driven under specific
conditions for some monitors to run, and second, the emissions
system being monitored must be operational. If battery power is Fig. 2-16. On the composite vehicle, fuel trim corrections are
disconnected and the vehicle isn’t driven through an entire drive displayed on the scan tool as percentage of correction.
consecutive trips, the ECM will activate the MIL and record a compression, ignition, or fuel, crankshaft speed is affected. The
DTC and freeze frame data. ECM is programmed to notice the intermittent change in CKP
Long term fuel trim represents correction to fuel delivery pulses, figure 2-17.
over time. If the oxygen sensor voltage is fluctuating, but is Camshaft position is used to identify which cylinder mis-
mainly below 450 mV, indicating a lean A/F ratio, long term fired. Because outside factors such as electrical interference and
fuel trim will increase and the ECM will command longer in- rough roads can mimic a misfire, most ECM programs keep
jector pulse width. If oxygen sensor voltage is fluctuating, but track of how many times a cylinder misfires in a given number
remains mostly above 450 mV, indicating a rich mixture, long of engine rotations. The ECM activates the MIL when misfire
term fuel trim will decrease and the ECM will command short- reaches a predetermined percentage of rpm.
er injection pulse width to adjust fuel delivery. Remember, misfire monitoring, like fuel trim monitoring,
Short term fuel trim is useful when confirming fuel con- is a two trip monitor. The MIL will glow steadily once a mis-
trol. Observe short term fuel trim on the scan tool while adding fire is detected. If misfiring becomes severe enough to damage
propane through the intake system. The additional fuel will the catalytic converter, the MIL will blink continuously until
cause a rich mixture. If the fuel system is in closed loop, short the misfire becomes less severe.
term fuel trim will move in a negative direction as the fuel trim
program shortens fuel injector pulse width in response to a Catalytic Converter Monitor
higher HO2S voltage signal. Driving the system lean by pulling As mentioned earlier, the catalytic converter monitor checks
a vacuum line will cause short term fuel trim to increase injec- converter efficiency by comparing upstream HO2S signals with
tor pulse width. The scan tool display will move in a positive the downstream HO2S signal. In normal operation the
direction. upstream HO2S signals will switch frequently between 200 mV
During diagnosis, be sure to look at both short and long and 900 mV and the downstream HO2S signal will show very
term fuel trim. A problem that has existed for some time will little fluctuation and a voltage that tends to stay above the
cause long term fuel trim to record high or low. Once the prob- 450 mV threshold, figure 2-18. As catalyst performance begins
lem is repaired, long term fuel trim will not change for a while, to degrade, less oxygen is used in the converter and so less ends
but short term fuel trim will begin immediately to move in the up in the exhaust, causing voltage fluctuations and a lower volt-
opposite direction. A restricted fuel filter, for instance, will cause age bias, figure 2-19. When the downstream HO2S voltage sig-
a lean mixture. Long term fuel trim will eventually show a pos- nal begins to fluctuate within about 70% of the upstream HO2S
itive percentage (more fuel) as the system compensates for the signal on two consecutive trips, the ECM will record freeze
lean mixture. Once the fuel filter is replaced, the A/F ratio is sud- frame data, set a DTC, and actuate the MIL.
denly too rich. Comparing short and long term fuel trim im-
mediately after the filter is replaced will reveal opposite readings: EVAP Monitor
a negative percentage reading in short term fuel trim because the A vehicle will fail the EVAP monitor if the ECM, using in-
ECM is attempting to return the A/F ratio to normal by sub- formation from the fuel tank pressure sensor, sees vacuum
tracting fuel, and a positive percentage reading in long term fuel decrease too quickly after the EVAP vent and EVAP purge
trim because the long term program still “remembers” the lean solenoids have been closed. Keep in mind that simple prob-
correction and is waiting to see what happens. lems like a loose, damaged, or missing gas cap will cause this
code to set.
Misfire Monitor Be careful when making quick repairs. For example, after
Engine misfire monitoring uses the CKP signal as the primary replacing a damaged gas cap on a vehicle brought in for a lit
sensor. When a misfire occurs, whether due to engine MIL, you may be tempted to clear the DTC and return the car
Fig. 2-17. The ECM is programmed to notice the sudden change in CKP sensor pulses.
Intermittent: Occurring infrequently, not often, or rarely.

Threshold: The upper limit of or beginning of something.
Some technicians use a sensor simulator to simulate a cold

start so the monitor will run. A scan tool can be used to check
EVAP system integrity, even with a full tank of gas. Refer to
figure 2-9 to trace the following test procedure on the com-
posite vehicle. First, idle the engine. Then, using a scan tool,
close the EVAP vent solenoid and open the EVAP purge sole-
noid. Intake manifold vacuum will draw a vacuum in the
EVAP system. Now close the EVAP purge solenoid to trap vac-
uum in the system. Observe the fuel tank pressure sensor read-
ing on the scan tool. The composite vehicle will show 0.5 volt
at 1⁄2 psi vacuum. If the system is leaking, voltage will climb to-
ward 2.5 volts as pressure increases. As always, test and repair
procedures must be followed exactly. Some test procedures,
the IM 240 for example, specify testing EVAP system integrity
with pressure instead of vacuum.
Diagnostic Strategy
The most valuable aspect of diagnosis with a scan tool is the
ability to compare data from many sensors and actuators.
Fig. 2-18. When the catalyst is working efficiently, most oxygen
However, scan tool data should not be used alone. Vehicle
is used for oxidation and reduction, so post converter voltage
fluctuations are minimal.
symptoms, driving conditions, and an understanding of oper-
ational principles are also important diagnostic tools.
Today’s vehicles require today’s technicians to be aware of
the ways traditional technology blends with newer, more com-
plex system-based technologies. Vehicles manufactured before
the 1970s controlled fuel and ignition timing through vacuum
and mechanical weights and springs. Exhaust emissions were
not seriously considered until the early 1970s. Modern vehicles
use computerized controls to control fuel and ignition timing
precisely. The tradeoff, however, for this technological ad-
vancement is that today’s drivetrain problems can result in
repeated and multiple component failures that require a sys-
tem-based approach. For example, a late-model vehicle has the
following symptoms: hard starting when cold, an engine miss,
and a failed emission test. The initial diagnosis finds a fouled
spark plug. Replacing the spark plug and retesting emissions re-
sults in a passing report and a smoothly running engine. While
this approach addresses the immediate symptom, it does not
deal with the underlying cause of the fouled spark plug.
The result?
The customer returns the next day with the same symp-
toms. Only then does the technician examine further to deter-
mine that a faulty injector is leaking when the engine is turned
off. This leak floods a cylinder. The flooded cylinder causes its
Fig. 2-19. As catalyst performance becomes less efficient, less associated spark plug to fail. This would also drain the fuel rail,
oxygen is used and voltage fluctuations from the post converter causing extended cranking on a cold start.
begin to increase. This example clearly illustrates that a systems-based
approach to the diagnostic process is vital to help eliminate L1
multiple and repeated component failures that result in dissat-
to the customer after a short road test. However, the EVAP isfied customers.
monitor won’t run if the engine is warm (above 86°F) or if the When approaching any diagnostic problem, take the
fuel level is not between 1⁄4 and 3⁄4 full. If the EVAP system has time to define vehicle symptoms. How is the vehicle running?
other problems and the EVAP monitor doesn’t run during the Does it have rich symptoms like poor gas mileage or a failed
road test, the MIL will come on after you return the vehicle to emissions test? Does it surge or idle rough? Is it hard to start?
the customer. Next, do a thorough inspection for obvious problems such as
Scan Tool Data: Information from the computer that is displayed on the scan tool, including data stream, DTCs, freeze frame, and
system monitor readiness status.
vacuum leaks and damaged electrical connections. Don’t for- Review freeze frame data to identify all sensors and actuators
get to consider the basics such as low fuel pressure, incorrect that are out of range. Many times a sensor will be out of range
ignition timing, low or uneven engine compression, and fuel and not set a DTC, especially when the out-of-range sensor is
quality. If possible, a review of recent vehicle service may responding to an unusual condition. Try to determine if the
yield valuable diagnostic clues. For recent vehicle service in- suspect sensor is reporting an unusual vehicle condition or
formation, check dealership resources and communicate sending a signal that doesn’t match the actual symptoms or
with the vehicle owner. other sensor data. When you have gathered all necessary in-
Connect the scan tool and retrieve stored DTCs and freeze formation—vehicle symptoms, driving conditions, DTCs, and
frame data. Record your findings, then check the service man- sensor/actuator data—use your knowledge and experience to
ual to learn the specific conditions that cause the DTC. Take pick out the most probable cause of the symptom. Always refer
the time to thoroughly understand what caused the DTC. to appropriate service manuals for proper test procedures
Check the readiness status of system monitors. If the readi- when testing sensors, actuators, and related circuits.
ness status is “NO” for all monitors, review recent service his-
Insight
tory; the battery may have been changed or the vehicle may
The following section will present some examples of ECM
have been in another shop where DTCs were erased. The vehi-
inputs and explain how unusual readings might affect vehi-
cle must be driven through the complete drive cycle to ensure
cle operation. Tips for testing various components are also
all monitors run. If readiness status is “NO” for only one or two
included.
sensors, check sensors, actuators, and related circuitry for prob-
lems that would prevent the monitor from running. Again, the Battery Voltage
vehicle may have to complete an entire drive cycle to provide The ECM uses battery voltage as an input for the computer-
the time and conditions to run the remaining monitors. controlled charging system. A low voltage signal may cause the
When there is more than one DTC in memory, diagnose ECM to increase both idle speed and alternator field current to
and correct component-related DTCs before diagnosing sys- generate higher alternator output. When idle speed is above
tem failure DTCs. A sensor or actuator problem may prevent specification and fuel system control based on HO2S and fuel
a monitor from running or cause a system to fail the monitor. trim data appears normal, check battery voltage, generator,
Once a component failure is repaired, drive the vehicle and idle air control (IAC) data. If battery voltage is low and
through the specified drive cycle to be sure the system is fully generator field and IAC percentages are higher than normal,
repaired. For example, when discovering a code P0125, “exces- test the battery and charging system for defects. Also, check ac-
sive time to enter closed loop,” and a code P0155, “HO2S/1, cessory load sensors for false signals. A power steering pressure
Bank 2 Heater Malfunction”, the best procedure is to diagnose switch that sticks closed, for example, will cause the ECM to
and repair the HO2S/1 heater malfunction first, even though raise idle speed.
its DTC is a higher number.
Brake Pedal Position (BPP) Switch
Next, clear codes and drive the vehicle as directed in the
The BPP switch is used on the composite vehicle as an input to
service manual. In this example, it is probable that the failed
control the torque converter clutch. On some systems, how-
oxygen sensor heater caused the system to be slow entering
ever, the BPP switch is also part of the ABS (anti lock brake)
closed loop. Misfire and fuel control DTCs are considered pri-
system. Many of these vehicles use information from the ABS
ority codes and should always be diagnosed first.
wheel speed sensors as an input for the misfire monitor. When
When using the drive cycle to confirm repairs, review
traveling over rough roads, tire slip and driveline torque affect
freeze frame data for the driving conditions present at the time
the smooth rotation of the crankshaft, simulating engine mis-
the DTC was recorded. It is especially important when con-
fire. At the same time, wheel speed sensors send erratic signals
firming misfire and fuel control repairs to closely match the
to the ECM. When the ECM sees the erratic signals, it suspends
engine rpm, calculated load, and engine temperature values
the misfire monitor. If the BPP switch fails to close or open as
recorded in the freeze frame.
expected, the ECM disables ABS braking and ignores wheel
How close is close? Before the PCM will deactivate the
speed data. The misfire monitor is again suspended because
MIL for misfire and fuel control codes, engine speed must be
the ECM has incomplete information.
within 375 rpm of the engine speed when the code was set, and
the calculated load value must be within ±10% of the load pre- Idle Air Control (IAC) Valve
sent when the code was set. Be aware that some manufacturers The IAC valve regulates idle speed by controlling the amount
may direct you to drive a portion of the drive cycle to confirm of air that bypasses the throttle plate. Lower than-normal IAC
a particular repair. Drive cycles vary between manufacturers percentage means the ECM is trying to reduce idle speed; higher
and must always be followed exactly. Freeze frame and scan percentage means the ECM is trying to increase idle speed. For
tool data must be analyzed with care. Use service manuals to example, a vacuum leak will cause idle speed to increase. The
learn the normal parameters for each sensor and actuator. ECM will command a lower percentage opening from the IAC
Priority Codes: Codes that are more important than, and take precedence over, others.
to compensate. An EGR that doesn’t fully close at idle will re- RPM and there is a low power complaint, suspect a restricted
duce idle speed and quality. The ECM will command a larger air filter. If there are lean symptoms, suspect air leaks between
IAC opening, in an attempt to maintain specified idle speed. the MAF sensor and the throttle plate usually caused by
A quick way to test IAC performance is to view IAC per- cracked air ducts. When the complaint is hesitation on accel-
centage on the scan tool while increasing engine load at idle. If eration, check that cracks in the air ducting aren’t opening as
the IAC percentage increases when the A/C is turned on (or the the engine torques on the motor mounts.
steering wheel is turned) and the idle speed remains steady, the When faced with a no-start problem, unplug the MAF
system is working normally. If the IAC doesn’t respond or idle sensor. If the vehicle starts, check the electrical circuit for a
speed decreases with increased load, physically check the IAC shorted 5-volt reference wire. Some systems will shut down
valve for damage or passages clogged with carbon. ignition and fuel injection if the 5-volt reference is lost. Un-
plugging the sensor restores the signal. Also, check for a lean
Intake Air Temperature (IAT) Sensor
system. Some vehicles will default to a rich mixture when the
The IAT sensor measures the temperature of air in the intake
MAF signal is lost. The vehicle will start because added fuel
system. IAT data are used as the air density input for air/fuel
compensates for the lean problem.
ratio calculations. In the composite vehicle, the IAT sensor has
the same temperature/voltage signal relationship as the Engine No Start Diagnosis
Coolant Temperature (ECT) and Transmission Fluid Temper- To run, an engine requires four things: air, fuel, compression
ature (TFT) sensors. To confirm IAT sensor accuracy, measure and ignition, all at the right time. Perform the following tests
air temperature near the sensor and compare with the tem- to find what the problem is:
perature reading on the scan tool. After turning off the engine
• Observe the engine’s cranking speed; if it is too slow check
and waiting for 10 minutes with the hood down, the measured
the battery and starting system.
temperature should be within 5°F of the IAT temperature on
• Check fuel pressure and volume
the scan tool. Compare IAT with ECT temperature readings
• Verify the electrical signal to the injector with a 12V test
after turning off the engine and waiting for 15–20 minutes.
light, depending on the OEM’s recommendation
The two readings should be almost identical. When the vehi-
• Use a properly gapped spark tester to check for spark
cle is cold, before being started in the morning, IAT signal volt-
• Check compression by performing a cranking vacuum or
age should be the same as voltage signals from the ECT and
compression test
TFT sensors.
• Check the ignition timing
Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) Sensor • Verify camshaft drive integrity and valve timing
The MAP sensor is used on the composite vehicle to monitor
EGR operation. It senses changes in manifold pressure as the Hard Start Diagnosis
A variety of sensor or physical conditions may result in a hard
EGR valve opens and closes. Typical MAP sensor problems like
start condition without setting a diagnostic trouble code
a cracked vacuum hose or a poor electrical connection will
(DTC). In order to determine if any of these conditions exist,
lead to EGR trouble codes. It is important to remember that
perform the following actions:
manifold pressure can be described two ways, as pressure or
vacuum. When the EGR valve opens, the intake manifold fills • Inspect for an engine coolant temperature (ECT) sensor
more quickly. Intake manifold vacuum drops toward 0 in. Hg, that has shifted in value.
but manifold absolute pressure rises toward 100 kPa. Pay at- • Inspect the mass air flow (MAF) sensor for proper instal-
tention to your scan tool displays and read all MAP sensor lation.
questions carefully. • Inspect the camshaft position (CMP) sensor for proper
mounting and/or a bad connection. An extended crank
Mass Airflow (MAF) Sensor occurs if the engine control module (ECM) does not re-
The MAF sensor measures the volume of air flowing into the ceive a CMP signal.
intake manifold. The voltage values of the composite vehicle • Verify proper operation of the manifold absolute pressure
sensor range from 0.2 volt with no flow (0 gm/sec) to 4.8 volts (MAP) sensor.
at maximum air flow (175 gm/sec). The sensor is located in • Inspect the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system for
the air intake system before the throttle plate, usually near the proper sealing/connections and operation.
air cleaner. When diagnosing driveability problems, observe
L1
MAF and RPM on the scan tool as the engine is accelerated. Engine Misfire Diagnosis
MAF signal voltage (or gm/sec value) will increase at about • Inspect the engine control module (ECM) grounds for
the same rate as engine RPM. Don’t forget, the ECM is capa- being clean, tight, and in the proper locations.
ble of computing a default MAF value based on engine speed • Inspect the heated oxygen sensors (HO2S). The HO2S
and throttle position signals. The only sure way to check the should respond quickly to different throttle positions. If
MAF signal is to verify the signal at the sensor, not on the scan they do not, inspect the HO2S for silicon or other conta-
tool. If the MAF signal increases more slowly than engine minants from fuel or the use of improper RTV sealant.
Default Value: A value used in place of another value known to be unreliable.

The sensors may have a white, powdery coating and result • Inspect the air intake system and crankcase for air leaks.
in a high but false signal voltage rich exhaust indication. • Inspect the crankcase ventilation valve for proper
The ECM will then reduce the amount of fuel delivered to operation.
the engine, causing a severe driveability problem. • Inspect for an inaccurate speedometer.
• Inspect the air intake ducts for being collapsed, damaged,
loose, improperly installed, or leaking, especially between Engine Surges Diagnosis
the mass air flow (MAF) sensor and the throttle body. Engine power variation under steady throttle or cruise. Feels
• Test the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system for proper like the vehicle speeds up and slows down with no change in
operation. the accelerator pedal position.
• Inspect for proper operation of the manifold absolute • Inspect the engine control module (ECM) grounds for
pressure (MAP) sensor. being clean, tight, and in the proper locations.
• Inspect for an engine coolant temperature (ECT) sensor • Inspect the heated oxygen sensors (HO2S). The HO2S
that has shifted in value. should respond quickly to different throttle positions. If
• Inspect the MAF sensor and intake air system for proper it does not, inspect the HO2S for silicon or other contam-
operation. inants from fuel or the use of improper RTV sealant. The
sensors may have a white, powdery coating and result in a
Engine Hesitation Diagnosis high but false signal voltage rich exhaust indication. The
Momentary lack of response as the accelerator is pushed down. ECM will then reduce the amount of fuel delivered to the
Can occur at any vehicle speed. Usually more pronounced engine, causing a severe driveability problem.
when first trying to make the vehicle move, as from a stop. May • Inspect the mass air flow (MAF) sensor for any contami-
cause the engine to stall if severe enough. nation on the sensing element.
• Inspect the engine control module (ECM) grounds for • Inspect the air intake ducts for being collapsed, damaged,
being clean, tight, and in the proper locations. loose, improperly installed, or leaking, especially between
• Inspect the heated oxygen sensors (HO2S). The HO2S the MAF sensor and the throttle body.
should respond quickly to different throttle positions. If • Test the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system for proper
they do not, inspect the HO2S for silicon or other conta- operation.
minants from fuel or the use of improper RTV sealant. • Inspect for proper operation of the manifold absolute
The sensors may have a white, powdery coating and result pressure (MAP) sensor.
in a high but false signal voltage rich exhaust indication. • Inspect for an engine coolant temperature (ECT) sensor
The PCM will then reduce the amount of fuel delivered to that has shifted in value.
the engine, causing a severe driveability problem.
• Inspect the air intake ducts for being collapsed, damaged, Rough, Unstable, or Incorrect
loose, improperly installed, or leaking, especially between and Stalling Diagnosis
the mass air flow (MAF) sensor and the throttle body. Engine runs unevenly at idle. If severe, the engine or vehicle
• Test the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system for proper may shake. Engine idle speed may vary in RPM. Either condi-
operation. tion may be severe enough to stall the engine.
• Inspect for proper operation of the manifold absolute • Inspect the engine control module (ECM) grounds for
pressure (MAP) sensor. being clean, tight, and in the proper locations.
• Inspect for an engine coolant temperature (ECT) sensor • Remove and inspect the air filter element for dirt or for re-
that has shifted in value. strictions.
• Inspect the MAF sensor and intake air system for proper • Inspect the air intake ducts for being collapsed, damaged
operation. areas, looseness, improper installation, or leaking, espe-
cially between the MAF sensor and the throttle body.
Poor Fuel Economy Diagnosis
• Inspect the Transaxle Range Switch input with the vehicle
Fuel economy, as measured by an actual road test, is noticeably
in drive and the gear selector in drive or overdrive.
lower than expected. Also, fuel economy is noticeably lower
than the economy was on this vehicle at one time, as previously Circuit Testing Using Serial Data
shown by an actual road test. Using serial data to test ECM circuits can be of great value dur-
• Inspect the engine control module (ECM) grounds for ing driveability diagnosis; however, there are some items to
being clean, tight, and in the proper locations. remember. The data that are being read on the scan tool could
• Discuss driving habits with the owner. actually be a default value that the ECM substitutes to com-
• Is the A/C on or the defroster mode on full time? pensate for possible circuit failures. Also, serial data transmit-
• Are the tires at the correct pressure? ted by the ECM to the scan tool is an interpretation of what the
• Are the wheels and tires the correct size? ECM thinks it is seeing. The true readings may be different. You
• Are there excessively heavy loads being carried? can confirm actual signal values by testing the circuit live with
• Is the acceleration rate too much, too often? a DVOM, breakout box, or lab scope, depending on what you
• Remove the air filter element and inspect for dirt or for need to test. False data stream values may be caused by an
restrictions. internal ECM fault or an ECM ground circuit problem. The
following are examples of using serial data to test and diagno-

sis driveability and intermittent problems:
• Thermistors: disconnect or short across thermistor circuit
to check the maximum range of the sensor. For example,
disconnect the ECT to create an open circuit. Temperature
reading should drop to -40°F (-40°C). Install a jumper
wire across the connector to create a short circuit.
Temperature should go to a maximum reading, about
266°F (130°C)
• Create the opposite circuit problem to see if a DTC sets.
For example, a P0117 code in memory tells you an ECT
sensor circuit voltage went low, indicating a short. To cre-
ate an open circuit, disconnect the ECT sensor and see if
the ECM sets a P0118 (circuit high). If it does, then the
circuit and ECM are operational and the problem is prob-
ably in the sensor
• Intermittent problem testing: Wiggle, tap, heat up, or cool
down a component or circuit to see if the serial data for
that circuit changes
• Testing the effect of one circuit on another by manipulating
the input signal. Manipulate the signal by disconnecting
circuits or substituting values. Here are some examples:
• IAT, ECT, TP sensor, MAP, MAF, and HO2S signals’
effect on injector pulse width.
Fig. 2-20. Checking voltage to a throttle position sensor.
• ECT, ACT, TP sensor signals’ effect on Idle speed control.
• IAT, ECT, TP, MAP, and MAF signals’ effect on igni- severe driveability problems. One example of this may be a car
tion timing control. that idles too high because the ECM monitors the battery volt-
• ECT, TP sensor, and EVP signals’ effect on EGR control age. If the supply voltage is low the ECM may raise the idle
• ECT and TP sensor signals’ effect on canister Purge speed so the charging system could charge what the ECM
• VSS, TP sensor, ECT, and MAP signals’ effect on thinks is a low battery.
torque convert clutch operation. To check resistance, make sure that the circuit to be tested
Circuit Testing Operations is not under power. Place the leads across the circuit or com-
While scan tools are an important part of any diagnosis, once ponent to be tested, figure 2-21. To read ohms, place the
you locate a problem you must use either a DVOM or lab scope
to accurately check a circuit. The following section covers cir-
cuit testing procedures and guidelines for using the proper test
equipment.
Voltage
When using a DVOM to check voltage in and out of sensors,
always check the voltage using the signal ground return at the
sensor, rather than using an engine or battery ground, fig-
ure 2-20. Sensors are grounded directly through the ECM,
rather than being connected directly to a chassis ground. This
way sensors avoid noise interference. Sensors need a “clean”
ground for reliable operation.
An open signal ground return will cause the ECM to see a
high voltage on the sensor signal line. An example would be a L1
TP sensor that always sends a wide open throttle (high voltage)
signal to the ECM.
Resistance
Ohm’s law says that even very low resistance in an automotive
computer circuit will cause sensors and actuators to work im-
properly because of low voltage. For example, an on-board
ECM ignition feed circuit drawing 365 milliamps with a
resistance in the ignition feed wire of 2.5 ohms will cause a Fig. 2-21. When checking resistance, the part must not be under
voltage supply drop of 1.5 volts. This voltage drop will cause power or you will probably destroy your meter.
meter on auto-ranging or start at the higher scales and work

down.
Voltage Drop
Checking voltage drop is one of the most important tests that
a technician can perform on a circuit. A voltage drop test mea-
sures the difference in electrical pressure between two points
in a live circuit. Voltage drops can cause major driveability
symptoms in on-board computer systems. A voltage drop on
a ECM power ground can cause sensor voltage references to be
higher than normal, throwing off the overall sensor calibration
of the entire engine control system, figure 2-22.
Another example of a driveability symptom might be a car
with an idle speed that continuously hunts. To start diagnosis,
you connect the scan tool to check trouble codes and the idle
smooths out. This is usually caused by a poor ground.
To check voltage drop, the circuit must be powered up and
have current flowing. The circuit also must have the maximum
amount of current flowing under normal conditions by which
the circuit was designed.
Although there is no exact amount voltage drop that is
considered acceptable, you should remember that low current
circuits that draw milliamps will be affected by very small volt-
Fig. 2-23. Checking amperage draw through a solenoid driver
age drops. A good rule of thumb would be a drop of 0.2 volt or circuit.
less. However, even this is too much for some circuits. A power
ground circuit should have a voltage drop of no more than To check amperage draw, the circuit must be powered up
0.1 volt. A computer ground circuit should have a voltage drop and have current flowing. Set your meter for amperage draw
of no more than 0.05 volt. and connect it in series between the solenoid negative termi-
Amperage nal and ground, or the actual driver circuit if you can energize
Too much amperage flow through a ECM actuator driver cir- it, figure 2-23. Start by checking amps first, then move down
cuit can partially damage that circuit and cause severe drive- to milliamp scale. Leave the circuit energized for 1 to 2 min-
ability problems. Most ECM actuator components carry utes to check draw.
milliamps through their circuits. Using a ohmmeter and calcu- Remember, this test is for solenoids such as Canister
lating amperage draw from resistance and voltage readings is Purge, EGR, and Air Management only. Do not check fuel in-
not always accurate because the device under test does not carry jectors in this manner. Holding an injector on for any length
the actual load it was designed to carry. Most actuator devices of time destroys it.
carry about 180 ma (12.6 volts at 70 ohms) to 500 ma (12.6 AC Ripple
volts at 25 ohms), but there are always exceptions to the rule. On-board automotive computers do not like to see AC ripples
Fuel injectors may carry much more amperage through their pass through the internal components. This effect can cause
circuit (as much as 8 amps depending on the type of injector). logic problems as well as many other types of driveability prob-
lems. For example, a bad alternator with a dropped diode can
severely affect an automotive computer system.
To check for AC ripple voltage, switch your DVOM to
AC and connect the black lead to a good ground and the red
lead to the “BAT,” or power, terminal on the back of the al-
ternator (not the battery), figure 2-24. A good alternator
should measure less than 0.5 volts AC with the engine run-
ning and the headlights on. A higher reading indicates dam-
aged alternator diodes.
Frequency
Frequency is the number of times a signal repeats itself in one
second. Frequency is measured in hertz.
A signal that repeats itself 10 times a second is operating
at a frequency of 10 hertz. Many automotive computer systems
read the frequency of a signal instead of the voltage. Ford MAP
sensors and AC Delco Mass Airflow Sensors are examples of
Fig. 2-22. Checking voltage drop at the ECM ground connection. sensors that produce this type of signal.
Fig. 2-24. Checking for voltage ripple from an AC generator.
For example, a Ford EEC-IV MAP sensor has a 5 volt ref-

erence voltage applied to it. At a duty cycle of 50 percent (half
of the time on and half of the time off), the DVOM will aver-
age the reading so you would see 2.5 volts. However, the num-
ber of times the signal switches on and off in one second will Fig. 2-26. Checking the duty cycle of a canister purge solenoid.
change depending on manifold vacuum. To accurately diag-
nose these signals, you must have a meter that can read fre- considered 100 percent. For a 5 volt signal at a 50 percent duty
quency, figure 2-25. cycle, the voltage would read 2.5 volts.
Duty Cycle For automotive applications, when dealing with digital
Duty cycle is the percentage of time a digital signal is high verses waves, and especially with ECM outputs, we are concerned
low. When measuring duty cycle, one complete cycle is with the amount of time the signal is low, rather then high.
This is because the low time is when the driving transistor is
on, completing the circuit to ground.
You can measure duty cycle with a DVOM that has a duty
cycle setting. Attach the red lead to the signal wire and the
black lead to a good engine ground, figure 2-26.
IMMOBILIZER ANTI-THEFT
SYSTEM DIAGNOSIS
The following are possible causes for Immobilizer Anti-Theft
System failures:
• The ignition key is not registered with the immobilizer unit
• Poor communication between the immobilizer antenna L1
and ignition key caused by low battery voltage or interfer-
ence from a metal key chain
• Immobilizer unit failure
• ECM failure
• Ignition key failure
• Incorrect ignition key used
• Poor communication between the ECM and immobilizer
unit caused by low battery voltage or noise interference
• Open or short in wiring harness
Fig. 2-25. Checking the frequency of a MAP sensor. • Blown fuse
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
1. True or false? The type 3 composite 5. On U.S designed vehicles built after 9. The engine misfire monitor uses the
vehicle has a four cycle, V6 engine 1996, where would you find the DLC? signal of which of the following primary
with four overhead chain-driven a. In plain view under the passenger’s sensors?
camshafts, 24 valves, distributorless side dash a. ECT
ignition, and a speed density type b. In plain view under the exact b. IAT
closed loop sequential multiport fuel center of the dash c. CKP
injection system. c. In plain view under the driver’s side d. MAP
a. True of the dash
b. False d. Location varies, depending on 10. Which of the following DTCs are
manufacturer and/or model. considered priority codes and should
2. Which of the following statements is be diagnosed first?
NOT true? The ECM on the composite 6. Technician A is diagnosing an OBD II a. Auxiliary emission controls
vehicle: vehicle and is about to clear the DTCs b. Misfire and fuel control
a. Controls the vehicle’s charging and take the vehicle for a short drive to c. Transmission
system. see if the DTCs reset. Technician B d. Vehicle speed control
b. Receives power from the battery says that a quick trip around the block
and ignition switch and provides a may not set a DTC so it may not be 11. True or false? The MAP sensor is used
regulated 5 volt supply for most of possible to confirm whether a problem on the composite vehicle to monitor
the engine sensors. has actually been corrected. EGR operation.
c. Controls the shifting of the Who is right? a. True
composite vehicle’s four speed a. A only b. False
automatic overdrive transmission. b. B only
d. Receives input from sensors, c. Both A and B 12. When using a DVOM to check voltage
calculates ignition and fuel d. Neither A nor B in and out of a sensor: Technician A
requirements, and controls engine says to always use an engine or battery
actuators to provide the desired 7. True or false? Since a scan tool has the ground. Technician B says to always
driveability, fuel economy, and ability to compare data from many use the ground return at the sensor.
emissions control. sensors and actuators, its data, used Who is right?
alone, provide sufficient diagnostic a. A only
3. Which of the following sensor signals is information to diagnose all problems. b. B only
NOT used during open loop engine a. True c. Both A and B
operation? b. False d. Neither A nor B
a. MAF sensor
b. O2 sensor 8. Technician A says when viewing 13. A computer ground circuit should
c. CKP sensor monitor readiness, the vehicle must be have a voltage drop of no more than:
d. TPS driven under certain specific a. 0.1 volt
conditions for some monitors to run. b. 1.0 volt
4. True or false? OBD II is a government- Technician B says the emissions c. 0.5 volt
mandated system designed to monitor system being monitored must be d. 0.05 volt
fuel system performance, engine operational.
misfire, and emission systems during Who is right?
normal vehicle operation. It includes a. A only
industry-wide standardization b. B only
intended to improve the diagnostic c. Both A and B
process by allowing all technicians d. Neither A nor B
equal access to on-board computer
information using a GST.
a. True
b. False

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qxd 9/13/08 5:15 AM Page 599

ADVANCED ENGINE PERFORMANCE

Advanced Engine Performance Specialist 601

602 Advanced Engine Performance Specialist

BASIC POWERTRAIN DIAGNOSIS

Catalyst: A substance that speeds or aids in a chemical reaction.

604 Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis

Verifying the Driveability Symptom Verifying the Emission Symptom

Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis 605

Ampere (AMP): The unit of measure for electric current.

606 Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis

• If the current flow is greater than normal, some of the nor-

10A COM Electromotive Force

Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis 607

10A COM RPM

608 Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis

5. The condition of the conductor. Broken strands of a cable

• Directly with an ohmmeter measuring the resistance of-

Since every electrical device, or load, in a circuit offers some re-

Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis 609

Fig. 1-11. This diagram is an easy way to remember the

610 Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis

Fig. 1-12. Voltage and amperage increase or decrease directly in VOLTAGE

Fig. 1-14. High amperage overloading a fuse is often the effect

Alternator: See Generator.

Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis 611

Fig. 1-15. A simple series circuit.

Fig. 1-17. A series circuit with more than 1 resistor.

Fig. 1-16. This horn circuit diagram illustrates a simple series

612 Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis

Fig. 1-20. A series-parallel circuit.

Through the 3 ohm resistor, it is:

Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis 613

With this summary of electrical theory, you can perform

614 Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis

Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis 615

antifreeze/water in all but the coldest climates. A 70/30 mix is

optimal engine operation. Use a scan tool to accurately determine

616 Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis

distribution problem, since fuel is delivered by a TBI system. It

Configuration: The organization of related components in a specific order.

Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis 617

618 Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis

Check Valve: A valve that permits flow in only one direction.

Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis 619

An increase of CO emission, caused by the fuel delivery

620 Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis

BALL VALVE (SEATED)

Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis 621

622 Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis

Chapter One: Basic Powertrain Diagnosis 623

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES airflow-type closed-loop sequential multiport fuel injection

Chapter Two: Computerized Powertrain Controls Diagnosis Including OBD II 625

626 Chapter Two: Computerized Powertrain Controls Diagnosis Including OBD II

Chapter Two: Computerized Powertrain Controls Diagnosis Including OBD II 627

628 Chapter Two: Computerized Powertrain Controls Diagnosis Including OBD II

Chapter Two: Computerized Powertrain Controls Diagnosis Including OBD II 629

Fig. 2-2. CKP and CMP sensor waveforms.

630 Chapter Two: Computerized Powertrain Controls Diagnosis Including OBD II

Fig. 2-3. MAF signal voltage increases as airflow increases.

Fig. 2-5. TPS signal voltage increases as the throttle is opened.

Chapter Two: Computerized Powertrain Controls Diagnosis Including OBD II 631