MEC208 Unit 1 2015-1

MEC208
MEC208 : Engineering Materials

Course Objective...
• Introduce fundamental concepts in Materials Science
You will learn about:

• Material structure
• How structure dictates properties
• How processing can change structure
This course will help you to:

• Use materials properly
• Realize new design opportunities with materials
MEC208

Text Books & References:
1. Material Science and engineering by William D. Callister, John Wiley & Sons,
USA, 8th Edition, (2007)
2. The Science and Engineering of Materials by Askeland, Fulay, Wright &

Balani, Cengage Learning, 6th Edition, (2011)
3. Material Science & Engineering by Raghavan, Prentice Hall of India, 5th

Edition, (2004)
MEC208

Tests, & Mid term
Tests:
• In Week 4, Week 10 & Week 12/13
• Syllabus, type & modus operandi of the examination will be furnished in
accordance to the appropriation in terms of time.
MID-Term:
• In Week 7
• Syllabus would be first three units.

Unit 1
Engineering Materials?
Why ?
4
Unit 1
Materials define Society…
 Stone Age (before 10,000 bc)
5
Unit 1
 Copper Age (~ 9000 bc)  Bronze Age (~ 3000 bc)
6
Unit 1

 Iron Age (~ 1200 bc)  Steel and Concrete(~ 1000 ad)
7
Unit 1

 Polymers(~ 1900 )  Silicon (~1960)
8
Unit 1
 Today Age of Next Generation Materials, Nanomaterials,

Bio-Materials, Smart Materials, e.t.c.
9
Unit 1
Why do we need so many

materials,
Why do we have to engineer

new materials?
10
Unit 1
 A small Example:
 Be strong & high impact resistance,

 Non-toxic and unreactive to the coke,
 Good barrier to retain CO2 even under high pressure,
 Optically transparent,
 Different Colors, different shapes e.t.c,
 Inexpensive.
11
Unit 1
 How many materials do we have ?
12
Unit 1
 Classification of Materials
Semiconductors
&
Alloys
Biomaterials
Advanced Materials
13
Unit 1
Unit Cell
14
Unit 1
 Crystal Structure: Unit Cell

The smallest structural unit of a crystal that
has all its symmetry and by repetition in
three dimensions makes up its full lattice.
15
Unit 1

16
Unit 1

17
Unit 1

18
Unit 1
 Important Parameters of a Unit Cell:

Unit cell is smallest repeatable entity that can be used to completely
represent a crystal structure.
It can be considered that a unit cell is the building block of the crystal
structure and defines the crystal structure by virtue of its geometry and the
atom positions within.
19
Unit 1
The type of atoms and their radii R,

Cell dimensions (Lattice spacing
a, b and c) in terms of,
Angle between the axis α, β, γ.
20
Unit 1
Number of atoms per unit cell (n). For an atom that is shared with m
adjacent unit cells, we only count a fraction of the atom, 1/m.
n = (1/8 x 8) + 1 = 2
21
Unit 1
CN, the coordination number, which is the number of closest neighbours to

which an atom is bonded.
CN = 6
22
Unit 1
APF, the atomic packing factor, which is the fraction of the volume of the cell
actually occupied by the hard spheres.
APF = Sum of atomic volumes/Volume of cell.
23
Unit 1
 Crystal Systems
Only 7 crystal systems have been identified.

These 7 basic crystal systems are called Primitive lattices.
Unit cell of a primitive lattice contains atoms only the corners.
24
Unit 1
 Crystal Systems
Only 7 crystal systems have been identified.

These 7 basic crystal systems are called Primitive lattices.
Unit cell of a primitive lattice contains atoms only the corners.

25
Unit 1
 Crystal Systems
Bravais showed that there are 14 possible arrangement of points (atoms) in

the space known as Bravai‟s lattices.
26
Unit 1
 Crystal Systems

27
Unit 1
 Crystal Systems

28
Unit 1
 Crystal Systems
To which Crystal System does this unit cell belongs to?
29
Unit 1
Metallic Crystalline
Structures
30
Unit 1
 Crystal Structure of Metals
Most of the metals crystallize into three forms of crystal systems:

1) Face-Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
2) Body-Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
3) Hexagonal Close Paced Structure (HCP)
31
Unit 1
 Simple Cubic Cell:
Number of atoms (n) =

Effective length of unit cell (a) =
Co-ordination Number (CN) =
Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs)
Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the

cell () =
Void = 100 -  = 32
Unit 1

R
Effective length of unit cell (a) = 2R
a

cell () =
Void = 100 -  = 33
Unit 1
Number of atoms (n) = 1/8 x 8 = 1

R
Co-ordination Number (CN) = 6
a a3 = (2R)3 = 8R3
= n x 4/3 πR3 = 4/3 πR3
cell ()= Vs/Vc = 52.4%
Void = 100 -  = 47.6 % 34
Unit 1
 Body Centered Cubic Cell:


cell () =
Void = 100 -  = 35
Unit 1
R Number of atoms (n) =
4R Effective length of unit cell (a) =

a a

cell () =
Void = 100 -  = 36
Unit 1
R Number of atoms (n) = (1/8 x 8) + 1 = 2
4R Effective length of unit cell (a) = 4/3½ R

Volume of unit cell (Vc) = a3 = (4/3½ R)3
a a
= n x 4/3 πR3 = 8/3 πR3
cell () = Vs/Vc = 68 %
Void = 100 -  = 32 % 37
Unit 1
 Face Centered Cubic Cell:


cell () =
Void = 100 -  = 38
Unit 1

Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs) =

cell () =
Void = 100 -  =
39
Unit 1

(1/8 x 8) + (1/2 x 6 ) = 4
Effective length of unit cell (a) = 2 2½ R
Volume of unit cell (Vc) = a3 = (2 2½ R)3
= n x 4/3 πR3 = 16/3 πR3
cell () = Vs/Vc = 74 %
Void = 100 -  = 26 %
40
Unit 1
 Hexagonal Closed Packed Cell:
41
Unit 1

R R Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the

cell () =
Void = 100 -  =
42
Unit 1

(1/6 x 12) + (1/2 x 2) + 3 = 6
R R

cell () =
Void = 100 -  = 43
Unit 1

(1/6 x 12) + (1/2 x 2) + 3 = 6

cell () =
Void = 100 -  = 44
Unit 1

(1/6 x 12) + (1/2 x 2) + 3 = 6

cell () =
Void = 100 -  = 45
Unit 1

(1/6 x 12) + (1/2 x 2) + 3 = 6

cell () =
Void = 100 -  = 46
Unit 1

Base consists of 6 triangles.
Area of Base = 6 x ½ x a x L
= 3a2 sin 60o
Volume of HCP cell = Area of base x height
= 3a2 sin 60o x c
⇒ c/a = 1.633.
Volume of HCP cell (Vc) =
= 3a2 sin 60o x c
a
L = 4.2426 a3 = 4.2426 (2R) 3
47
a
Unit 1

(1/6 x 12) + (1/2 x 2) + 3 = 6
Volume of unit cell (Vc) = 4.2426 (2R) 3
= n x 4/3 πR3 = 6 x 4/3 πR3
a
cell () = Vs/Vc = 74 %
L
Void = 100 -  = 26 % 48
a
Unit 1
 Crystal Structure of Metals
49
Unit 1
Crystallographic
Points & Directions
50
Unit 1
 Point Co-ordinates
• The position of any point located in unit cell can be specified.
• It is done in terms of its coordinates as fractional multiples of unit cell edge lengths.
• Represented in terms of a, b, and c
q, r, s
51
Unit 1
• For the Unit cell shown in the following sketch, locate the point having coordinates
¼, 1, ½
52
Unit 1
• Specify point coordinates for all atom positions for a cubic unit cell with atoms at
cube corners and cube center
1) 0 0 0
2) 1 0 0
3) 1 1 0
4) 0 1 0
5) ½ ½ ½
6) 001
7) 101
8) 111
9) 011
53
Unit 1
 Crystallographic Directions
• A vector of convenient length is positioned such that it passes through the origin of
the coordinate system.
• The length of the vector projection on each of the three axis is determined, which
are measured in terms of unit cell dimensions a, b, and c.
1) 1 1 1
2) 1 1 0
3) 1 1 1
54
Unit 1
•These three No‟s are multiplied or divided by common factor to reduce them to the
smallest integer values.
• The three indices are not separated by commas, are enclosed in square brackets,
thus: [uvw].
1) 1 1 1
2) 1 1 0
3) 1 1 1
55
Unit 1
• Find the indices of Direction 2.
Direction 2: [ 1 0 2]
56
Unit 1
• The u, v, and w integers correspond

to the reduced projections along the
x, y, and z axes respectively.
57
Unit 1
z
Algorithm
1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass
through origin.
2. Read off projections in terms of
y unit cell dimensions a, b, and c
3. Adjust to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas
x
[uvw]
ex: 1, 0, ½ => 2, 0, 1 => [ 201 ]
-1, 1, 1 => [ 111 ] where overbar represents a negative index
families of directions <uvw>

Unit 1
• Both negative and positive coordinates do exist. Negative indices are represented
by a bar over the appropriate index.
[ 1 1 0]
59
Unit 1
Find the Indices of direction A, B, C, D
A-
B-
C-
D-
Direction A: Shift the origin at the tail of A

Unit 1
• Find the indices of A, B, C & D.
A-
B-
C-
D-
61
Unit 1
 Crystallographic Directions (HCP)
o In Hexagonal symmetry, there are no crystallographic equivalent sites

(so no same set of indices).
o So we use Miller- Bravias, co-ordinate

system using 4 axis system.
o Three parameters a1, a2, a3 lie on the same
plane (base plane), and are @ 120o to each
other.
o The Z axis is perpendicular to this base
plane.
62
Unit 1
o In Hexagonal symmetry, there are no

crystallographic equivalent sites (so no
same set of indices).
o For Convince, divide each lattice
parameter into three parts
[ a1 a2 a3 z]
[uvtw]
63
Unit 1
64
Unit 1
 Crystallographic Directions (HCP) Miller Indices :
o Conversion of four index system into three…
[uvtw] [ u' v ' w ']
65
Unit 1

o Convert the [111] direction in four direction system of Hexagonal crystals:
[ 1 1 2 3]
66
Unit 1

o Convert the above direction with the reduced scale coordinate system
[ 1 1 2 3]
67
Unit 1
o Draw the [111] direction within the

hexagonal unit cell which utilizes
(a1, a2, z) system.
[1 1 1]
68
Unit 1
o Determine the directional indices

(4 index system) of the following
hexagonal system
[ u' v ' w '] [uvtw]
69
Unit 1

hexagonal system
[ u' v ' w '] ?

[ 0 2 1]
70
Unit 1

hexagonal system
[ 2 4 2 3]
71
Unit 1
Crystallographic
Planes
72
Unit 1
Crystallographic Planes:
Adapted from Fig. 3.9, Callister 7e.

Unit 1
• Miller Indices: Reciprocals of the (three) axial

intercepts for a plane, cleared of fractions &
common multiples. All parallel planes have same
Miller indices.
• Algorithm
1. Read off intercepts of plane with axes in
terms of a, b, c
2. Take reciprocals of intercepts
3. Reduce to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in parentheses, no
commas i.e., (hkl)
Unit 1
Crystallographic Planes: z
example a b c c
1. Intercepts 1 1 
2. Reciprocals 1/1 1/1 1/
1 1 0
y
3. Reduction 1 1 0
a b
4. Miller Indices (110) x
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1/2   c
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/ 1/
2 0 0
3. Reduction 2 0 0 y
4. Miller Indices (100) a b
x
Unit 1
z
example a b c
c
1. Intercepts 1/2 1 3/4 
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/1 1/¾
2 1 4/3  y
a  b
3. Reduction 6 3 4
x
4. Miller Indices (634)
Family of Planes {hkl}
Ex: {100} = (100), (010), (001), (100), (010), (001)

Unit 1
Crystallographic Planes: (Practice Problems)
Unit 1
Find the Miller Indices for plane 1 & 2
Plane 2
Unit 1
Plane A
Find the Miller Indices for planes
A&B
Plane B
Unit 1
Find the Miller Indices for plane A & B

For plane A shift the origin one unit
cell distance along y axis direction
Plane B
Unit 1
Crystallographic Planes: (HCP)
• In hexagonal unit cells the same idea is used z
example a1 a2 a3 c
1. Intercepts 1  -1 1
2. Reciprocals 1 1/ -1 1
1 0 -1 1 a2
3. Reduction 1 0 -1 1
a3
4. Miller-Bravais Indices (1011) a1
Adapted from Fig. 3.8(a), Callister 7e.

Unit 1
Crystallographic Planes: (HCP)
Find the Miller Indices for plane passing through APQGF
Answer
P
Unit 1
Density Computations
83
Unit 1
 Density of Materials
Density = Mass/Volume
Where n = number of atoms effective atoms in unit cell,

Mass of Unit Cell = n . A gm A = Atomic mass (in gm),
NA
NA = Avagadro‟s number = 6.023 x 1023/mole
Volume of Unit Cell = a3 Where a = Lattice Constant, cm
⇒ ⇒
Density = ρ = n3 . A gm
a . NA
Lattice constant = a = 3 √ n.A
ρ NA
cm
84
Unit 1
 Problems :
1) Iron has BCC structure and the atomic radius is 1.24 Ǻ. Calculate the
lattice constant „a‟ for the cubic structure of the iron unit cell.
Atomic radius: R = 1.24 Ǻ. R
Lattice constant: a = 4R/(3)½ 4R
= 4 x 1.24/ (3)½
= 2.8637 Ǻ
a a
85
Unit 1
 Problems :
2) Cu has FCC structure and the atomic diameter is 2.556 Ǻ. Calculate

the lattice parameter.
Atomic radius: R = D/2 = 2.556/2

= 1.278 Ǻ.
Lattice constant: a = 4R/(2)½
= 4 x 1.278/ (2)½
= 3.6147 Ǻ
86
Unit 1
 Problems :
3) Determine the percentage volume change that occurs when iron changes
from BCC structure to FCC cubic structure.
For BCC structure , Assuming there is no change in the size of iron atom,
a = 4R/(3)½ and n = 2
=
and volume/ atom V = a3/n
4R/(3)½ x ½ = 6.16 R3
% of Δ V =
( Final Volume – Initial Volume
Initial Volume ) 100
⇒
For FCC structure,
a= 4R/(2)½ and n = 4
% of Δ V =
( 5.66 R3 – 6.16 R3
6.16 R3 ) 100
⇒
and volume/ atom V = a3/n % of Δ V = - 8.1 %
= 4R/(2)½ x ¼ = 5.66 R3.

87
Unit 1
 Problems :
4) Cu has a FCC structure and an atomic radius of 0.1278 nm. The atomic
mass of Cu is 63.5 g/mol & Avogadro's No. is 6.023 x 1023. Calculate the
density of Cu.
Atomic Radius R = 0.1278 nm

= 0.1278 x 10-7 cm
Atomic Mass = 63.5 g/mol.
For FCC, n = 4.
a = 4R/2½ = 4 x 0.1278 x 10-7
2½
88
Unit 1
 Problems :
4) Cu has a FCC structure and an atomic radius of 0.1278 nm. The atomic
mass of Cu is 63.5 g/mol & Avogadro's No. is 6.023 x 1023. Calculate the
density of Cu.
⇒ Density = ρ =
a3.
n.A
NA
gm
Atomic Radius R = 0.1278 nm
= 0.1278 x 10-7 cm Density of Cu =
4 x 63.5
Atomic Mass = 63.5 g/mol. 3
For FCC, n = 4.
( 2½ )
4 x 0.1278 x 10-7
6.023 x 1023
a = 4R/2½ = 4 x 0.1278 x 10-7 = 8.933 g /cm3

2½
89
Unit 1
 Problems :
5) The lattice constant of iron (in BCC) is 2.86 Ǻ. What is the density of
iron taking the atomic weight of iron as 55.85 amu
Lattice Constant: a = 2.86 Ǻ = 2.86 x 10-8 cm.
ρ= n.A gm
Density of Iron :
a3. NA
For Iron (BCC): n = 2, A = 55.86 amu (g/mol) and N = 6.023 x 1023
2 x 55.85
ρ = = 7.93 g/cc
( 2.86 x 10-7 )3 . 6.023 x 1023
90
Unit 1
 Problems :
6) NaCl crystals have FCC structure. The density of NaCl is 2.18 g/cc.
Calculate the distance between two adjacent atoms.
Density (ρ) = 2.18 g/cc; and for FCC n = 4.
Molecular Weight of NaCl = atomic weight of Na + atomic Weight of Cl
= 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 (i.e. atomic mass. A = 58.5 g/mol)
n.A ⇒
Density : ρ =
a3. NA
gm Lattice constant = a =
3 √ρN
n.A
A
cm
a =
3 √ 4 x 58.5
2.18 x. 6.023 x 1023
= 5.63 x 10-8 cm = 5.63 Ǻ
91
Unit 1
 Definition :
Some Metals and non-metals may have more than one crystal structure.
This phenomenon is called as Polymorphism.
If similar behavior prevails in elemental solids, it is called Allotropy.
The prevailing crystal structure depends on both temperature & Pressure
Carbon forms Graphite under

ambient conditions
Where as, the same carbon forms

Diamond under extreme temperature
& pressure. (~ 5 GPa @ 1500 oC)
92
Unit 1
Polymorphism :
Most of the time there will be changes in the density and other physical
properties of the materials, with polymorphism.
Pure Iron (Fe) has BCC crystal Whereas, pure Iron (Fe) changes to
structure @ room temperature. FCC when heated @ 912 oC
93
Unit 1
Linear Density:
LD = No. of atoms centered on direction vector
Length of directional vector
For example:
Determine the linear density of the [110] direction for the FCC crystal
No. of atoms = ½ X + Y + ½ Z
= 2 atoms.
Length = R + 2R + R = 4R
⇒ 2 atoms
LD110 = 4R
1
LD110 =
2R
94
Unit 1
Planar Density:
PD = No. of atoms centered on a plane
Area of plane
For example:
Determine the planar density of the [110] direction for the FCC crystal
No. of atoms = ¼ X + ¼ N + ¼ Z + ¼ M + Y
= 2 atoms.
Area of plane = l . b
= 8√2 R2
a 2√2 R
⇒
2 atoms
PD110 = 8√2 R2 4R
1
PD110 =
4√2 R2
95
Unit 1
Closed Packed
Structures
96
Unit 1
Closed Packed Structures:
It was observed that both HCP and FCC crystals have atomic packing factor of
0.74, which is the most effective packing of equal sized atoms.
Stacking in cubic structures
97
Unit 1
Closed Packed Structures:
“A Portion of Close Packed Plane”
“A & B stacking sequence

for Close Packed Plane”
98
Unit 1
Closed Packing of HCP:
“Close packing sequence for HCP”

99
Unit 1
Closed Packing of FCC:
“Relation between close pack sequence

and crystal structure of FCC”
“Close packing sequence for FCC”

100
Unit 1
The difference between close stacking of HCP and FCC:
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech. Engg., LPU 101

Unit 1
Single Crystal:
A single crystal or mono-crystalline solid is a material in which the crystal lattice of
the entire sample is continuous and unbroken to the edges of the sample, with no grain
boundaries.
Defect Less:
- Unique Properties,
- Mechanical,
- Optical,
- Electrical,
- Anisotropic.
“Garnet Single Crystal found in Tongbei,

Fujain Provienc, China”
102
Unit 1
Single Crystal:
Because entropic effects, impurities, inhomogeneous strain and crystallographic

defects such as disorders and dislocations, perfect single crystals of meaningful size are
exceedingly rare in nature.
103
Unit 1
Single Crystal:
Difficult to produce in the laboratory, though they can be made under controlled
conditions
“Lanthanum Nickelate crystals being grown

on Lanthanum Molybdate pellet.” “Si single crystals being grown in Laboratory”
Courtesy of © “Smithsonian”, Jan 2000, Vol 30, No. 10
Unit 1
Single Crystal:
Glass used in high end wrist watches, gorilla glass, & touch screens used in Iphone,
android e.t.c, are also single crystals made out of sapphire.
105
Unit 1
Polycrystal:
Polycrystalline materials are ones which are composed of many small single crystals
or grains. They fall between single crystals or amorphous materials.
106
Unit 1
Polycrystal:
Initially small nuclei of various individual crystals form and they grow in different
orientation. The wall that divided each of the grain is called an grain boundary.
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
107
Unit 1
Polycrystal:
Initially small nuclei of various individual crystals form and they grow in different
orientation. The wall that divided each of the grain is called an grain boundary.
Stage 4
108
Unit 1
 Surface Defects: Grain Boundaries
 Grain boundary is a narrow region between two grains of about two to

few atomic diameters in width, and is the region of mismatch between
adjacent grains.
109
Unit 1
 Atoms are arranged less regularly at the grain boundary. This produce
less efficient packing of the atoms at the boundary. Thus the atoms along
the grain boundary have higher energy than those within the grains.
110
Unit 1
 If the orientation between two neighboring grains is less than 10o, then it
is called Low grain boundary or Tilt boundary. In general, it is regarded
as an array of dislocations
111
Unit 1
 If the mismatch i.e., orientation difference between two grains is more

than 10 – 15o, the grain boundary is known as high angle grain boundary.
112
Unit 1
 Microscopic Examination:
 Engineering Materials quite often deals with materials at micro, nano

and atomic scale.
113
Unit 1
 Microscopic examination is an extremely important tool in the study and

characterization of materials.
114
Unit 1
 Several important applications of microstructural examinations include

study of structure, defects and possible correlation between them and to
predict the properties of materials once these relationships are
established.
Micrograph of Grey Cast Iron
115
Unit 1
Photomicrograph of the surface of a polished
and etched pollycrystalline specimen
of Ductile Iron.
Crosectional Micrograph of Cu Ingot.

116
Unit 1
117
Unit 1
118
Unit 1
 Utilization of microscope depending upon the resolution:
119
Unit 1
 Grain Size determination: :

 Grain size is often determined when the properties of a polycrystalline materials
are under consideration. In this regard, there are no. of techniques by which, size
is specified in terms of average grain volume, diameter, or area.
120
Unit 1

 Straight lines all the same length are drawn through several photomicrographs.
 The grains intercepted by each line segment are counted , and the length of line
is divided by no. of grain on the line. Average value is taken from overall line
intercepts.
121
Unit 1

 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has prepared several
standard comparison charts, all having different average grain sizes ranging
from numbers 1-10, called “Grain Size Number”.
 A specimen must be properly prepared to reveal the grain structure, which is
photographed at a magnification of 100X.
 Than the “Grain Size Number” is determined using standard charts and by
microscopic inspection.
 And the Average No. of grains (N) is given by:
N = 2n-1 Where, n = Grain Size Number of ASTM charts.
122
Unit 1
123
Unit 1
124
MEC208
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MEC208

MEC208 : Engineering Materials

You will learn about:

This course will help you to:

MEC208 : Engineering Materials

2. The Science and Engineering of Materials by Askeland, Fulay, Wright &

3. Material Science & Engineering by Raghavan, Prentice Hall of India, 5th

MEC208 : Engineering Materials

• Syllabus would be first three units.

Materials define Society…

 Stone Age (before 10,000 bc)

Materials define Society…

 Copper Age (~ 9000 bc)  Bronze Age (~ 3000 bc)

Materials define Society…

Materials define Society…

 Today Age of Next Generation Materials, Nanomaterials,

Why do we need so many

Why do we have to engineer

 Be strong & high impact resistance,

 How many materials do we have ?

 Crystal Structure: Unit Cell

 Crystal Structure: Unit Cell

 Crystal Structure: Unit Cell

 Crystal Structure: Unit Cell

 Important Parameters of a Unit Cell:

 Important Parameters of a Unit Cell:

The type of atoms and their radii R,

 Important Parameters of a Unit Cell:

 Important Parameters of a Unit Cell:

CN, the coordination number, which is the number of closest neighbours to

 Important Parameters of a Unit Cell:

Only 7 crystal systems have been identified.

Only 7 crystal systems have been identified.

Bravais showed that there are 14 possible arrangement of points (atoms) in

Bravais showed that there are 14 possible arrangement of points (atoms) in

Bravais showed that there are 14 possible arrangement of points (atoms) in

 Crystal Structure of Metals

Most of the metals crystallize into three forms of crystal systems:

 Simple Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =

Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs)

Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the

 Simple Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =

Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs)

Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the

 Simple Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) = 1/8 x 8 = 1

 Body Centered Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =

Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs)

Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the

 Body Centered Cubic Cell:

R Number of atoms (n) =

4R Effective length of unit cell (a) =

Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the

 Body Centered Cubic Cell:

R Number of atoms (n) = (1/8 x 8) + 1 = 2

4R Effective length of unit cell (a) = 4/3½ R

 Face Centered Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =

Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs)

Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the