courtesy Metro Los Angeles
Life‐Cycle Assessment for Transportation Decision‐making
By Mikhail Chester†1, Juan Matute2, Paul Bunje2, William Eisenstein3, Stephanie Pincetl*2,
Zoe Elizabeth2, and Connery Cepeda3
*Principal Investigator
†Corresponding Author
Introduction The State of California seeks to reduce emissions
Those charged with making decisions regarding and conserve energy resources in all sectors of its
transportation systems have, in recent years, economy and has adopted several policies that
become more interested in the indirect impacts address transportation energy use and emissions.
of these systems. This interest is in part a All of these policies, such as The Sustainable
response to advancements in vehicle technology Communities Planning Act,1 consider vehicle
and evolving policy goals. tailpipe emissions. One policy, California’s Low
1
Arizona State University
2
University of California at Los Angeles
3
University of California at Berkeley
Life‐Cycle Assessment for Transportation Decision‐making
Carbon Fuel Standard2, also considers the effects planning, construction, operation, and
of greenhouse gas emissions from the production maintenance processes.
and distribution of transportation fuels, even
when these emissions are out of state. Identify processes and boundaries
An LCA begins with the identification of direct,
The recent availability of mass‐market electric ancillary (or indirect), and supply chain processes
vehicles also has decision‐makers contemplating that are relevant to the transportation system.
the indirect effects of transportation systems. Because the goal of a transportation system is to
Although the tailpipe emissions from an internal move people and goods, the direct effects are the
combustion engine vehicle are more obvious energy use and emissions associated with
than the indirect power plant emissions movement of the vehicle. For example, to move a
generated to propel an electric vehicle, both sets car, gasoline is consumed and work is produced
of emissions affect climate change. through the release of energy by breaking apart
the gasoline hydrocarbon molecules. The
Life‐Cycle Assessment (LCA) provides decision‐
combustion process produces air emissions in the
makers with information needed to evaluate the
form of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur
direct and indirect impacts of transportation
oxides, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, to
systems. This report will guide the reader
name a few. The fuel use and emissions produced
through the process of identifying sources,
are called direct emissions in transportation LCA
inventorying impacts, and interpreting results
because they are associated with the direct goal
specific to LCA of energy and emissions
of the system, to facilitate the movement of
indicators for transportation projects. The
people and goods.
authors highlight the impacts that dominate
overall results and discuss how to incorporate Ancillary processes are those that must exist in
LCA into existing transportation planning, order for the direct process to exist. For
construction, and operation processes. transportation systems, these are generally
classified as vehicle, infrastructure, and energy
Life‐Cycle Assessment: A Primer production services. For example, in order for a
LCA is a framework for evaluating products, vehicle to move, the vehicle must first be
processes, services, activities, and the complex produced. Infrastructure must be constructed,
systems in which they reside, from cradle‐to‐ operated, and maintained. And an energy
grave. LCA has been developed for roughly 40 production system must exist to produce
years and has been formalized by the gasoline, diesel, natural gas, electricity, or other
International Organization for Standardization in fuels (e.g., biofuels). Some fraction of these
their 14040 series. The framework is robust in ancillary processes exists to support the vehicle’s
that any quantifiable flow can be evaluated
including labor, costs, materials, and water, in Ancillary processes are required for
addition to energy use and pollutant discharges. direct processes to occur
In this document, we focus on using LCA to
quantify the cradle‐to‐grave energy use and air
Ancillary Direct Movement
emissions of transportation systems. As
Processes Processes of people
transportation agencies and cities become
increasingly aware of the complexity of • Vehicle • Fuel
transportation systems, LCA has made its way to manufacture combustion
• Fuel production
the forefront of discussions and life‐cycle • Supply chain
thinking has begun to permeate into the
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Life‐Cycle Assessment for Transportation Decision‐making
movement. Furthermore, these ancillary Prospective LCA takes a fundamentally different
processes rely on a supply chain to provide approach by asking how direct and ancillary
materials, sub‐processes, services, and other processes in a transportation system will change
activities, possibly far from where the vehicle when a policy or decision has been implemented.
operates. For example, the decision to implement a bus
rapid transit (BRT) line in a city by taking over a
LCAs of transportation systems have shown that lane in an arterial does not produce greenhouse
ancillary and supply chain processes can at times gas emissions from the construction of a new
dominate the life‐cycle environmental footprint. roadway. The city’s greenhouse gas emissions do
This reveals that a decision to operate a transit not increase because of this BRT line. In this case,
vehicle in a region may have far‐reaching effects a retrospective LCA would attempt to allocate the
beyond that region. These LCAs also reveal that a infrastructure construction greenhouse gas
transportation agency may achieve the greatest emissions before the BRT line to automobiles and
environmental benefits at the lowest costs by after the BRT line’s implementation to the bus.
targeting ancillary and supply chain life‐cycle
processes. However, in a scenario where LCA is being used
to inform environmental policy, prospective LCA
Framing the Life‐Cycle Assessment is needed to evaluate the net effects in a region of
Conducting an LCA begins with defining the goal the decision to implement the transportation
of the study. This goal can lead to a retrospective system, and would thus only include the net
or prospective LCA approach. Until recently, change that has resulted from the decision.
retrospective LCAs have dominated the field but
as practitioners look more and more towards Retrospective LCAs are valuable for informing
using LCA to inform policies and decisions, questions such as ‘Where can a transit agency
prospective thinking has taken on a more most cost‐effectively reduce their energy and
important role. environmental footprint?’ Prospective LCAs are
necessary to answer questions like ‘What is the
Retrospective LCA takes a viewpoint that an effect of implementing a new transit line in a city?’
established transportation system will have a
footprint that consists of direct, ancillary, and Both approaches are useful and can help inform
supply chain processes that can in some way be environmental impact reductions, but depending
allocated. For example, a retrospective LCA of a on the goal of the LCA it is necessary for the
light rail trip would include the direct effects practitioner to identify the single approach that is
(moving the train), ancillary effects (e.g., most useful for the decision they are trying to
evaluating the total greenhouse gas emissions inform. The selection of an approach in the
from constructing the infrastructure and dividing definition of the assessment’s goal will ultimately
it by the total number of trips), and supply chain inform the system boundary that is selected for
effects (e.g., evaluating the greenhouse gas the analysis.
emissions from mining materials for train
manufacturing and dividing it by the total Why use Life‐Cycle Assessment for
number of trips served in the train’s lifetime). transportation decision‐making?
Retrospective LCA is invaluable for LCA expands on existing environmental impact
understanding how a transit agency, for example, assessment methods which only consider
can reduce the impacts of their system as it has emissions from construction and operations. A
been constructed. more complete picture of all impacts associated
with a prospective or past project is more
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Life‐Cycle Assessment for Transportation Decision‐making
informative for decision‐makers concerned with This may cause the agency to pursue more
greenhouse gas emissions and energy use. automobile infrastructure projects than it if it
had considered the effect that all monetary costs
Better understand full impacts with LCA would have on both the private and public
While the public sector pays to build and sectors of the regional economy.
maintain automobile infrastructure, individual
automobile ownership, operation, and In the past, transportation agencies have only
maintenance costs are borne by households and considered on‐site emissions and energy use from
private firms. In contrast, costs to build and facility construction and operations. Most
operate transit are borne by the public sector, transportation agencies have not considered
with customers contributing roughly a quarter of emissions that result from the manufacture of
operating costs through fares. passenger and transit vehicles, cement, steel, and
refining of fuels. These upstream emissions can
The illustration below shows a scenario where a be significant, and are becoming increasingly
transportation agency considers a transit project important as governments enact policies to
versus an equivalent automobile project. For the mitigate climate change, as greenhouse gas
transit project, the transportation agency must emissions have similar effects on climate change
pay to construct, operate, and maintain the regardless of their location of emission.
facility. For the automobile project, the
transportation agency pays to construct the Compare across modes with LCA
infrastructure, but the private sector picks up the The proportion of total energy use and emissions
tab for much of the vehicle operations and that occur in the operation phase can be different
maintenance costs. across modes. For example, an electric‐powered
light rail vehicle emits no tailpipe emissions from
Though the automobile project is more costly operations, but the electricity it uses creates
overall, it is cheaper to the transportation agency. emissions upstream. This in in contrast with a
natural gas powered bus that emits from both its
tailpipe and upstream. LCA is necessary to
Public and private costs to meet compare emissions and energy use among
transportation need alternatives from different modes. This is
especially true when comparing energy use and
emissions impacts between private automobiles
and public transit.
Using Life‐Cycle Assessment in Transit
Capital Planning
Existing transportation LCAs can serve as
guidance for future LCA practitioners. To‐date,
transportation LCAs have focused primarily on
the vehicle and energy production cycles. Vehicle
cycles include manufacturing and maintenance of
cars, buses, and trains. With increasing interest
in biofuels, a separate body of literature has
In the above illustration, a transportation agency examined energy production for transportation
may decide it preferable to pursue automobile frame raw fuel extraction (crude oil or primary
infrastructure if it only considers its own costs. inputs for electricity generation) or feedstock
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Life‐Cycle Assessment for Transportation Decision‐making
(corn production for biofuels) production question ‘What is the greenhouse gas footprint of
through delivery of that energy in its final usable automobile travel versus bus travel in a city?’
form (e.g., gasoline, diesel, ethanol, or would be answered with retrospective LCA
electricity). framing which would establish a system of study
that includes as many ancillary and supply chain
Many transportation LCAs combine aspects of processes that can be allocated to each mode.
the vehicle and energy production cycles to However, by asking ‘How does a new BRT line on
produce their final results and reveal several an existing arterial help a city meet its greenhouse
dominating consistent characteristics across gas reduction goals?’ should be answered with
transportation systems. Another body of research prospective LCA and components that do not
has focused on also including infrastructure change (for example, the construction of the
impacts in transportation LCA. These studies roadway) from one system to the next would not
reveal several critical parameters that dominate be considered. Establishing a retrospective or
the life‐cycle footprint of transportation systems. prospective viewpoint is a critical step for an LCA
practitioner to establish a useful system
In this section, we discuss how a transportation
boundary of analysis so that they can answer
policy and decision maker can incorporate LCA
their question.
thinking by focusing our discussion on these
critical parameters.
Set the system boundary
Once the study goal has been established, a
Establishing the study goal: retrospective and
system boundary should be selected to determine
prospective LCA
which life‐cycle components will and will not be
The first step in LCA is the defining of the goal of
included in the assessment. LCA theory says that
the study and practitioners must consider
the selection of the system boundary should be
whether they are interested in understanding a
based on elementary flows meaning that the
system as it has been built (retrospective) or how
practitioner should select a boundary that begins
a new system will contribute to energy and
with life‐cycle components that extract raw
environmental impacts going forward
materials from the earth (cradle) and with
(prospective). If the practitioner’s goal is to
components that deposit waste back to the earth
reduce the environmental footprint of an existing
(grave). This captures exchanges from the
system the retrospective LCA is the appropriate
ecosphere (natural environment) to the
framing. However, if the practitioner’s goal is to
technosphere (man‐made systems and the built
determine the environmental changes that result
environment) and back to the ecosphere.
from changes to the current system or
implementation of a new system then prospective In practice, the LCA practitioner can truncate the
LCA is appropriate. system boundary as long as the life‐cycle
components removed do not change the ranking
Retrospective LCA seeks to allocate direct,
of one choice over another. Previous
ancillary, and supply chain effects to the
transportation LCA research has shown that
transportation system of study, no matter how
practitioners should include mining operations
small or remote they may be. Prospective LCA
(e.g., materials for infrastructure) and primary
evaluates only the changes that result from a
energy (i.e., fossil fuel) extraction in the system
policy or decision and should ignore ancillary and
boundary because of their sometimes dominating
supply chain processes that do not change from
contributions to the environmental inventory.
the business‐as‐usual option. For example, the
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Life‐Cycle Assessment for Transportation Decision‐making
Life‐Cycle assessment can account for supply chain processes involved in
transportation service delivery
Infrastructure Vehicle and
Materials Infrastructure Vehicle Fuel
and Vehicle Infrastructure
Extraction Construction Manufacturing Production
Operation Maintenance
Consider appropriate indicators secondary, electrical vs. non‐electrical, fossil vs.
LCA practitioners should consider including a non‐fossil, and renewable vs. non‐renewable) and
broad suite of environmental indicators to should attempt to characterize where possible.
understand resource and environmental tradeoffs
Conventional air pollutants are the emissions or
of their systems. The LCA framework is adaptable
precursors that contribute to the EPA Clean Air
in that it allows any quantifiable flow to be
Act Criteria Air Pollutants, those that cause
evaluated. This could include energy,
direct human and environmental impacts.
environmental effects (e.g., greenhouse gas
Conventional air pollutants are sulfur oxides,
emissions, criteria pollutant emissions), costs,
nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, carbon
labor requirements, and so on. It can sometimes
monoxide, volatile organic compounds, and lead
be the case that an LCA practitioner that
emissions.
considers a single or small subset of indicators
(e.g., only greenhouse gas emissions) will miss
Select a functional unit
unintended tradeoffs. That is, the practitioner
With the selection of the system boundary and
can use LCA to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
environmental indicators of interest, the LCA
but in doing so may unintentionally increase
practitioner must select a functional unit to
some other impact that is not being analyzed.
ultimately normalize the differing units and
For example, an LCA of electric cars should track scales of the analysis components to a consistent
both greenhouse gas and human health effects measure. For passenger transportation LCA,
because it is possible that the new technology results are often normalized per vehicle mile
will reduce greenhouse gas emissions by traveled (VMT) or passenger mile traveled (PMT)
switching to lower carbon energy in propulsion but could also be expressed in any relevant
but may increase health impacts to populations measure that transportation agencies typically
living near battery manufacturing facilities3. LCAs consider (for example, per unit cost, passenger
of passenger transportation systems typically time of travel, etc.). If the goal of the study is to
include energy inputs and emissions of inform regional emissions inventories from
greenhouse gases and conventional air vehicle movement, then a per VMT functional
pollutants. The practitioner should consider the unit is sufficient. If the LCA practitioner wants to
different forms of energy (i.e., primary vs. evaluate system ridership characteristics, then a
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Life‐Cycle Assessment for Transportation Decision‐making
per PMT functional unit is necessary. It is production components each normalized per
important that for changes to existing or VMT or PMT.
emerging systems, the practitioner considers
results. For example, if a ridership Existing LCAs of passenger transportation have
revealed that while hundreds of life‐cycle
Incorporating LCA into Practice components can be evaluated, only a handful
tend to dominate results. Developing a rigorous
LCA requires a continuous commitment to
gathering data and interpreting results in several
EstablishStudy Goal
iterations. Many transit agencies and decision
• Determine whether to use a Prospective
or Retrospective approach makers may not have the capacity to invest in
extensive LCAs but may desire to understand
what the hotspots are in their transportation
systems.
Set System Boundary
In an effort to assist LCA beginners, the hotspots
identified from existing research are discussed
and should provide a window for those interested
Inventory environmental
indicators in understanding which processes may dominate
• Use established methods in a complex system.
• Normalize by functional units
Manufacturing
Automobile, bus, or train manufacturing tends to
be dominated by electricity generation for final
Impact Assessment
assembly and parts manufacturing, material use,
and transportation in the supply chain. Vehicle
manufacturing improvements that incorporate
clean electricity will achieve the greatest
greenhouse gas reductions in this life‐cycle
uncertainty in the per PMT normalized forecast
component. This should be followed by strategies
shows the potential low and high ends of a new
that reduce the greenhouse gas intensity of
bus line’s ridership then the LCA practitioner can
materials, by say incorporating greater recycled
incorporate this information and evaluate the bus
content or by using low CO2 strategies. For
system per PMT at low to high occupancy.
conventional air pollutants, electricity generation
Calculate each processes contribution to and supply chain truck transport dominate.
Again, strategies that call for clean electricity use
indicators
both in final assembly as well as upstream parts
Having established the system boundary, the
manufacturing are likely to significantly reduce
practitioner can develop a life‐cycle inventory of
the environmental footprint of vehicle
the indicators of interest by evaluating the
manufacturing. Furthermore, strategies that
processes, activities, services, products, and their
incorporate parts suppliers that use cleaner
supply chain, ultimately allocating the effects of
freight vehicles are also likely to reduce the
each to the functional unit. A passenger
conventional air pollutant emissions.
transportation LCA will include an inventory that
shows the energy consumption and air emissions Construction
(assuming these are the environmental indicators Infrastructure construction continuously appears
chosen) for vehicle, infrastructure, and energy as a major transportation life‐cycle component
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Life‐Cycle Assessment for Transportation Decision‐making
across public and private modes. In particular, other distributed energy form. Energy is
production and placement of asphalt and consumed extracting the primary fuel, refining it,
concrete produce significant greenhouse gas and and transporting it. And along the way emissions
conventional air pollutant effects. Hot‐mix are also produced from this energy consumption.
asphalt plants dominate greenhouse gas and
conventional air pollutant emissions, however, When possible, the LCA practitioner should
the placement of that asphalt should also be a make efforts to geographically and temporally
focus of LCA practitioners as it is likely to occur track indicators. Inevitably, transportation
near populations. Cement kilns are the major agencies and decision makers performing LCA
source of air emissions in the concrete life‐cycle. will identify effects that occur both inside and
The kilns require significant energy and produce outside of their region. This introduces the
significant CO2 and conventional air pollutant interesting dynamic of reducing a transportation
emissions. Kilns are the target of many system’s footprint by targeting processes
environmental regulations and efforts to improve indirectly related to the movement of the vehicle.
their energy efficiency or emission control Furthermore, effects may occur at different time
devices will provide significant benefits in the periods in the system. While the emissions from
life‐cycle. Furthermore, transportation agencies combusting diesel fuel on a transit bus occur
can incorporate low‐CO2 concrete4 into their relatively continuously, the emissions from
infrastructure and should explore if these constructing the roadway that the bus uses occur
material options exist and if they cost more than in a short period of time well before the bus
traditional concrete. begins operations. Understanding this temporal
dimension is critical for connecting emission
Operation inventories to the health and environmental
For public transit systems, electricity for impacts they may cause.
infrastructure operation is a common high‐
impact component in transportation LCAs. The Assess impacts
component tends to show significant effects for The final stage of LCA is impact assessment, or
rail and bus rapid transit infrastructure. For rail the connection between energy use and
system, electricity required for train control, emissions and the human health and
station HVAC and lighting, and signaling can be environmental impacts they produce. For
significant. For bus rapid transit systems, transportation LCA practitioners there are several
electricity for signaling can be significant. impact categories that are of general concern:
Strategies that reduce electricity use for these material depletion (including primary energy
components, or rely on renewable electricity are consumption), climate change, human health,
likely to have benefits in the system’s life‐cycle and ecosystem quality. Material depletion
footprint. impacts quantify the use of finite resources,
whether that be materials used extensively in the
Energy production system or the primary energy forms to which the
Energy use for transportation systems is delivered system relies (for example, diesel fuel for a bus).
through a complex system with components that
also consume energy and generate emissions With the implementation of policies and an
when performing their task. Energy production is underlying societal concern for climate change,
a significant life‐cycle component and captures greenhouse gas emissions have become a major
the dynamic that it takes energy to produce and focus of many transportation agencies.
deliver energy. This is true for liquid fuels (e.g., Transportation agencies have also historically
gasoline or diesel), natural gas, electricity, or any made significant strides to reduce conventional
air pollutants, or those that cause human health
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Life‐Cycle Assessment for Transportation Decision‐making
and ecosystem damages. As resource constraints and emissions produced to an understanding of
and environmental concerns grow, agencies will outcomes. Impact assessment will also help
need to use impact assessment to move from illuminate the paths towards reducing multiple
inferences about quantities of energy consumed impact categories at once.
Recommended system boundary for assessment of LCA environmental indicators
Vehicle
Infrastructure
Energy Production
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Downstream effects of new Primary and secondary effects of
transportation systems transit availability
In a prospective LCA, a practitioner might use
ridership forecasts to estimate impacts per PMT. Transit Availability
While there is some uncertainty in ridership
forecasts, LCA practitioners can assess impacts
versus a range of PMT forecasts. An increase in
transit ridership is a primary effect of a new
transit facility.
Increase in
The availability of transit service also leads to Transit Use
secondary effects on land use patterns and travel
behavior, which are more difficult to forecast.
These secondary effects can lead to reductions in Densification
energy use and emissions beyond the primary
of Land Use
effects of mode‐shift.
One secondary effect of transit availability can be
to reduce automobile ownership rates among
households. When a household reduces the
number of vehicles it has available because of
transit, fewer vehicles are manufactured.
Primary Effects Secondary Effects
Another secondary effect is that residences near (from transit users) (from all residents
transit are often more compact, in that they have Mode-shift and visitors)
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the 6.9 million metric ton reduction in CO2 Implementation Guidance
emissions found in an earlier study from mode‐ Efforts to implement policies based on LCA
shift and congestion reduction resulting from results can face several challenges. The first is
transit availability7. Although the ratio of that the control an agency has varies over
secondary effects to primary effects will differ different sources of life‐cycle energy use and
based on local conditions, planners can consider emissions. The second is that existing policies
whether the secondary effects generated in may complicate or efforts to make decisions
response to a new transit route or fixed guideway based on LCA. The third is that not all emissions
facility will be high or low. will affect an agency equally, and LCA that places
equal weight on emissions regardless of location
Secondary effects will be higher in locations that
may not reflect local policy goals. A fourth
are dense or have few barriers to densification,
challenge is that collecting quality data can be
have complete pedestrian networks, desirable
administratively burdensome, and an agency will
destinations to capture some trips within station
likely face trade‐offs with data quality. A final
areas, and complementary policies that can lead
challenge is that there is no single point of the
to a reduction in automobiles per household, like
process to create a new transportation facility
car share. The density required to support a
where its full life‐cycle effects can be analyzed.
transit line will vary based on the line’s cost,
capacity, and proportion of potential users in the
Control over life‐cycle components
area surrounding each station.
The level of control an agency has over a specific
Secondary effects will be lower in areas that have source of emissions or energy use will dictate the
barriers to densification, weak pedestrian effort and timeline needed to affect those
connections to the transit station, and lack plans emissions. An agency which seeks to reduce the
to capture local trips within the station area life‐cycle energy and emissions impact of its
through a targeted mix of land use types. capital projects and operations should first focus
on factors over which it has the most control, or
over which it can influence in the near term.
Varied control over life‐cycle The control an agency has over a source of life‐
cycle energy use or emissions depends on its
components
service delivery model.
Little or
no Vehicle procurement
control A transit agency which directly operates service
has the greatest controls of its operations, and
Indirect
control can typically implement strategies to reduce
operational emissions and energy use more easily
Direct, than agencies which purchase transportation.
delayed
control For an agency that purchases transportation
services, control will depend on whether or not
the agency owns the vehicles. Agencies that
Direct,
immediate maintain autonomy in vehicle purchase and
control replacement decisions can incorporate an
assessment of the vehicle’s construction, delivery,
and operation phases into their selection process.
An agency which outsources service provision to
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an owner‐operator will likely have less immediate technologies. Thus, only a few manufacturers
control factors which influence energy use and make transit vehicles intended for sale in the
emissions. However, when entering into a new California market.
contract, an agency can specify terms and
conditions that will affect energy use and The California Environmental Quality Act
emissions. (CEQA) review process may also drive increases
in energy and emissions. The cause is not
Vehicles versus infrastructure inherent to CEQA, but has become codified in
Some decisions affecting transit energy use and many city & county planning review processes.
emissions are made once a decade or less
frequently. Vehicle purchase decisions are made Grade separation is a significant driver of fixed
regularly, but their consequences remain with the guideway construction expenses, energy, and
length of the contract and the life of the vehicles emissions. Grade separation may be preferable
purchased. Agencies make decisions regarding for a variety of reasons: to reduce aesthetic
infrastructure and heavy maintenance less impacts, or minimize right‐of‐way acquisition.
frequently. Grade separation can also be a mitigation
measure for cases where operation of a new
Transit agencies exercise indirect control over transit line will cause significant traffic impacts
supplied goods and service. An agency’s ability to under CEQA. Local governments determine the
affect change depends on the terms and length of methods used to measure traffic impacts and
their purchasing and service contracts. While an define their significance thresholds in their
agency can address life‐cycle emissions from general planning process. Where significant
short term contracts in the current planning traffic impacts will arise from the operation of
period, integrating LCA into the sourcing process new transit line, the agency must either
is one way to ensure that future long‐term implement the grade separation or issue a
contracts for vehicles, equipment, and services statement of overriding considerations.
consider upstream and downstream energy and
emissions. Then, LCA will be considered along Location of emissions
with other performance criteria when decision Because LCA tallies impacts from the
makers evaluate long‐term contracts for vehicles manufacturing and construction phases in
and services. addition to operations, the analysis considers
emissions both inside and outside of the region.
Policy considerations
Even when an agency has direct control, the This analysis is useful for greenhouse gas
range of actions it can take can be limited by emissions, where the location of the emission is
regulations and contractual obligations. Transit irrelevant to the long‐term impact the gasses will
agencies are accustomed to a bevy of regulations have on climate change.
and agreements which shape infrastructure
However, criteria pollution emissions have a
planning and construction, vehicle purchases,
more immediate, localized impact and are
service planning, and operations.
regulated by the Clean Air Act. A region that is
A legislative provision known as Buy America challenged to meet air quality standards will
restricts Federal Transit Administration capital likely place higher importance on criteria
funding to vehicles that have 60% of value emissions within the air basin than outside of it,
sourced from domestic sources. In California, the as these local emissions will impact the region’s
Air Resources Board Fleet Rule for Transit ability to conform with regulations. Regions
Agencies restricts tailpipe emissions and vehicle easily able to meet air quality standards may
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deem local criteria pollutant emissions more will affect life‐cycle energy use and emissions,
important than extra‐regional emissions because decisions made during corridor planning phase
the region will not bear the air quality and health will have the most significant impacts.
impacts. While out‐of‐basin criteria pollutant
emissions may be less significant to decision‐ Throughout each phase, an agency should assess
makers, calculating these impacts is still among project alternatives, rather than across
important as it allows insight into the potential projects. Each transportation project is different
environmental effects of shifting production and insufficient data exists to make normative
locally. comparisons between substantially different
projects8.
Data considerations
The result of system planning is often the Long
Many impact assessments are plagued by issues
Range Transportation Plan, which guides long‐
with data availability and quality. Imprecise data
term capital investment. In the plan, an agency
should not serve as a barrier to conducting LCA,
prioritizes future transit corridors by anticipated
but its use does require critical thinking about
future revenue for capital expenditures.
how possible errors will impact the assessment.
Information about future transit lines available at
In general the data needs to be good enough so
this stage is often short on specifics that would be
that high‐level decisions made based on the
required to generate a useful LCA for decision‐
analysis wouldn’t change if more precise data
makers. An agency may make decisions at this
were available.
stage for a broad understanding of how an
Data precision often comes at the expense of increase in transit service ability can affect life‐
lengthy and potentially costly analysis, and an cycle emissions and energy use versus an
agency may choose to forgo this additional alternative of continued or increased auto use.
analysis when first incorporating LCA into its
A transit agency will engage in corridor
planning process.
planning when it wishes to move forward with a
However, by analyzing current data gaps, the project identified in the Long Range
agency can develop procedures to collect precise Transportation Plan. During this phase, the
data that will facilitate future analyses. In future agency will consider specific right‐of‐ways and
requests for proposals, the agency can vehicle technology within a corridor. Each
incorporate manufacturing process disclosure combination of right‐of‐way and vehicle
requirements or consider requiring that suppliers technology can be analyzed, along with
perform a supply‐chain LCA assess embodied transportation system management and no‐build
energy and emissions in their vehicle creation alternatives, in a federally‐mandated Alternatives
and delivery process. Analysis report. Because of the breadth of scope,
but also specificity of analysis, the Alternatives
Incorporating LCA into existing Analysis phase is highly appropriate for LCA. At
processes this stage of the transit project development
process sufficient information is usually available
The recommended practice is to incorporate
to analyze substantially differing alternatives
components of LCA at each phase of existing
with an acceptable degree of precision, and the
processes. This allows planners and decision‐
results of that analysis can still have an impact on
makers to use the best information available
decision‐making. After an agency completes the
when comparing between project alternative to
Alternatives Analysis and selects a Locally
reduce a project’s life‐cycle energy use and
Preferred Alternative it can make fine‐tuned
emissions. While project decisions in all phases
adjustments that will affect project energy use
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and emissions, but it has already decided the significantly different life‐cycle energy use and
factors which will have the greatest impact on emissions impacts.
life‐cycle emissions and energy use: route, grade
separation, and vehicle technology. Additionally, the agency can analyze the
anticipated energy use and emissions from
different vehicle technologies. These figures
should be normalized by vehicle miles traveled
Incorporating LCA into existing and vehicle capacity in order to make valid
processes comparisons for vehicles of different sizes. While
the analysis will be more precise after the agency
System Planning has selected a manufacturer, during this phase it
Understanding how transit effects regional can make decisions based on efficiency variations
energy use and emissions versus autos inherent to a vehicle technology.
In preliminary engineering, planners and
Corridor Planning engineers consider macro and meso‐scale issues
Routing and grade that will impact the project and the surrounding
Vehicle technology areas. During this phase, a project team might
separation
discover the need to fortify or replace an existing
bridge to accommodate transit vehicles. It might
Preliminary Engineering also fine tune the estimates of grade separated
track that might be needed for the project.
Project‐level mitigations (EIR)
During preliminary engineering, planners
examine the environmental impacts of both the
construction and operation phases of the transit
Final Design
line. Planners will look at the potential criteria
Vehicle manufacturer Types of materials pollutant emissions from construction equipment
and vehicles, and propose that vehicles used on
the project meet current or future state and
Construction federal emissions guidelines. Such a proposal
would reduce life‐cycle emissions in the
Source of materials construction phase. These and other impacts and
mitigation measures are presented to decision‐
makers in an Environmental Impact Report or
Operation Environmental Impact Statement.
Energy procurement Issues identified during the final design phase
will have a small but significant impact on project
In preparation of cost estimates for the life‐cycle energy use and emissions. In this stage,
Alternatives Analysis, an agency will generate the agency may make a determination on vehicle
approximate information about miles of bridged, procurement. Even if the energy use needed to
above‐grade, at‐grade, trenched, cut‐and‐cover, forge steel and construct a vehicle is similar
or deep bore tunnel needed for the route. across manufacturers, local energy mix and
Alternatives with substantial variations in the emissions controls will dictate the resulting
amount of required grade separation will have criteria and greenhouse gas emissions. Emissions
and energy use required to transport a vehicle
14
between the initial construction location, final A transit agency can take immediate or near‐term
assembly location, and the project site will differ steps to address life‐cycle emissions by using
among manufacturers. clean electricity for infrastructure operation. For
liquid and natural gas fuels, an agency can look at
During the final design phase, project planners fuel production cycle emissions and consider
will also decide material types. Low energy biofuels with low energy production
asphalt mixes or low‐carbon cement are design requirements or a low anthropogenic content10.
options that can reduce project energy use and An agency can also take direct measures to
emissions. increase the efficiency of its vehicles and
operations.
During the construction phase a build
contractor will procure steel, asphalt, concrete, California is already pursuing policies that will
and other materials. Variations in the source of reduce the baseline greenhouse gas emissions
these materials, notably steel, will lead to associated with vehicle propulsion over time. The
different life‐cycle energy and emissions State’s Renewable Portfolio Standard will lead to
outcomes. the continued reduction of emissions per
megawatt hour used in vehicle operation, facility
When a new transit line moves to the operation
operations, and maintenance. The Low Carbon
phase, an agency can implement a low energy
Fuel Standard will increase the proportion of
and emissions operating plan that includes
renewable, biogenic carbon in the state’s
measure to procure electricity for traction power
transportation fuels. Further study is required to
with an emissions factor that is lower than the
determine of the net effects of these and other
U.S. EPA eGrid average or utility‐specific
policies means a relatively cleaner future for
emissions factor for the area9. For natural gas
electric traction or internal combustion engine
buses, the agency can source natural gas with
vehicles.
high biogenic content (e.g. landfill gas or
byproducts of wastewater treatment) or take In evaluating system performance, agencies
precautions to reduce fugitive methane emissions should be aware that increases in the vehicle
from tanks and during fueling. For diesel occupancy can reduce per‐PMT indicators. Thus,
vehicles, agencies can procure diesel fuel with an agency can reduce the normalized life‐cycle
high biogenic content (biodiesel). impacts of its infrastructure and operations by
increasing its service effectiveness. A
Conclusions and Recommendations combination of an increase in service
Rather than performing a full LCA of current and effectiveness and a reduction in energy use or
future infrastructure and operations, many emissions will accelerate an agency’s progress as
agencies will implement LCA incrementally measured through performance indicators.
through their planning processes and when
considering contracts. This incremental approach A transit agency that seeks to exceed these
can be effective as agencies consider LCA impacts statewide baselines must actively strive to reduce
as they are faced with decisions, for example cradle‐to‐grave energy use and emissions
when considering a contract to purchase new associated with its activities. The State can assist
vehicles or considering the routing and vehicle these agencies by leveraging economies of scale
technology of a new fixed guideway system. in LCA that would benefit several agencies. For
Additionally, the contracting process is example, the California Air Resources Board or
appropriate for addressing impacts as hot‐spots other state agency could perform a regular
tend to correlate with high non‐labor and capital assessment of life‐cycle emissions from transit
expenditures. vehicles available for purchase in California. A
15
local air quality management district might transportation decision‐making will depend on
perform an assessment of life‐cycle emissions for how deeply the practice is integrated within an
concrete and asphalt distributed locally. Local agency. While an agency can take incremental
agencies could then incorporate this information steps to introduce LCA on an ad‐hoc basis, a
into their decision‐making without devoting local transportation agency which seeks to lead the
resources to the analysis. This would make the field in reducing the life‐cycle impacts of its
process of incorporating LCA into California’s construction projects and operations will need to
transportation decision‐making more efficient. systematically introduce LCA into all aspects of
its planning and operations.
Ultimately the success of LCA in driving
This report is a publication of the UCLA Center for
Sustainable Urban Systems, and its funder, the
California Energy Commission’s Public Interest Energy
Research Program. Other reports on life‐cycle energy
impacts of transportation system changes include:
Chester, Mikhail V., Bill Eisenstein, Juan Matute, Stephanie Pincetl,
and Paul Bunje. 2012. “Life‐Cycle Assessment of Community Design
Changes: Energy and Environmental Assessment of the Los Angeles
Metro’s Orange and Gold Lines.” California Energy Commission,
Publication Number: CEC‐500‐2010‐XXXX.
Eisenstein, William, Connery Cepeda, Stephanie Pincetl, Mikhail
Chester, Juan Matute, and Paul Bunje. 2012. "Greener Miles: Policy
Options to Account for Life Cycle Energy and Emissions in Urban
Transportation Systems." California Energy Commission. Publication
number: CEC‐500‐2010‐XXX.
See http://www.transportationlca.com/ for more information.
1
SB 375, 2008, Senator Darrell Steinberg Transportation, Energy Conservation and
2
Executive Order S-01-07 Greenhouse Gas Reduction.” ICF International.
7
3
For an example, see Michalek, Jeremy, Mikhail ICF. 2007. “Public Transportation and Petroleum
Chester, Paulina Jaramillo, Constantine Samaras, Savings in the U.S.: Reducing Dependence on Oil.”
Ching-Shin Norman Shiau, and Lester B. Lave. 2011 American Public Transportation Association.
8
“Valuation of plug-in Vehicle life-cycle air emissions For more information, see The “Greener Miles”
and oil displacement benefits.” Proceedings of the report by William Eisenstein (see above call-out box)
9
National Academy of Sciences. See http://cfpub.epa.gov/egridweb/ for more
4
i.e., through the use of supplementary cementitious information
10
materials such as ground granulated blast furnace When combusted, the renewable, or biogenic,
slag or fly ash portion of biofuels produces emissions that do not add
5
Ewing, Reid, Keith Bartholomew, Steve Winkelman, new carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The
Jerry Walters, and Don Chen. 2008. Growing Cooler: anthropogenic portion of biofuels represents mass
The Evidence of Urban Development and Climate derived from fossil-fuel, or from energy used to
Change. 2008. process the biofuels.
6
Bailey, Linda, Patricia L. Mokhtarian, and Andrew
Little. 2008. “The Broader Connection between Public
16