Mission planning 13
Field observations 17
Data-processing parameters 24
General Guide to Static and Rapid-Static-2.0.0en 7 Overall planning for a GPS survey
Temporary reference stations for Rapid Static surveys
As observation time and accuracy In terms of productivity and accuracy,
are mainly a function of baseline it is much more advantageous to
length, it is highly recommended that measure short baselines (e.g. 5km)
baseline lengths should be kept to a from several temporary reference
minimum. stations rather than trying to measure
long baselines (e.g. 15 km) from one
Depending on the area and number central point.
of points to be surveyed by GPS, you
should consider establishing one or
more temporary reference stations.
Overall planning for a GPS survey 8 General Guide to Static and Rapid-Static-2.0.0en
Check the newly surveyed points
In all types of survey work it is sound Depending on the accuracy required, A partial check can be obtained by
practice to cross check using inde- the user should be prepared to check using two reference stations instead
pendent measurements. In classical newly surveyed points. This is of one. You will then have two fixes
survey you check for inaccurate or particularly important if observation for each point but each will be based
wrong control points, wrong times have been cut to a minimum on the same roving-receiver
instrument orientation, incorrect and recommendations regarding observations and set-up.
instrument and target heights, etc. GDOP ignored.
You close traverses and level loops,
you fix points twice, you measure
check distances! Depending on the For a completely independent check:
job and accuracy needed it is well
worthwhile applying the same Occupy a point a second time in a
principles to GPS surveying. different window. This ensures that
the set-up, the satellite constellat-
One should be particularly careful ion, and the atmospheric
with Rapid Static with short conditions are different.
observation times. If the observation
time is too short, or the satellite Close a traverse loop with a
geometry (GDOP) is poor, or the baseline from the last point to the
ionospheric disturbances are very starting point.
severe, it can happen that the post-
processing software will resolve Measure independent baselines
ambiguities but the results may between points in networks
exceed the quoted specifications.
General Guide to Static and Rapid-Static-2.0.0en 9 Overall planning for a GPS survey
Observation schedule -
Night versus day observations. Measuring long lines best times to observe
Generally speaking, the longer the For baselines up to about 20 km, one When you inspect the satellite
baseline the longer one has to will usually attempt to resolve the summary and GDOP plots, you will
observe. ambiguities using the Rapid Static usually see several good windows
algorithm in SKI-Pro post-processing (see page 14) distributed through a
The ionosphere is activated by solar software. 24 hour period. You should try to
radiation. Thus ionospheric work with Rapid Static during good
disturbance is much more severe by For baselines over 20 km, it is windows, and plan your schedule
day than by night. As a result, the usually not advisable to resolve carefully.
baseline range for night observations ambiguities. In this case a different
with Rapid Static can be roughly post-processing algorithm is used in It is impossible to plan GPS
double that of day observations. Or, SKI-Pro. This algorithm eliminates observations to the minute. Rather
put another way, observation times ionospheric influences to a large than trying to squeeze the maximum
for a baseline can often be halved at degree but destroys the integer number of points into a window by
night. nature of the ambiguities. cutting observation times to the bare
minimum, it is usually better to
At the present time ionospheric measure one point less and to
activity is increasing in an 11-year observe for a few minutes longer.
cycle. Particularly for high-accuracy work, it
pays to be conservative and not to
The table on page 16 provides a risk poor results.
guide to baseline lengths and
observation times under the current
ionospheric conditions.
Overall planning for a GPS survey 10 General Guide to Static and Rapid-Static-2.0.0en
Consider the transformation to local coordinates
System 500 and System 300 provide The common points should be
accurate relative positions of points spread evenly throughout the project
that are observed in a GPS network area. For a correct computation of all
and linked in post-processing. The transformation parameters (shifts,
coordinates are based on the WGS rotations, scale), at least three - but
84 datum. preferably four or more - points have
to be used.
For most projects it will be necessary
to transform the WGS 84 coordinates Read the Guidelines to Datum/Map in
obtained from GPS survey into local the SKI-Pro Documentation for
grid coordinates, i.e. into grid details on transformation using
coordinates on the local projection Datum/ Map.
based on the local ellipsoid.
General Guide to Static and Rapid-Static-2.0.0en 11 Overall planning for a GPS survey
Consider the transformation to local coordinates, continued
Overall Planning Temporary Reference Stations
Overall planning for a GPS survey 12 General Guide to Static and Rapid-Static-2.0.0en
Mission planning
GDOP - Geometric Dilution of Selecting good windows for
Precision successful GPS surveying
The GDOP value helps you to judge For successful, high-accuracy GPS Poor windows should only be used to
the geometry of the satellite surveying it is advisable to take the bridge between two or more good
constellation. A low GDOP indicates observations in good windows. windows when observing for long
good geometry. A high GDOP tells Provided that you know the latitude periods of time, e.g. at reference
you that the satellite constellation is and longitude to about 1°, the stations and for long lines.
poor. The better (lower) the GDOP satellite summary, GDOP, elevation,
the more likely it is that you will and sky-plot panels in the Survey If there are obstructions near a point,
achieve good results. Design component of SKI-Pro will use the sky plot to find out if the
help you to select good windows in signals from a satellite could be
Poor satellite geometry can be which to observe. blocked. This could cause the GDOP
compared with the "danger circle" in to deteriorate. Check the GDOP by
a classical resection. If the geometry You should take particular care when clicking the satellite "off" in the
is poor, the solution in post- selecting windows for Rapid Static Survey Design component. A careful
processing will be weak. observations. reconnaissance of such sites is well
worthwhile.
For Rapid Static you should observe A suitable observation window for
when the GDOP is less than or equal Rapid Static must have four or more
to 8. A GDOP of 5 or lower is ideal. satellites, with GDOP ≤ 8, above a
cut-off angle of 15° at both the
reference and roving receiver.
Whenever possible:
ü 5 or more satellites.
ü GDOP ≤ 5.
ü Satellites above 20°.
Always: Good window - GDOP low and stable Poor window - GDOP high
ü Use sky plot to check for obstructions. Avoid observing during this "spike"
General Guide to Static and Rapid-Static-2.0.0en 15 Observation times and baseline lengths
Observation times and baseline lengths, continued
Times and Baseline Lengths
Observation times and baseline lengths 16 General Guide to Static and Rapid-Static-2.0.0en
Field observations
Reference site
GPS surveying is a differential The results for all roving points will Note that the reference
technique with baselines being depend on the performance of the receiver does not have to be
"observed" and computed from the reference receiver! Thus the set up on a known point. It is
reference to the rover. As many reference receiver must operate far better to establish
baselines will often be measured reliably: temporary reference stations
from the same reference station, the at sites that fulfill the
• Power supply must be ensured.
choice and reliability of reference requirements listed above
Use a fully-charged battery.
stations are of particular importance. than to set up the reference
Consider connecting two batteries.
receiver on known points that
When possible, consider a
Sites for reference stations should be are not suitable for GPS
transformer connected to the
chosen for their suitability for GPS observations.
mains.
observations. A good site should
have the following characteristics: • Check that there is ample capacity For computing the transformation
left in the memory device for from WGS 84 to the local system,
• No obstructions above the 15° cut- storing all observations.
off angle. known points with local coordinates
• Double-check the antenna height have to be included in the GPS
• No reflecting surfaces that could and offset. network. These points do not have to
cause multipath. be used as reference stations. They
• Make sure that the mission can be measured with the roving
• Safe, away from traffic and parameters (observation type,
passers-by. Possible to leave the receiver.
recording rate etc.) are correctly
receiver unattended. set and match those of the roving
• No powerful transmitters (radio, receiver.
TV antennas, etc.) in the vicinity.
The computation of a baseline in If WGS 84 coordinates for one site When computing the Single Point
data processing requires that the are not known or cannot be derived, Position for the starting point of a
coordinates of one point (reference) the Single Point Position computation network, always compute for a site
are held fixed. The coordinates of the in SKI-Pro can be used. Remember, for which you have several hours of
other point (rover) are computed however, that Selective Availability observations. The resulting WGS 84
relative to the "fixed" point. (SA) may be switched on. The only coordinates should then be correct to
way to overcome SA is to observe for within about 10 meters.
In order to avoid that the results are sufficient time for the effects of SA to
influenced by systematic errors, the be averaged out in the Single Point The minimum observation for the
coordinates for the "fixed" point have Position computation. computation of a reliable Single Point
to be known to within about 20 Position is probably about 2 to 3
meters in the WGS 84 coordinate The reference receiver will usually hours with four or more satellites and
system. Whenever possible, the observe for several hours as the good GDOP. The longer the
WGS 84 coordinates for the "fixed" rover moves from point to point. In observation time, the better the
point should be known to within about such a case, the Single Point Positi- Single Point Position will be.
10 meters otherwise scale errors of on for the reference receiver
about 1 to 2 ppm will be introduced. computed in SKI-Pro should be
relatively free from the effects of SA.
This means that for any precise GPS If a Single Point Position is computed
survey the absolute coordinates of from only a few minutes of
one site in the network have to be observations, the effects of Selective
known in WGS 84 to about 10 Availability will not be averaged out.
meters. WGS 84 coordinates for one The result could be wrong by 100m
site will often be available or can be or more due to SA.
easily derived as explained on page
23.
The operator of the roving receiver The Stop and Go Indicator on the As the Stop and Go Indicator can
should also pay attention to certain sensor provides the roving-receiver only monitor the roving receiver it can
points. This is particularly important operator with an approximate guide only provide an estimate for the
for Rapid Static surveys with short to measuring times for Rapid Static required measuring time. It should be
measuring times. observations with four or more used only as a guide.
satellites and GDOP less than or
• Make sure that the configuration equal to 8. It estimates when
parameters (e.g. recording rate sufficient observations should have
etc.) are correctly set and match been taken for successful post-
those of the reference receiver. processing (ambiguity resolution) to
be possible.
• Check the antenna height and
offset.
At the present time estimates are
• Watch the GDOP when observing calculated for two baseline ranges,
for only a short time at a point. 0 to 5 km and 5 to 10 km. The
estimates are based approximately
• For 5 to 10mm + 1 ppm accuracy
on the current situation for GPS
with Rapid Static, only take
observations in mid latitudes and
measurements with GDOP ≤ 8.
assume that the reference and roving
receiver are tracking the same
satellites.
≤ 10 min > 10 min ≤ 10 min > 10 min Note that the rms threshold
applies only to baselines up
Up to 5 km < 10 mm < 10 mm < 10 mm < 10 mm to the limitation value (see page 26).
For baselines above the limitation
5 to 10 km < 15 mm < 25 mm < 10 mm < 15 mm value ambiguity resolution is not
attempted.
10 to 20 km < 15 mm < 40 mm < 10 mm < 15 mm
The advantage of this approach is A "Computed model" may be used For long lines above the limitation
that any ionospheric disturbance is instead of the standard model. This value (see page 26), the ionospheric
eliminated while fixed ambiguities are is computed using differences in the effects are eliminated by evaluating a
used; it is recommended to choose L1 and L2 signal as received on the linear combination of L1 and L2
this solution type for all baselines ground at the Sensor. measurements, the so-called L3
between 5 km and 20 km, in observable. Ambiguity resolution is
particular if daylight observations not attempted.
have been taken.
Baseline selection
Data-processing - Strategy for computation
pameters 30 General Guide to Static and Rapid-Static-2.0.0en
Baseline selection - Strategy for computation, continued
Data Import and Computation Consider the following carefully:
• How best to compute the network
Check and edit during data transfer:
• The need for good WGS 84 coordinates for one point
ü Point identification
• Connection to existing control
ü Height reading and antenna offset
• The need to transform to local coordinates
ü WGS 84 coordinates of initial point
• Computation of network of temporary reference
ü Back up raw data and project
stations
• Computation of new points from temporary reference
stations
• Long lines
• Short lines
• Data-processing parameters
• Number of satellites: there should The table on page 27 provides an If baselines of greatly differing
always be at least four. approximate guide to the rms values lengths have to be computed, it is
(float and fix) that can be expected. advisable to make two or more
• The rms float: this is the rms value computation runs. In this way you
before fixing ambiguities. If the rms threshold is lower than the can select and compute batches of
rms float or rms fix one can consider baselines which fall into the same
• The rms fix: this is the rms value manually increasing the rms category of processing parameter
after fixing ambiguities. The rms threshold value. However, as sets.
fix will usually be slightly higher explained on page 27, one should
than the rms float. exercise a certain amount of caution
when doing this for Rapid Static
observations with up to 10 minutes of
measurement time.
General Guide to Static and Rapid-Static-2.0.0en 35 Inspecting the logfile and comparing results
Baselines above the Compare the logfile against Compare the results for
limitation value the field sheets double fixes
For baselines above the limitation If the results are not as good as you If a point was observed twice in
value (system default = 20 km), SKI- would expect, it can be well different windows or two reference
Pro eliminates the ionospheric effects worthwhile comparing the information receivers were operating
but does not attempt to resolve in the logfile with that in the field simultaneously, you should compare
ambiguities. sheets. Check if the number of the resulting coordinates.
satellites used in the baseline
When inspecting the logfile check the computation is the same as that
following: noted in the field sheets. Remember
to check the reference station as well
• The number of satellites observed. as the rover. If the number of the
satellites is not the same, the GDOP
• The rms of unit weight
values could be higher than you
expected. Check the actual GDOP
The rms of unit weight should be less
for the satellites used in the
than about 20 mm for lines of about
computation using the Satellite
20 km to 50 km. For lines over 50 km
Availability component of SKI-Pro.
the rms of unit weight will usually be
higher due to the minor inaccuracies
in the broadcast ephemeris.
Inspecting the logfile and comparing results 36 General Guide to Static and Rapid-Static-2.0.0en
Storing the results
After inspecting the summary of It follows that you should exercise a
results and the logfile, store the certain amount of care when storing
results that meet your accuracy points that have been fixed in more
requirements. than one baseline computation.
Compare the results before storing.
The coordinates are averaged
(weighted mean) if more than one
solution for a point is stored. For
instance if you store the coordinates
for point A from one baseline solution
and then you compute and store the
coordinates for point A again from
another baseline solution, the stored
coordinates will be updated to the
weighted mean values from the two
solutions. The weighted mean is
taken provided the coordinates agree
in both height and position to within
the "Limits for Automatic Coordinate
Averaging" set in SKI-Pro (default =
0.075m).
• For lines up to 20 km, ambiguity resolution should be • Baselines above the limitation value
successful if high-accuracy results are to be obtained. (default = 20 km):
• For long lines over 20 km, the L3 solution without L3 solution, ambiguity resolution not attempted.
ambiguity resolution will normally be used. Results should meet specifications provided
• Baselines up to the limitation value sufficient observations are taken.
(default = 20 km): Long lines need long observation times.
Ambiguity resolution always attempted. • Inspect double fixes, independent baselines etc.
Ambiguities resolved (Ambiguity status = yes): • Store results that meet accuracy requirements.
SKI-Pro has found most probable solution. • Coordinates averaged if more than one result stored.
Results should normally meet specifications.
Ambiguities not resolved (Ambiguity status = no):
Float solution presented.
Result outside specifications, inspect logfile.
Consider increasing the rms threshold and
recomputing.
General Guide to Static and Rapid-Static-2.0.0en 39 Adjustment, Transformation and output of results
Notes on single-frequency static and rapid static measurements
6 When measuring with the SR510 Recommended (minimum) A Rapid Static observation can
(System 500) or SR9400 / SR261 observation times: usually be considered to be
7 (System 300) there are several successful when SKI-Pro can resolve
points that should be noted in order the ambiguities. Providing an
3 that the measurements are
Baseline-length Observation time
estimate of the required observation
successful and good results can be 1 km 15 min. time is more difficult for single
5
obtained. 2 km 15 min frequency receivers than for dual
7 frequency equipment as considerably
Only observation windows with a 3 km 15 min less information is available for the
2 minimum of 5 satellites above 15° 4 km 20 min post processing software. Never the
and a good GDOP (< 8) should be less, the above table should serve as
used. 5 km 25 min a guide.
3
6 km 30 min
4X The minimum observation time in By default, SKI-Pro will not attempt to
Static or Rapid Static should never 7 km 35 min resolve ambiguities if less than 9
0X be less than 15 minutes. 8 km 40 min minutes of (rapid) static, single-
frequency data is available. This is
2X As a rule of thumb the baseline 9 km 45 min done in order to avoid unreliable
observation time should be 5 minutes 10 km 50 min results. Once the ambiguities are
5X per kilometre of the baseline length resolved correctly the length of the
with a minimum time of 15 minutes. > 10 km > 60 min baseline will normally be accurate to
7X about 5 - 10 mm plus 2 ppm. These
default settings can be changed in
9X the Data Processing component of
SKI-Pro, but this is not
0 recommended.
Notes on single-frequency/rapid
Adjustment, Transformation and static measurements
output of results 40 General Guide to Static and Rapid-Static-2.0.0en
Notes on single-frequency static and rapid static measurements, continued
If the highest possible accuracy 6
should be achieved it is
recommended to orient the antennas 7
in a common direction.
13
On long baselines above 10 km the
15
accuracy which can be achieved with
single frequency Sensors is inferior 17
to that which can be achieved with
dual frequency Sensors due to 22
ionospheric effects which cannot be
eliminated with single frequency data. 23
Users who have previously worked
with dual frequency equipment 24X
should be aware of this fact.
30X
32X
35X
37X
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