(a)
(b)
Fig. 1. General structure of a pumped storage hydro-plant: (a) separate
tunnel-penstock configuration for short water tunnels, and (b) single-tunnel
multiple-penstock configuration for long water tunnels.
TABLE II
SUMMARY OF NOTATIONS
Symbol Meaning
Hc, Qc Dynamic head and flow at the junction of the tunnel and the
penstock(s)
Hd, Qd Dynamic head and flow established by pump-turbine unit(s)
Hs1 Static head developed from the upper reservoir water surface to
Fig. 4. Head and flow along a pipe. the tunnel-penstock junction
Hs2 Static head developed along the penstock(s) minus tailrace head of
Hs pump-turbine unit(s)
Hs Total available static head (static head from the upper reservoir to
Hd 1 Qd the pump-turbine inlet minus tailrace head), Hs = Hs1 + Hs2
∑ ∑
Z hp tanh( sTep ) Tet, Zht Elastic time and hydraulic impedance of the tunnel
Tep, Zhp Elastic time and hydraulic impedance of the penstock
H loss Z ht tanh( sTet )
Z hp sinh( sTep )
base flow and the base head for per unit conversion. The
Qd Qc
∑ selection of base values is discussed in section IV.
×
∑ cosh( sTep )
Hd B. Water Dynamics of Separate Tunnel-Penstock
H losst Qc 1/ Z hp sinh( sTep )
The elastic water dynamics for a separate tunnel-penstock
×
Fig. 5. Elastic water dynamics for a separate tunnel-penstock. configuration shown in Fig. 1(a) can be obtained by using (1).
Hs
∑ ∑ H d1 1 Qd 1
tanh( sTet ) ∑ ∑
Z hp tanh( sTep )
sinh( sTep ) ∑ e−2Tet s e
−2Tep s
H loss
Z ht tanh( sTet ) Qc
1 sinh( sTep ) Qd 1
∑ Z hp sinh( sTep )
×
∑
tanh( sTep )
−2Tep s
∑
e Qd 1
∑ cosh( sTep )
−2Tep s cosh( sTep ) H d1
∑ e ∑ 1/ Z hp sinh( sTep )
H losst Qc
∑
×
−2Tep s
e
Qdm
Fig. 6. Block diagrams of hyperbolic transfer functions. ∑ cosh( sTep )
H dm
Hs 1 / Z hp sinh( sTep )
Hd 1 Qd
∑ (Twp + Twt ) s Fig. 8. Elastic water dynamics for a single-tunnel multiple-penstock system.
H loss Hs
1 Qd 1
×
H d1
∑ ∑
Twp s
Fig. 7. Rigid water dynamics for a separate tunnel-penstock.
H loss
Define Twt = ZhtTet and Twp = ZhpTep. Twt and Twp are then the Qd 1 Twt Twp
∑
×
water starting time of the tunnel and the penstock respectively.
Equation (9) can be further simplified to Qd 1
H losst Qc
∑
×
1
Qd = (H s − H d ) . (10) Qdm
(Twp + Twt ) s
Fig. 9. Rigid water dynamics for a single-tunnel multiple-penstock system.
Equation (10) represents the rigid water dynamics for a When the reversible pump-turbine unit runs in the turbine
separate tunnel-penstock, and its block diagram with additional mode, it is equivalent to a regular hydro-turbine. The
frictional head loss is shown in Fig. 7. relationship between the turbine head, the turbine flow and the
C. Water Dynamics of Single-Tunnel Multiple-Penstock gate opening in per unit values is given by [11]-[14]
For the single-tunnel multiple-penstock configuration shown
Qd 2 (13)
in Fig. 1(b), assume that there are m identical penstocks in total. Hd = ( )
The elastic dynamic equations for each penstock in this G
configuration are the same as those for a separate where the bar above each symbol denotes per unit (pu) value.
tunnel-penstock configuration except for the calculation of the The per unit output power is given by
flow in the common tunnel, Qc. In this case, Qc is simply the
sum of the effects of each penstock: Pm = H d (Qd − Qnl ) (14)
m
1
Qc = ∑ Qdi cosh( sTep ) + H di sinh( sTep ) . (11) where Qnl is the per unit no load flow. The block diagram of a
i =1 Z hp
reversible pump-turbine unit in the turbine mode is shown in
th
For the i penstock, from (8), Fig. 10, where G comes from the speed governor output, and
Pr is a constant for per unit value conversion from the
1 Z tanh( sTet ) . (12)
Qdi = ( H s − H di ) − ht Qc pump-turbine base to the synchronous machine base:
Z hp tanh( sTep ) Z hp sinh( sTep )
Turbine MW Rating . (15)
Based on (11) and (12), Fig. 8 shows the block diagram of the Pr =
Generator MVA Rating
elastic water dynamics for a single-tunnel multiple-penstock
configuration with additional frictional head loss. There are two types of losses in the system shown in Fig.10.
With similar approaches, if the elastic times are close to zero, One is the frictional head loss in the water dynamics, and the
the model for a single-tunnel multiple-penstock configuration other is the no load flow loss. The base power for the
can be simplified to its rigid form, as shown in Fig. 9. pump-turbine unit is its MW rating. The base head, Hbase, is
commonly selected as the rated total available static head, i.e.,
IV. REVERSIBLE PUMP-TURBINE DYNAMICS H s = 1 . The base gate, Gbase, in this paper is defined as the gate
A. Pump-Turbine Dynamics in Turbine Mode opening at lossless rated operating condition. In other words,
when the lossless turbine develops 1 pu dynamic head and
5
Hd
Hd
×
ω Qd Pm Pm , gen _ base
Qd Hd
Fig. 11. Pump head-flow curve and tunnel-penstock system curve with
G fg
throttling effect of gate closing. Qd (Gmax − G ) / G
outputs 1 pu mechanical power, the flow is at 1 pu and the Fig. 13. Block diagram of a pump-turbine unit in pumping mode with gate
corresponding gate opening is 1 pu. Note that at rated condition, frictional effects.
the gate should be at around the best efficiency position, but
typically not fully opened. Thus the maximum gate opening is as part of the penstock frictional head loss, which is similar to
greater than 1 pu given the Gbase defined in this paper. the throttling effects for a conventional centrifugal pump [15].
Some authors have selected the base gate as the fully opened The system equilibrium operating point in the pumping
gate position [11], [13]. In that case, for both (13) and (14) to mode is determined by the intersection of the pump head-flow
hold, a conversion is necessary either at the input to the system curve and the tunnel-penstock system curve [18], as shown in
[13] or before the output of the system [11]. Fig. 11. The system curve represents the total head (static head
and frictional head) against which water is to be pumped. As
B. Pump-Turbine Dynamics in Pumping Mode the wicket gates close, the frictional head rises. It then changes
1) Pump head-flow characteristics the tunnel-penstock system curve and moves the equilibrium
When the pumped storage system is running in the pumping operating point by changing the total penstock equivalent
mode, the pump responses are governed by its head-flow friction, as illustrated in Fig. 11. In the pumping mode, the
characteristic curve at the rated operating speed [15]-[17]. The penstock frictional coefficient, fp, in Fig. 5 and Figs. 7-9 is
head-flow curve maps the pump flow at the rated operating replaced by an equivalent frictional coefficient, fe:
speed to the dynamic head developed by the pump. To
incorporate speed variations during transient conditions, the fe = f p + f g (18)
pump affinity laws need to be used [15], [16], f g = (Gmax − G ) / G (19)
Q1 ω1 H1 ω P ω where fg represents the additional friction caused by the wicket
= , = ( 1 ) 2 , 1 = ( 1 )3 . (16)
Q2 ω2 H 2 ω2 P2 ω2 gates, and Gmax is the maximum gate opening in per unit.
where subscripts 1 and 2 denotes operating points under two Equation (19) gives no additional friction when the gate is fully
different speeds. The resulting pump head-flow curve with opened and infinite friction when the gate is almost closed. Fig.
speed variations could be approximated by a quadratic 12 shows the pump head-flow curve and a set of system curves
polynomial [17], by using (19) with different gate openings.
The block diagram of a reversible pump-turbine unit in the
H d = a0ω 2 + a1ω | Qd | + a2Qd 2 . (17) pumping mode is shown in Fig. 13. ηp is the pumping efficiency,
which is around 90% at the rated operating point. The pumping
where a0, a1, and a2 are coefficients for curve fitting. efficiency could be modeled as a quadratic curve depending on
2) Throttling effect of wicket gates in pumping mode the pump flow [15], but for simplicity and without loss of
During normal pumping operations, the wicket gate position generality, it is treated as a constant of 0.9 in this paper.
is not adjusted by closed-loop controls, but fixed at the
maximum efficiency point. Due to this reason, some papers do V. SPEED GOVERNOR AND EXCITATION SYSTEM DYNAMICS
not model the gate position in the pumping mode as it is
For reliability reasons, most hydro plants are still using
unlikely to be changed during grid transients [8], [9]. However,
flyball speed governors [13]. The dynamic model of this flyball
studies on pump starting or shutting down and system
speed governor with hydraulic gate servos is shown in Fig. 14.
long-term dynamics will require modeling the effects of gate
The transient gain, Rt, after the power reference signal, Pmref, is
changes. It is proposed in this paper to model the gating effects
6
Pmref sTR
R p + Rt
1 + sTR Rmax + Gmax
Speed Ref. Kp 1 1 G
∑ ∑ 1 + sTG
1 + sTp s
Rmax − Gmin
Rotor Speed,ω
∑ Rp
Fig. 16. One-line diagram of the simulation system.
sTR
Rt
1 + sTR
the quantities of generator 1 are plotted because of the identical
Fig. 14. Hydraulic speed governor dynamic model.
responses between the two generators.
Vref During the pumping mode, synchronous machine 1 is in
EF max normal pumping operation, and synchronous machine 2 is
Vt 1 KA EF
∑ ∑ originally online and rotating in pumping direction with no
1 + sTV 1 + sTA
EF min
load. The wicket gates of the machine 2 are opened at 35 s to
KF
sTF load this second unit. The synchronous machine and the
1 + sTF hydraulic system responses in this case are shown in Fig. 18.
Fig. 15. Excitation system dynamic model. During both generating and pumping operations, when a
large power excursion occurs, the turbine head and flow
to ensure fast ramping of the gate position in case that a large oscillate due to water elasticity. This then causes oscillations in
excursion of turbine output power is necessary, e.g., during the mechanical torque. When using the rigid model, these
islanding situations. mechanical torque oscillations are not modeled. The
IEEE Standard 421.5-1992 offers 12 standardized dynamic mechanical torque differences between these two models result
models for various types of excitation systems [19]. In this in slightly different speed responses for the synchronous
paper, a simplified voltage regulation and excitation system machines in the last figure of Figs. 17 and 18.
model is used, as shown in Fig. 15. B. System Transient Dynamics
Both synchronous machines are in normal operations (both
VI. SIMULATION STUDIES in generating or both in pumping) when a three phase fault
The system in Fig. 16 is simulated in the PSCADC occurs somewhere along line 1. The fault is cleared after 0.15 s
environment. Two 250 MW, 22 kV synchronous machines in a with line 1 back to service. Both units have the same responses
pumped storage hydro-plant are assumed connected to the in this case during either generating or pumping operations.
power system. The two synchronous machines have identical Fig. 19 shows the responses of unit 1 during the generating
parameters and controllers, and they are hydraulically coupled mode, and Fig. 20 shows its responses during the pumping
with each other by a common water tunnel (as in Fig. 1(b)). mode.
The parameters for the synchronous machines, the reversible Due to the slow dynamics of the gate control, the
pump-turbine system responds to transient disturbances with
pump-turbine units and the water tunnel-penstock systems are
only small deviations in the head and flow (Figs. 19 and 20),
all listed in the appendix. From (2), the common tunnel in this
resulting in small deviations in the mechanical torque. For the
study is around 2.8 km long and the penstocks are around 700 elastic case, these small head and flow deviations travel back
m long. Because the elastic times of both the tunnel and the and forth along the tunnel and the penstocks for a few times
penstocks are not close to zero, based on the analysis in section before settling down. However, compared to the large
III, the water elasticity effects are not generally negligible. oscillations in the electrical torque caused by grid faults, these
In order to study the conditions under which the water small mechanical torque deviations are negligible for either the
elasticity becomes negligible, different system operating rigid or the elastic model. The water elasticity effects thus have
conditions are simulated below with both the fully elastic negligible effects on the synchronous machine speed
model (Fig. 8, elastic water in tunnel and penstocks) and the oscillations in this case.
fully rigid model (Fig. 9, rigid water in tunnel and penstocks).
VII. CONCLUSION
A. System Long-Term Dynamics
This paper revisits the dynamic models for pumped storage
During the generating mode, each generator is originally set
to output 200 MW, which results in about 340 MW exported to hydro-plants with different water pipe configurations. During
the infinite bus in Fig. 16. A three phase to ground fault occurs generating operations, the system is modeled as conventional
somewhere along line 1 at 35 s, and causes the breakers (BLK1 hydro-turbines. During pumping operations, the system is
and BLK2) to trip the line permanently at 35.2 s. The pumped modeled by using the pump head-flow curve, and the gating
storage plant then receives a command to drop its total output effects are introduced as an additional friction to the system.
power to supply its local load only, i.e., 60 MW in total and 30 Particular attention is paid to the dynamics of an elastic water
MW for each generator. This islanding contingency causes the model for the case of a common water tunnel connected to
wicket gates of each generator to close rapidly. The responses multiple penstocks. Different plant operating conditions with
of the pumped storage system are shown in Fig. 17, where only different system contingencies are considered. The results
7
2.25
1.4 Hd2_rigid and Hd2_elastic
Gate and Head in Per Unit
2.0 0.0
1.8 Q d2_rigid
-0.2
1.6 Qd2_elastic
-0.4
1.4
1.2 Qd1_rigid
-0.6
1.0 Qc_elastic -0.8
0.8 Q d1_elastic
Qc_rigid Qd_elastic
0.6 -1.0
0.4 Qc_elastic
-1.2
0.2
0.0 Q d_rigid -1.4 Q c_rigid
-0.2 -1.6
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time (s) Time (s)
0.9
0 .0
0.8 Tm_rigid 1
0.7 -0.
2
Torque in Per Unit
-0.
Torque in Per Unit
0.6 Tm_elastic
. 3 Tm2_elastic
0.5 -0 Tm2_rigid
4
0.4 -0.
0.3 Te_elastic . 5
Te_rigid -0
0.2 6
-0. Tm1_elastic
0.1 7
-0.
0.0 Tm_elastic 8 Tm1_rigid
-0.
-0.1 . 9
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 0
- 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time (s) Time (s)
1.8
Speed and Power in Per Unit
02
1.6
1.
1.4 ω_elastic
Speed in Per Unit
1.2
Pm_rigid
00
1.0
00
1.
0.8 Pm_elastic
0.6 ω2_elastic
Ps_rigid Ps_elastic
98
0.4 ω2_rigid
99
0.2
0.
0.0
96
Fig. 17. Simulated responses of the pumped storage unit 1 in generating mode Fig. 18. Simulated responses of the pumped storage system in pumping mode
during islanding. during start-up of unit 2.
show that water elasticity effects are negligible for transient Gmax 1.2 pu TR 20 s KF 0.02
studies with temporary disturbances, but may be necessary for Gmin 0.075 pu TG 0.5 s TF 1s
long-term dynamic studies and hydraulic system studies. Pump-turbine, common tunnel and penstock system
parameters:
APPENDIX Prated 225 MW Twp 1s a0 (H-Q) 1.4 Zht = Twt / Tet 1.5 pu
Hs 1 pu Tep 0.5 s a1 (H-Q) -0.2 Zhp = Twp / Tep 2 pu
Synchronous machine parameters: Twt 3s ft 0.01 a2 (H-Q) -0.3
Srated 250 MVA Xl 0.163 pu Tdo’ 6.55 s Tqo’ 0.85 s
Tet 2s fp 0.01
Vrated 22 kV Xd 1.814 pu Tdo” 0.05 s Tqo” 0.035 s
H 3.117 s Xd ’ 0.314 pu Xq 1.677 pu
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[10] R. Stelzer and R. Walters, “Estimating Reversible Pump-Turbine 1965, and the Ph.D. degree from London University, London, U.K., in 1969.
Characteristics,” US Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 1977. He is currently the Duke Power Company Distinguished Professor with the
[Online] http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/pubs/EM/EM39.pdf School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of
[11] “Hydraulic Turbine and Turbine Control Models for System Dynamic Technology, Atlanta. He has coauthored around 400 papers in refereed journals
Studies,” Working Group on Prime Mover and Energy Supply Models for and international conference proceedings and holds three patents. His research
System Dynamic Performance Studies, IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. interests include the dynamic behavior and condition monitoring of electric
7, no. 1, Feb. 1992. machines, motor drives, power systems and their components, and controlling
[12] E. De Jaeger, N. Janssens, B. Malfliet, F. Van De Meulebroeke, “Hydro them by the use of power electronics and intelligent control algorithms.
Turbine Model for System Dynamic Studies,” IEEE Trans. Power Dr. Harley is the recipient of the Cyril Veinott Electromechanical Energy
Systems, vol. 9, no. 4, Nov. 1994. Conversion Award in 2005 from the IEEE Power Engineering Society and the
Richard Harold Kaufmann IEEE Technical Field Award in 2009.