distance called 

. (Delta is the little triangle on the slide and is the Greek letter
"d". Mathematicians often use this symbol to denote a change or variation of a
quantity. The web print font does not support the Greek letters, so we will just call it
"del".) A change with distance is referred to as a 
 to avoid confusion with a
change with time which is called a . The velocity gradient is indicated by   
 ; the change in velocity per change in distance. So at station 2, the velocity is
given by the velocity at 1 plus the gradient times the distance.
u2 = u1 + (del u / del x) * del x
A similar expression gives the pressure at the exit:
p2 = p1 + (del p / del x) * del x
Newton's second law of motion states that force  is equal to the change in
momentum with respect to time. For an object with constant mass  this reduces to
the mass times acceleration . An acceleration is a change in velocity with a change
in time     . Then:
F = m * a = m * (del u / del t)
The force in this problem comes from the pressure gradient. Since pressure is a
force per unit area, the net force on our fluid domain is the pressure times the area
at the exit minus the pressure times the area at the entrance.
F = - [(p * A)2 - (p * A)1] = m * [(u2 - u1) / del t]
The minus sign at the beginning of this expression is used because gases move
c from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure; if the pressure increases
The 


 
 is a fundamental concept of physics along with with x, the velocity will decrease. Substituting for our expressions for velocity and
the conservation of energy and theconservation of mass. Momentum is defined to be pressure:
the mass of an object multiplied by the velocity of the object. The conservation of - [{(p + (del p / del x) * del x} * A) - (p * A)] = m * [(u + (del u / del x) * del x - u) / del t]
momentum states that, within some problem domain, the amount of momentum Simplify:
remains constant; momentum is neither created nor destroyed, but only changed - (del p / del x) * del x * A = m * (del u / del x) * del x / del t
through the action of
 as described by Newton's laws of motion. Dealing with Noting that (del x / del t) is the velocity and that the mass is the density  times the
momentum is more difficult than dealing with mass and energy because momentum volume (area times del x):
is a vector quantity having both a magnitude and a direction. Momentum is - (del p / del x) * del x * A = r * del x * A * (del u / del x) * u
conserved in all three physical directions at the same time. It is even more difficult Simplify:
when dealing with a gas because forces in one direction can affect the momentum in - (del p / del x) = r * u * (del u / del x)
another direction because of the collisions of many molecules. On this slide, we will
present a very, very simplified flow problem where properties only change in one
direction. The problem is further simplified by considering a steady flow which does
not change with time and by limiting the forces to only those associated with
the pressure.
   
The      and      represent the pressure and velocity gradients. If
we shrink our domain down to differential sizes, these gradients become
differentials:
- dp/dx = r * u * du/dx
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This is a one dimensional, steady form of Euler's Equation. It is interesting to note
   that the pressure drop of a fluid (the term on the left) is proportional to both the value
Let us consider the flow of a gas through a domain in which flow properties only of the velocity and the gradient of the velocity. A solution of this momentum equation
change in one direction, which we will call "x". The gas enters the domain at station 1 gives us the form of the dynamic pressure that appears in Bernoulli's Equation.
with some velocity  and some pressure  and exits at station 2 with a different 


 

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some cases, the time is long; in other cases the time is short. Regardless
of how long the time is, it can be said that the time that the force acts
upon object 1 is equal to the time that the force acts upon object 2. This
is merely logical. Forces result from interactions (or contact0 between two
objects. If object 1 contacts object 2 for 0.050 seconds, then object 2
must be contacting object 1 for the same amount of time (0.050
seconds0. As an equation, this can be stated as
Since the forces between the two objects are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction, and since the times for which these forces act are
equal in magnitude, it follows that the impulses experienced by the two
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objects are also equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. As an
equation, this can be stated as
But the impulse experienced by an object is equal to the change in
momentum of that object (the impulse-momentum change theorem0.
Thus, since each object experiences equal and opposite impulses, it
follows logically that they must also experience equal and opposite
momentum changes. As an equation, this can be stated as
The above equation is one
statement of the law of momentum
conservation. In a collision, the
momentum change of object 1 is
equal to and opposite of the momentum change of object 2. That is, the
momentum lost by object 1 is equal to the momentum gained by object
2. In most collisions between two objects, one object slows down and
loses momentum while the other object speeds up and gains momentum.
If object 1 loses 75 units of momentum, then object 2 gains 75 units of
momentum. Yet, the total momentum of the two objects (object 1 plus
object 20 is the same before the collision as it is after the collision. The
total momentum of

conserved.
A useful analogy for understanding momentum conservation involves a
money transaction between two people. Let's refer to the two people as
Jack and Jill. Suppose that we were to check the pockets of Jack and Jill
before and after the money transaction in order to determine the amount
of money that each possesses. Prior to the transaction, Jack possesses
$100 and Jill possesses $100. The total amount of money of the two
people before the transaction is $200. During the transaction, Jack pays
Jill $50 for the given item being bought. There is a transfer of $50 from
Jack's pocket to Jill's pocket. Jack has lost $50 and Jill has gained $50.
The money lost by Jack is equal to the money gained by Jill. After the
transaction, Jack now has $50 in his pocket and Jill has $150 in her
pocket. Yet, the total amount of money of the two people after the
transaction is $200. The total amount of money (Jack's money plus Jill's
money0 before the transaction is equal to the total amount of money after
the transaction. It could be said that the total amount of money of


Æ Æ
 (the collection of two people0 is conserved. It is the same before
The dropped brick is at rest and begins with zero momentum. The loaded
as it is after the transaction.
cart (a cart with a brick on it0 is in motion with considerable momentum.
A useful means of depicting the transfer and the conservation of money
The actual momentum of the loaded cart can be determined using the
between Jack and Jill is by means of a table.
velocity (often determined by a ticker tape analysis0 and the mass. The
total amount of momentum is the sum of the dropped brick's momentum
(0 units0 and the loaded cart's momentum. After the collision, the
momenta of the two separate objects (dropped brick and loaded cart0 can

The table shows the amount of money possessed by the two individuals be determined from their measured mass and their velocity (often found

before and after the interaction. It also shows the total amount of money from a ticker tape analysis0. If momentum is conserved during the

before and after the interaction. Note that the total amount of money collision, then the sum of the dropped brick's and loaded cart's

($2000 is the same before and after the interaction - it is conserved. momentum after the collision should be the same as before the collision.

Finally, the table shows the change in the amount of money possessed by The momentum lost by the loaded cart should equal (or approximately

the two individuals. Note that the change in Jack's money account (-$500 equal0 the momentum gained by the dropped brick. Momentum data for

is equal to and opposite of the change in Jill's money account (+$500. the interaction between the dropped brick and the loaded cart could be
depicted in a table similar to the money table above.
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motion. Note that the loaded cart lost 14 units of momentum and the dropped
brick gained 14 units of momentum. Note also that the total momentum
of the system (45 units0 was the same before the collision as it was after Now suppose that a medicine ball is thrown to a clown who is at rest
the collision. upon the ice; the clown catches the medicine ball and glides together with
Collisions commonly occur in contact sports (such as football0 and racket the ball across the ice. The momentum of the medicine ball is 80 kg*m/s
and bat sports (such as baseball, golf, tennis, etc.0. Consider a collision in before the collision. The momentum of the clown is 0 m/s before the
football between a fullback and a linebacker during a ñ  Æ
 . The collision. The total momentum of the system before the collision is 80
fullback plunges across the goal line and collides in midair with the kg*m/s. Therefore, the total momentum of the system after the collision
linebacker. The linebacker and fullback hold each other and travel must also be 80 kg*m/s. The clown and the medicine ball move together
together after the collision. The fullback possesses a momentum of 100 as a single unit after the collision with a combined momentum of 80
kg*m/s, East before the collision and the linebacker possesses a kg*m/s. Momentum is conserved in the collision.
momentum of 120 kg*m/s, West before the collision. The total
momentum of the system before the collision is 20 kg*m/s, West (review
the section on adding vectors if necessary0. Therefore, the total
momentum of the system after the collision must also be 20 kg*m/s,
Momentum is conserved for any interaction between two objects
West. The fullback and the linebacker move together as a single unit after
occurring in an isolated system. This conservation of momentum can be
the collision with a combined momentum of 20 kg*m/s. Momentum is
observed by a total system momentum analysis or by a momentum
conserved in the collision. A vector diagram can be used to represent this
change analysis. Useful means of representing such analyses include a
principle of momentum conservation; such a diagram uses an arrow to
momentum table and a vector diagram. Later in Lesson 2, we will use the
represent the magnitude and direction of the momentum vector for the
momentum conservation principle to solve problems in which the after-
individual objects before the collision and the combined momentum after
collision velocity of objects is predicted.
the collision.
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on a body there will be an equal and opposite reaction. Action and reaction

forces result in change in velocities of both the bodies which in turn change Ú

the momenta of these bodies. Ú

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Ú (2)

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Ú Therefore, force exerted on B = m2a2 stating that the quantity is a constant. This sum is called the total
momentum of a system, and in general it is the sum of all individuals
Ú momenta of each particle in the system.
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Ú According to Newton's third law of motion, these two forces
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Ú i.e., total momentum before collision is equal to the total momentum after Ú where  is the Maxwell stress tensor, is the force density, ^ is
collision, which is nothing but law of conservation of momentum. the Poynting vector,  is the speed of light, and is the momentum
Ú Conservation of momentum is a fundamental law of physics which states that density.
the momentum of a system is constant if there are no external forcesacting [
 
 


on the system. It is embodied in Newton's first law (the law of inertia).
Ú Suppose we have two interacting particles 1 and 2, possibly of different
masses. The forces between them are equal and opposite. According
toNewton's second law, force is the time rate of change of the momentum, so
we conclude that the rate of change of momentum of particle 1 is equal to
minus the rate of change of momentum of a particle 2,
(1)
Ú Now, if the rate of change is always equal and opposite, it follows that the
total change in the momentum of particle 1 is equal and opposite of the total
Imagine a sailboat that can't get where it's going because there is no wind. Now if
the captain sets up a huge fan on the boat to blow wind into the sails, would the
sailboat move? A large enough fan that is not on the boat could blow the boat, but if
the fan were on the boat the boat would not go anywhere. The fan and boat
constitute a closed system, so the total momentum can not change. It stays zero.
The recoil from a gun and rocket propulsion are also examples of conservation of
momentum. The initial momentum is zero. The bullet or rocket fuel have momentum
in one direction. To keep the total momentum zero, the rocket and gun have the
same momentum in the opposite direction.
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