ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Outline of Lecture: Module 2

V.INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
A. Functions of the Integumentary System
B. Hypodermis
C. Skin
D. Accessory Skin Structures
E. Physiology of the Integumentary System

VI. SKELETAL SYSTEM: Bones and joints

A. Functions of the skeletal system
B. Connective tissue
C. General Features of the Bone
D. Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
E. General Considerations of Bone Anatomy
F. Axial Skeleton
G. Appendicular Skeleton
H. Articulations

VII.MUSCULAR SYSTEM
A. Functions of the Muscular System
B. Characteristics of the Skeletal Muscle
C. Smooth Muscle and Cardiac Muscle
D. Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
V. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
 Consists of the skin, hair, glands, and nails
A. Functions of the Integumentary System
-Protection
 Against abrasion and UV light
 Prevents entry of microorganisms
 Prevents dehydration
-Sensation
 Sensory receptors that can detect heat, cold,
touch, pressure, and pain
 Temperature regulation by controlling
 Blood flow through the skin
 Sweat gland activity
-Vitamin D production
-Excretion of small amounts of waste products
B. Hypodermis
Subcutaneous Tissue
 Deep to the skin- connects skin to underlying
muscle or bone
 Composed of adipose and areolar connective
tissue
 Not really part of the skin
 Mostly adipose tissue
 Stores fat and connects the skin to the
underlying structures (mainly muscles)
 Shock absorber and insulator
 Increases greatly as you gain weigh
C. Skin
Consists of three major regions
- Epidermis: outermost region (superficial)
 Resists abrasion
 Reduces water loss
- Dermis: middle region (bulk of skin)
 Responsible for most of the structural
strength of the skin
 Leather is produced from the dermis of
animals
- Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis): deepest
region
 Not really part of the skin
 Connects the skin to underlying muscle or
bone
 Epidermis
 Composed of keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium, consisting of four distinct cell types
and four or five layers
 Cell types include keratinocytes, melanocytes,
Merkel cells, and Langerhans’ cells
 Outer portion of the skin is exposed to the
external environment and functions in
protection
Cells
 Keratinocytes
– Most abundant cell type
– Produce the fibrous protein keratin
– Gives skin its protective properties
 Melanocytes
– Produce the brown pigment melanin
 – Found in the deepest layers of the  Stratum Corneum
epidermis – Outermost layer of keratinized cells
 Langerhans’ cells – Accounts for three quarters of the
– Epidermal macrophages epidermal thickness
– Help activate the immune system – 20-30 cell layers thick, all dead.
 Merkel cells – Millions rub off everyday. Totally new
– Touch receptors in association with every 25-45 days.
sensory nerve endings – Functions include:
Layers • Waterproofing
 Stratum Basale (Basal Layer) • Protection from abrasion and
– Deepest epidermal layer firmly penetration
attached to the dermis • Rendering the body relatively
• Structural strength is provided insensitive to biological,
by desmosomes and chemical, and physical assaults
hemidesmosomes *Thick and Thin Skin
– Consists of a single row of the youngest  Thick skin has all five epithelial strata
keratinocytes  Thin skin contains fewer cell layers per stratum
– Cells undergo mitotic divisions ~every – Stratum lucidum is usually absent
19 days – Hair is found only in thin skin
– 10-25% are melanocytes
 Stratum Spinosum  Dermis
– Melanin granules and Langerhans’ cells
are abundant in this layer  Second major skin region containing strong,
• Melanin is taken up by the flexible connective tissue
keratinocytes and accumulates  Cell types include fibroblasts, a few adipose
on the “sunny side” to protect cells and macrophages
the nucleus from UV damage  Composed of two layers: papillary and
 Stratum Granulosum reticular
– Drastic changes in keratinocyte Layers
appearance occurs  Papillary layer
– Keratohyaline and lamellated bodies – Areolar connective tissue with collagen
(waterproofing) accumulate in the cells and elastic fibers
of this layer – Its superior surface contains peg-like
– Above this layer the epithelial cells die projections called dermal papillae
because they are too far from the • Genetically determined
dermis • Responsible for fingerprints and
 Stratum Lucidum footprints (films of sweat)
– Thin, transparent band superficial to – Contains blood vessels that supply the
the Stratum Granulosum overlying epidermis
– Consists of a few rows of flat, dead • With nutrients
keratinocytes • Remove waste products
– Present only in thick skin • Aid in regulating body
temperature
 Reticular layer
– Dense irregular connective tissue
– Accounts for approximately 80% of the
thickness of the skin
– Collagen fibers in this layer add
strength and resiliency to the skin
– Elastin fibers provide stretch-recoil
properties
– Striae (stretch marks) are caused when
skin is overstretched, the dermis
ruptures and leaves visible lines on
epidermis
– Elastin and collagen fibers are oriented
more in one direction than in others
Parts
and produce cleavage, or tension, lines
- Hair follicle- where hair arises from
- Medulla-soft center
D. Accessory Skin Structures
- Cortex- Hard surface that surrounds medulla
- Cuticle- covers cortex and holds hair in the hair
 Hair
follicle

- Hair Shaft- protrudes above the surface of the

skin
- Hair Root- below the surface
- Hair Bulb- expanded base of the root
Where hair is produced
- Hair papilla- where hair bulb is resting
• Extension of the dermis that
protrudes into the hair bulb
• Blood Vessels in the papilla
supplies the hair bulb to
produce hair

- *Arrector Pili- smooth muscle cells associated

with each hair follicle
-causes the hair to be more perpendicular to
the skin
  Glands Parts
 Free Edge
 Nail Body- the visible part of the nail
 Lunula- the part of the nail matrix visible
through the nail body
 Cuticle- eponychium;stratum corneum that
extends on to the nail body
 Nail root- part covered by skin
 Nail matrix
 Nail Bed

E. Physiology of the Integumentary System

Protection

- Skin
- Protects against abrasion and UV light
- Prevents the entry of microorganisms
- Helps regulate body temperature
Sebaceous Glands - Prevents water loss
- Simple branched acinar glands - Hair
- produce sebum- lubrication and prevents from - Protects against abrasion and UV light
some bacteria - Acts as a heat insulator
- Nails protect the ends of the digits
Sweat Glands Sensation
- Eccrine Sweat Glands- simple coiled tubular - Skin contains sensory receptors for:
glands that produce sweat by merocrine - heat
secretion - cold
• Open to the skin - touch
• Cools the body - pressure
- Apocrine Sweat Glands- simple coiled tubular - pain
glands that produce rich in organic substances
by both merocrine and holocrine secretion - Temperature Regulation
- Skin
 Nails Controls heat loss from the
body by dilation and
constriction of blood vessels
- Sweat glands
Produce sweat, which
evaporates and lowers body
temperature
 - Vitamin D Production C. General Features of the Bone
- UV light stimulates the production of a
precursor molecule in the skin that is modified  Individual bones are classified according to
by the liver and kidneys into vitamin D their shape:
- Vitamin D increases calcium uptake in the
intestines  Long bones
- Excretion - Longer than they are wide
- Skin glands remove small amounts of waste - Most bones of the upper and lower limbs
products but are not important in excretion  Short bones
- About as wide as they are long
- Bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankle
VI. SKELETAL SYSTEM: Bones and Joints (tarsals)
 Flat bones
A. Functions of the skeletal system - Relatively thin, flattened shape and are
usually curved
- Support: form the framework that supports - Certain bones of the skull, all the ribs, the
the body and cradles soft organs breastbone (sternum), and the shoulder
- Protection: provide a protective case for the blades (scapulae)
brain, spinal cord, and vital organs  Irregular bones
- Movement: provide levers for muscles - Do not fit into the other three categories
- Storage: reservoir for minerals, especially - Vertebrae, pelvic girdle and facial bones
calcium and phosphorus
 Blood cell production: hematopoiesis occurs  Structure of Long Bone
within the marrow cavities of bones
- Long bones consist of a diaphysis and an
B. Connective tissue epiphysis
Terms: – Diaphysis
 Collagen- is a tough ropelike protein • Tubular shaft that forms the
 Proteoglycans- are large molecules consisting axis of long bones
of many polysaccharides attaching to and • Composed of compact bone
encircling core proteins that surrounds the medullary
cavity
 Bones- extracellular matrix contains collagen, • Yellow bone marrow (fat) is
minerals, including calcium and phosphate contained in the medullary
 Cartilage- extracellular matrix contains cavity
collagen and proteoglycans • Not to the same extent, but
 Tendons and Ligaments- extracellular matrix certain bones also contain red
contains large amount of collagen fibers marrow

– Epiphyses
• Expanded ends of long bones
• Exterior is compact bone, and
the interior is spongy bone
 • Joint surface is covered with
articular (hyaline) cartilage
• Epiphyseal line separates the
diaphysis from the epiphyses
• Epiphyseal plate is the site of
bone growth in length
• Epiphyseal plate
becomes the epiphyseal
line when all of its
cartilage is replaced
with bone
Structure of Flat, Short, and Irregular Bones
 Flat bones contain an interior framework of
cancellous bone sandwiched between two
layers of compact bone
 Short and Irregular bones have a composition
similar to the ends of long bones
 Bone Membranes
 Periosteum: double layer of protective
membrane covering the outer surface of bone
- Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective
tissue, which contains blood vessels and nerves
- Inner osteogenic layer contains osteoblasts,
osteoclasts, and osteochondral progenitor
cells
 Endosteum: delicate membrane covering
internal surfaces of bone
- Contains osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and
osteochondral progenitor cells
 Histology of Bone
 Bone Cells
– Osteoblasts(bone forming cells)
produce bone matrix and become
osteocytes
• Osteoblasts connect to one
another through cell processes
and surround themselves with
bone matrix to become
osteocytes
• Osteocytes( bone cells) are
located in lacunae and are
connected to one another
through canaliculi
– Osteoclasts(bone destroying cells)
break down bone
– Osteoblasts originate from
osteochondral progenitor cells
– Osteoclasts originate from stem cells in
red bone marrow
2 major types of bone tissue found
throughout the skeleton:
 Bone can be classified according to the amount
of bone matrix relative to the amount of space
present within the bone:
– Cancellous bone/ Spongy Bone
• Located in the epiphyses of long
bones
• Has many open spaces spaces
• Internal layer which is a
honeycomb of trabeculae filled
with red or yellow bone marrow
• No central canals
• Trabeculae are oriented along
lines of stress and provide
structural strength
• Lamellae combine to form
trabeculae
– Compact bone/ Cortical Bone
• Forms perimeter of the
diaphysis
• Is dense with few spaces
• External layer
• Mostly solid matrix
• Has predictable pattern of
repeating units- osteons
• Each osteon consists of
concentric rings of lamellae
 called Central canal/haversian
Canal
• Central canal/haversian Canal-
contains blood vessels parallel
to the long axis of the bone
 Bone Ossification
 Begins at week 8 of embryo development
2 types
 Intramembranous ossification: bone develops
from a fibrous membrane/ connective tissue
membranes
– Some skull bones, part of the mandible,
and the diaphyses of the clavicles
– Ossification centers: process begins
here
 Endochondral ossification: bone forms by
replacing hyaline cartilage
– Bones of the base of the skull, part of
the mandible, the epiphyses of the
clavicles, and most of the remaining
skeletal system
*Both types of bone formation results in
compact and spongy
 Bone Growth
- Bones increase in size only by appositional
growth (increase in width and diameter)
- Adding of new bone on the surface of older
bone or cartilage
- Trabeculae grow by appositional growth
Growth in Bone Length
- Endochondral ossification
- Bone length increases because of growth at the
epiphyseal plate
- Epiphyseal plate growth involves
- Interstitial growth of cartilage
- Followed by appositional bone growth on the
cartilage
- Epiphyseal plate growth results in an increase
in the length of the diaphysis and bony
processes
- Bone growth in length ceases when the
epiphyseal plate becomes ossified and forms
the epiphyseal line
 Bone Remodeling
 Removal of existing bone by osteoclasts
and deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
 Occurs in all bones
 Allows bone to:
– Change shape
– Adjust to stress
– Repair itself
– Regulate body calcium levels
 Bone Repair
 Occurs after a fracture
1. Hematoma formation
– Torn blood vessels hemorrhage
– A mass of clotted blood (hematoma)
forms at the fracture site
– Site becomes swollen, painful, and
inflamed
2. Callus formation
– Granulation tissue (soft callus) forms a
few days after the fracture
– Capillaries grow into the tissue and
phagocytic cells begin cleaning debris
– The external callus forms when:
1. Osteoblasts and fibroblasts
migrate to the fracture and
begin reconstructing the bone
2. Fibroblasts secrete collagen
fibers that connect broken bone
ends
3. Osteoblasts begin forming
woven bone
4. Osteoblasts furthest from
capillaries secrete an externally
 bulging cartilaginous matrix
that later calcifies
3. Bone remodeling
– Excess material on the bone shaft
exterior and in the medullary canal is
removed
– Compact bone is laid down to
reconstruct shaft walls
– The remodeling process may take more
than a year to complete
ii. Rising blood Ca2+ levels trigger
the thyroid to release calcitonin
iii. Calcitonin stimulates calcium
salt deposition in bone by
decreasing osteoclast activity
E. General Considerations of Bone Anatomy
• Average adult skeleton has 206 bones (Figure
7.1)
• Bones are paired or unpaired
• Most anatomical terms used to describe the
features of bones are based on the relationship
between the bones and associated ligaments,
muscles, joints, nerves, and blood vessels
(Table 7.1)
• The skeleton is divided into the axial and
appendicular skeletons

D. Bone and Calcium Homeostasis

Bone is the major storage site for calcium (Ca2+)

Two hormones regulate Ca2+ levels in the blood:
parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
PTH is the major regulator of blood Ca2+
Falling blood Ca2+ levels signal
the parathyroid glands to
release PTH
PTH signals
1. Osteoclasts to degrade
bone matrix and release
Ca2+ into the blood
2. Ca2+ absorption from
the small intestines
3. Reabsorption of Ca2+
from the urine
Calcitonin
 – Parietal bones
• Joined at the midline by the
sagittal suture
• Joined to the frontal bone by
the coronal suture
• Joined to the occipital bone by
the lambdoid suture
• Joined to the temporal bone by
the squamous suture

F. Axial Skeleton

• The axial skeleton forms the upright axis of the

body
• Consists of
– Skull
– Auditory ossicles
– Hyoid bone
– Vertebral column
– Thoracic cage (rib cage)
• Protects the brain, the spinal cord, and the vital
organs housed within the thorax
Skull

(External view)
 • Skull (Inferior surface)
• Skull (Lateral view)
– The external acoustic meatus transmits
sound waves toward the eardrum
– Neck muscles attach to the mastoid
process, which contains mastoid air
cells
– The temporal lines are attachment
points of the temporalis muscle
– The zygomatic arch, from the temporal
and zygomatic bones forms a bridge
across the side of the skull
– The mandible articulates with the
temporal bone
• Skull (Anterior view)
– The orbits contain the eyes
– The nasal cavity is divided by the nasal
septum
– Sinuses within bone are air-filled
cavities
• The paranasal sinuses, which
connect to the nasal cavity, are
the
• Frontal sinus
• Sphenoidal sinus
• Maxillary sinuses
• Ethmoidal labyrinth
– Spinal cord and brain are connected
through the foramen magnum
– Occipital condyles are points of
articulation between the skull and the
vertebral column
– Blood reaches the brain through the
internal carotid arteries, which pass
through the carotid canals, and the
vertebral arteries, which pass through
the foramen magnum
– Most blood leaves the brain through
the internal jugular veins, which exit
through the jugular foramina
– Styloid processes provide attachment
points for three muscles involved in
movement of the tongue, hyoid bone,
and pharynx
– The hard palate separates the oral
cavity from the nasal cavity
 • Skull (Superior view inside the cranial cavity)
– The crista galli is a point of attachment
for one of the meninges
– The olfactory nerves extend into the
roof of the nasal cavity through the
olfactory foramina of the cribriform
plate
– The sella turcica is occupied by the
pituitary gland
Hyoid Bone
The hyoid bone, which “floats” in the neck, is the
attachment site for throat and tongue muscles
Vertebral Column
– Provides flexible support and protects
the spinal cord
– The vertebral column has four major
curvatures:
• Cervical
• Thoracic
• Lumbar
• Sacral/Coccygeal
– Abnormal curvatures
are
» lordosis (lumbar)
» kyphosis
(thoracic)
» scoliosis (lateral)
– Consists of a body, a vertebral arch, and
various processes
• Part of the body and vertebral
arch (pedicle and lamina) form
the vertebral foramen, which
contains and protects the spinal
cord
• The transverse and spinous
processes are points of muscle
and ligament attachment
• Vertebrae articulate with one
another through the superior
and inferior articular processes
• Spinal nerves exit through the
intervertebral foramina
– Adjacent bodies are separated by
intervertebral disks
• Fibrous outer covering (annulus
fibrosus)
• Gelatinous interior (nucleus
pulposus)
• Vertebral Column Components
– All seven cervical vertebrae have
transverse foramina, and most have
bifid spinous processes
– The 12 thoracic vertebrae have
attachment sites for ribs and are
characterized by long, downward-
pointing spinous processes
– The five lumbar vertebrae have thick,
heavy bodies and processes. Their
superior articular facets face medially
and their inferior articular facets face
laterally
– The sacrum consists of five fused
vertebrae and attaches to the coxal
bones to form the pelvis
– The coccyx consists of four fused
vertebrae attached to the sacrum
• Thoracic Cage
– The thoracic cage (consisting of the
ribs, their associated costal cartilages,
and the sternum) protects the thoracic
organs and changes volume during
respiration
– Twelve pairs of ribs attach to the
thoracic vertebrae
• Seven pairs of true ribs
• Five pairs of false ribs
– Two pairs of false ribs
are floating
– The sternum is composed of the
• Manubrium
• Body
• Xiphoid process
G. Appendicular Skeleton
• Consists of the bones of the upper and lower
limbs and the girdles by which they are
attached to the body
– Pectoral girdle: upper limbs
– Pelvic girdle: lower limbs
• Pectoral Girdle
– Consists of the scapulae and clavicles
– Scapula
• Articulates with the humerus
(at the glenoid cavity) and the
clavicle (at the acromion)
• Attachment site for shoulder,
back and arm muscles
– Clavicle
• Holds the shoulder away from
the body and allows movement
of the scapula, resulting in free
movement of the arm
• Upper Limb
– The arm bone is the humerus
• Articulates with the scapula
(head), the radius (capitulum),
and the ulna (trochlea)
• Sites of muscle attachment are
the greater and lesser tubercles,
 the deltoid tuberosity, and the • Right and left coxal bones
epicondyles formed from the fusion of
– The forearm contains the ulna and » ilium
radius » ischium
• The ulna and radius articulate » pubis
with each other and with the – The coxal bones
humerus and wrist bones articulate with each
• The wrist ligaments attach to other (symphysis pubis)
the styloid processes of the and with the sacrum
radius and ulna (sacroiliac joint) and the
– Eight carpal, or wrist, bones are femur (acetabulum)
arranged in two rows – Muscles attach to the
– The hand consists of five metacarpal anterior iliac spines and
bones the ischial tuberosities;
– The phalanges are digital bones. Each ligaments attach to the
finger has three phalanges, and the posterior iliac spines,
thumb has two phalanges ischial spines, and ischial
tuberosities
– The female pelvis has a
larger pelvic inlet and
outlet than the male
pelvis

• Pelvic Girdle
– The lower limb is attached solidly to the
coxal bone and functions in support
and movement
– Consists of
• Sacrum

• Lower Limb
– The thighbone is the femur
• The femur articulates with the
coxal bone (head), the tibia
(medial and lateral condyles),
and the patella (patellar groove)
• Sites of muscle attachment are
the greater and lesser
trochanters, as well as the
adductor tubercle
• Sites of ligament attachment
are the lateral and medial
epicondyles
– The leg consists of the tibia and the
fibula
• The tibia articulates with the
femur, the fibula, and the talus
• The fibula articulates with the
tibia and the talus
• Tendons from the thigh muscles
attach to the tibial tuberosity
– Seven tarsal bones form the proximal
portion of the foot and five metatarsal
bones form the distal portion
– The toes have three phalanges each,
except for the big toe, which has two
– The bony arches transfer weight from
the heels to the toes and allow the foot
to conform to many different positions
H. Articulations
• An articulation, or joint, is a place where two
bones come together
• Joints have varying degrees of movement
• Joints are named according to the bones or
parts of bones involved
• Joints are classified according to
• Function
• Type of connective tissue that binds
bones together
• Presence or absence of fluid between
the bones
• Types
• Fibrous joints
 • Cartilaginous joints
• Synovial joints
• Fibrous Joints
• Fibrous joints are those in which bones
are connected by fibrous tissue with no
joint cavity (capable of little or no
movement)
Subdivided into:
• Sutures involve interdigitating
bones held together by dense
fibrous connective tissue (occur
between most skull bones)
• Syndesmoses are joints with
fibrous ligaments(fibrous
membrane connecting most of
the distal parts of radius and
ulna)
• Gomphoses are joints in which
pegs fit into sockets and are
held in place by periodontal
ligaments (teeth in the jaws)
• Cartilaginous Joints
– Synchondroses are joints in which
bones are joined by hyaline cartilage
• Ex. Epiphyseal plates
– Symphyses are slightly movable joints
made of fibrocartilage
Synovial Joints
• Synovial Joints
– Are capable of considerable movement
– They consist of the following
• Articular cartilage on the ends
of bones
– Provides a smooth
surface for articulation
– Articular disks and
menisci can provide
additional support
• A joint cavity is surrounded by a Joints of the Body
joint capsule of fibrous
connective tissue, which holds
the bones together while
permitting flexibility
• A synovial membrane produces
synovial fluid that lubricates the
joint
– Bursae are extensions of synovial joints
that protect skin, tendons, or bone
from structures that could rub against
them
– Synovial joints are classified according
to the shape of the adjoining articular
surfaces
• Plane: two flat surfaces
• Pivot: cylindrical projection
inside a ring
• Hinge: concave and convex
surfaces
• Ball-and-socket: rounded
surface into a socket
• Ellipsoid: ellipsoid concave and
convex surfaces
• Saddle: two saddle-shaped
surfaces
Types of Movement
• Gliding Movements
– Occur when two flat surfaces glide over
one another
• Angular Movement
– Flexion and extension, plantar flexion
and dorsiflexion, and abduction and
adduction
• Circular Movements
– Rotation, pronation and supination,
and circumduction
• Special Movements
– Elevation, depression, protraction,
retraction, excursion, opposition,
reposition, inversion and eversion
• Combination Movements
– Two or more other movements
Temporomandibular Joint
• Complex gliding and hinge joint between the
temporal and mandibular bones
• Capable of elevation, depression, protraction,
retraction, and lateral and medial excursion
movements
Shoulder Joint
• Ball-and-socket joint between the head of the
humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula
– Strengthened by ligaments and the
muscles of the rotator cuff
– Tendon of the biceps brachii passes
through the joint capsule
• Capable of flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction, rotation, and circumduction
Elbow Joint
– Compound hinge joint between the
humerus, ulna, and radius
– Movement at this joint is limited to
flexion and extension
Hip Joint
– Ball-and-socket joint between the head
of the femur and the acetabulum of the
coxal bone
– Capable of flexion, extension,
abduction, adduction, rotation, and
circumduction
Knee Joint
• Complex ellipsoid joint between the femur and
the tibia that is supported by many ligaments
• Allows flexion, extension, and slight rotation of
the leg
Ankle Joint and Arches of the Foot
• The ankle joint is a special hinge joint of the
tibia, fibula, and talus that allows dorsiflexion,
plantar flexion, inversion and eversion of the
foot
• Ligaments of the foot arches hold the bones in
an arch and transfer weight in the foot