Anda di halaman 1dari 59

‫ا "ن‬

m m
ROTARY DRILLING SERIES
Unit I: The Rig and Its Maintenance
L esson. 1: The Rotary Rig and Its Components
Lesson 2: The'Bit
Lesson 3: The Drill Stem
Lesson 4: Rotary, Kelly, and Swivel
Lesson ‫ ة‬: The Blocks and Drilling Line
Lesson 6 : The Hoist
Lesson 7: Pow er and ?ow er Transmission
Lesson 8 : Cireulating Systems
Lesson 9: The Auxiliaries
Lesson 10: Safety on the Rig
Lesson 11: Diesel Engines and Electric Power
Lesson 12: Mud Pumps and Conditioning Equipment

Unit II: Normal Drilling Operations


Lesson 1: Making Hole
Lesson 2: Drilling Mud
Lesson 3: Drilling a Straight Hole
Lesson 4: Casing and Cementing
Lesson 5: Testing and Completing
Unit III: Nonroutine Rig Operations
Lesson 1: Controlled Directional Drilling
Lesson 2: Open-Hole Fishing
Lesson 3: Blowout Prevention
Lesson 4: Subsea Blowout Preventers and Marine Riser Systems
Unit V: Offshore Technology
Lesson 1: Wind', Waves, and W eather
Lesson 2: Spread Mooring Systems
Lesson 3: Buoyancy, stability, and Trim
Lesson 4: Jacking Systems and Rig Moving Procedures
Lesson 5: Diving and Equipment
Lesson 6: Vessel M aintenance and Inspection
Lesson 7: Helicopter Safety and Survival Procedures
Lesson 8: Orientation for Offshore Crane Operation
Lesson 9: Life Offshore
Unit IV, Man Management and Rig Management is published by Continuing
Engineering Education, University of Oklahoma, and is available from IADC,
P.O. Box 4287, Houston, Texas 7721©.
ROTAR¥ DRILLING

CIRCULATING ‫م‬
SYSTEMS
Unit / •Lesson 8
Third Edition

Edited by Jodie Leecraft

Published by
S E i PETROLEUM EXTENSION SERVICE
٠ ٠ Division of Continuing Education
The University of Texas a t Austin
Austin, Texas

in cooperation with
‫ص‬
O p
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION
OF DRILLING CONTRACTORS
Houston, Texas
1981
© 1981 by The University of Texas at Austin
All r^ h ts reserved
First Edition published 1968. Second Edition published 1976
Third Edition 1981
Frinted in the United States of America

This bool‫ ؛‬or parts thereof may not be reproduced in any


form without permission of the Fetroleum Extension Ser-
vice, The University of Texas at Austin.

Brand names, company names, trademarks, or other ‫؛‬denti-


fying symbols appearing in illustrations and/or text are used
for educational purposes only and do not constitute an en-
dorsement by the author or publisher.
CONTENTS

In tro d u c tio n ...................................................................................................................1


Historical B ackground..................................................................................................2
F u ^ tio n s of Drilling F lu id s ......................................................................................... 3
Transporting Cuttings to the S u r fa c e ....................................................................3
Cleaning the Bottom of the H o l e ............................................................................ 3
Cooling the Bit and Lubricating the Drill s te m ..................................................... 4
S p i r t i n g the Walls of the W e ll............................................................................ 5
Preventing E n try of Formation Fluids into the W e ll.......................................... 7
Composition of Drilling M u d ....................................................................................... 8
W ater-base M uds........................................................................................................ 8
Oil M u d s.......................................................................................................................9
Testing of Drilling Mud ............................................................................................... 9
Density or W eight T e s t........................................................................................... 10
Viscosity and Gel Strength T e s te .......................................................................... 10
Filtration and Wall-building T e s ts ........................................................................ 11
Sand Content D eterm ination.................................................................................11
Solid, Liquid, and Oil Content D eterm ination..................................................... 11
Determination of pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Tests ...............................................
Treatm ent of Drilling Mud . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Breakover .................................................
Weight-up .................................................
W ater-back ...............................................
T hinning.....................................................
Adding O i l .................................................
Chemical T re a tin g ....................................
Safe Handling of Mud and Mud Chemicals
Mud Circulating S y ste m s...........................................................................................18
Route of C irculation................................................................................................. 18
Mud P i t s .....................................................................................................................19
Mud P u m p s .............................................................................................................. 23
Standpipe and Rotary H o s e ...................................................................................26
Mud Return L in e ......................................................................................................30
Storage and Mixing Facilities.................................................................................30
H ^ r u l i c ^ Mud C ircu latio n .............................................................................. 3-1
Air Circulating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rig Equipm ent....................................
Use of F o a m ........................................
Use of Aerated Mud . . . . . . . . . . . . .
W o ^ o v ^ i r c ^ a t i n g Systems . . . . . .
Circulating Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Route of Circulation and Equipment
FOREWORD

The first edition of Circulating System s was printed in 1968, and a revised edi-
tion became available in 1975. Each edition has been directed to the new crew
member, aiming to enhance the quality of his knowledge about the equipment he
will operate.
The circulating system of a drilling rig rivals the drill stem and most of the
other collections of rig components in importance. The system takes on
significance partly because of the large variety of pieces in its total makeup, each
piece needing continued and careful attention. The new crew member who
studies this manual with some diligence and works under proper guidance of
seasoned crew members is sure to be rewarded. Not only will he have firsthand
knowledge gained from his work; he will also have a good understanding of the
basic concepts th at go into the design of the equipment and the arithm etic that
accompanies some of its functions.
Despite the best efforts of w riters, editors, typesetters, and proofreaders, it is
difficult to produce a publication without errors. The Petroleum Extension Ser-
vice will be most grateful to those readers who will call attention to errors found
in this publication. Systematic and conscientious effort is made to correct errors
before each printing of a manual.

Bruce R. Whalen
Publications Coordinator
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Preparation of this manual was greatly aided by Dan Fox of Magcobar I)‫؛‬v‫؛‬-
sion, D resser Industries, Inc., who reviewed the m anuscript and offered helpful
suggestions for content improvement. Frank P. H errin provided information
concerning rotary hose construction, and Fann Instrum ent Operations, Dresser
Industries, Inc., provided photographs of mud-testing equipment. The American
Petroleum Institute graciously granted permission for use of m aterial from A P I
Specification fo r Rotary D rilling Equipment, Thirty-Second Edition, May 1979.
On the PETEX staff, Ron Baker provided helpful content "
Charles Kirkley gathered new material, and Donna Hankey designed the cover.

Jodie Leecraft
Editor
Introduction
Rotary drilling has two im portant features: fresh or salt w ater, fresh w ater is favored for
(1) the drill stem is rotated to turn the bit, and making water-base mud.
(2) some type of drilling fluid is c irc u la ted -th at More than 98 percent of all wells drilled by the
is, pumped down the drill stem, out through the rotary method employ w ater alone or water-
bit, and back up through the hole to the surface. base mud as the circulating fluid, ^''ater-base
The drilling fluid may be either liquid or gas- mud may contain from 5 to 10 percent oil,
eous. A liquid, such as w ater, is a fluid th at can- dissolved chemicals, clay particles, and other
not be compressed. A gas, such as air or natural finely ground solids in addition to the w ater.O il
gas, is a fluid th a t can be compressed. mud, usually containing from 2 to 15 percent
The main purposes of circulation are t o - w ater as emulsified droplets, is a special-
1 . transport bit cuttings to the surface; purpose fluid th at is more expensive to prepare
2 . clean the bottom of the hole; than water-base mud and is less commonly used.
3. cool and lubricate the bit and drill stem; Air or gas is used in less than 1 percent of wells
4. support the walls of the wellbore; and drilled. Foam or aerated mud may be used in
5. prevent entry of formation fluids into the remedial work or special situations.
well.
A circulating system for drilling fluid includes
Other purposes of circulation are to make it
the following main equipment: ( 1) mud pumps,
possible to detect gas, oil, or w ater th at may
(2) rotary hose, (3) swivel, (4) drill stem, (5) bit,
enter the drilling fluid from a form ation being
(6) mud return line, and (7) mud pits. In a cir-
drilled; to get information necessary for
culating system using air or gas, compressors
evaluating producing zones (from cuttings,
m ust be added, and the gas lines m ust be con-
cores, or electric logs); and to transm it hydraulic
nected to the regular equipment. Usually a well
power to the bit. In addition, drilling fluid is
is started with w ater or mud as the circulating
sometimes used to drive a turbodrill or down-
medium, and a string of casing is set before drill-
hole motor th at has been placed a t the bottom of
ing begins with air or gas. The air or gas is in-
the drill stem. In this case, the drilling fluid pro-
jected a t the standpipe, going through the
vides power to the m otor so th at the bit turns
swivel, drill stem, and bit and flowing back to
without engaging the rotary table. Compressed
air, the circulating fluid for air drilling, can also the surface. A t the surface it is turned to waste
be used to power a hamm er drill, a downhole through a line leading fi-o^n the wellhead.
device th a t combines rotary motion with a Attending to the circulating fluid and the
pounding action. equipment of a circulating system makes up a
The circulating fluid may be w ater, mud, oil, large p art of the daily work on a drilling rig, and
air, gas, or a m ixture of these. W ater is the liq- the new crew member is expected to assist in
uid most commonly used. While it may be either the tasks involved.
Historical Background
Spindletop, toe gusher brought in near Beau-
mont, Texas, in 1901, is sometimes considered
to be toe first well to use toe rotary drilling
method. Actually, it merely confirmed the value
of a method th at had been used extensively in
the area for five years.
The men who worked a t Spindletop had had
previous rotary experience and understood the
use of mud circulation for drilling toe type of F ig u re ‫ل‬. E a r l y m ud pum p

soft formations th at are prone to caving. The


Lucas well probably produced most of toe mud pumps powered by internal-combustion engines
needed to protect the h o le -th a t is, toe natural or electric motors for fluid pressures of
clay form ations encountered in toe well pro- 1,500-3,500 psi (f‫؛‬g. 2). Drilling bits have
vided a passable drilling fluid when mixed w‫؛‬th changed from early fishtail types to modern jet
water. One legend is th at mud was obtained by bits requiring high-pressure circulation.
driving cattle back and forth through a pit dug Circulating fluid has changed, too. Drilling
out of toe ground and filled with w ater. It is mud has received progressively more attention
quite probable th at the mud used on toe well was since the 1920s until today when supplying mud
mixed in a pit nearby. m aterials is a large industry. Mud companies
Circulating equipment for rotary drilling has maintain warehouse stocks near toe principal oil
improved over toe years, but toe system of cir- fie ld s a n d em p lo y tr a i n e d m e n - m u d
culation rem ains essentially toe same. Mud e n g in e e rs-to test toe mud on those jobs on
pumps have changed from small steam-powered which their Material is used. Air drilling was
pumps for fluid pressures of 1,000 psi (pounds started in toe early 1950s and gave promise of
per square inch) in 1916 (fig. 1) to present-day ' real improvement in penetration

F ig u re 2. M o d e rn m ud pum ps
rates, although problems with w ater seepage in-
to the hole still make liquid circulation the usual
method of choice.
In some ways, things have not changed much
since Spindletop. The rig crew members are still
expected to do the hard work of mixing mud, the
derrickman m ust still know the basic mud tests
and general principles of treating mud, and
various people m ust still share in the respon-
sibility of keeping pumps and other circulating
equipment in efficient working condition.

Functions of
Drilling Fluids
Fluid in the circulating system of a rotary rig
acts to transport bit cuttings to the surface,
clean the bottom of the hole, cool the bit and
lubricate the drill stem, support the walls of toe F ig u r e 3 . M e a s u r in g m u d v is c o s it y w it h a M arsh fu n-

wellbore, and prevent entry of form ation fluids N EL

into toe well.


muds, and above 50 s/qt for heavier-density
Transporting Cuttings muds. Regardless of whether or not the mud is
to the Surface weighted, very high viscosities are often needed
to clean the hole adequately.
Liquid, air, or gas in circulation moves rock Mud m ust have the proper viscosity and gel
chips, sand, or shale particles out of a well as it strength to lift cuttings and to keep them in
moves up toe annulus. For a liquid, the annular suspension both during circulation and during
velocity, or speed, is usually from 100 to 200 feet the time circulation is stopped. Gel strength is
per minute (ft/m‫؛‬n) in order to keep toe hole the ability of a mud to keep cuttings from slowly
clean. Circulation of 3,000 ft/min is considered settling when the mud is not in motion. It can be
ample velocity in toe annulus for cleaning with observed from the way the mud flows and st‫؛‬f-
gas or air. The solids in mud are separated a t toe fens in ditches and pits. When circulation is
surface by screening, settling, centrifugal ac- begun again after having been stopped, the mud
tion, chemical flocculation, or a combination of should again liquefy.
methods. Solids brought up by air or gas in air
drilling are blown as dust or fine chips to a
Cleaning the
waste pit.
Bottom of the Hole
The viscosity of a drilling mud is its resistance
to flow. On the rig, a Marsh funnel (fig. 3) is A bit m ust have a clean surface on which to
generally used to measure apparent viscosity. work when making hole, w hether it is crushing
The timed rate of flow obtained usually cor- or shearing the formation. If chips or cuttings
relates with true viscosity. Funnel viscosity may are not swept away as they are formed, the bit
be from 30 to 40 seconds per quart (s/qt) for low- bogs down, and eventually the drill stem cannot
solids muds, from 40 to 50 s/qt for high-solids be turned. For the bit to regrind the chips
already broken off from the bottom of the hole is Cooling the Bit and
effort wasted, reducing the power available for Lubricating the Drill stem
making hole. The usual method for cleaning the
hole is by circulation of fluid through je t nozzles The bit is forced against the bottoni of the hole
in the bit. High-velocity stream s of fluid blast quite heavily. For example, weight on an
the bottom of the hole, creating a turbulence 8 */2-inch bit sometimes exceeds 60,000 pounds,
th at moves the chips from the face of the forma- about the weight of a railroad freight car; a
tion as fast as they are formed (fig. 4). In drill- large-diam eter bit may require double th at
ing with air or gas, the pressure and volume amount. The bit !١١^^ be rotated at a speed of 50
applied to bring the cuttings to the surface are to 100 revolutions per minute (rpm). This com-
normally more than enough to clean the bottom. bination of weight and speed creates heat due to
At the surface, the cuttings m ust be separated friction in the bit bearings and abrasion of the
and removed so th at the fluid pumped back to formation against the teeth or blades. Unless a
the bit is clean. In addition, the system should be bit is well cooled, it overheats and quickly wears
so designed th a t a large volume of liquid under out. Fluid circulated around the parts of the bit
high pressure can reach the bit. The proper com- removes the heat (figs. 5 and 6). Oily substances
bination of pump, drill stem, nozzles, and hole in the drilling fluid can reduce friction in the bit
diam eter makes it possible for 50 to 60 percent bearings and act as a lubricant between the drill
of the fluid pressure generated by the pump to stem and the walls of the hole. Oil-emulsion
reach the bit nozzles and clean the bottom of the muds and oil muds are especially helpful in this
hole. way. Air or gas circulation is very efficient for
cooling because the air or gas expands as it
leaves the bit nozzles and produces a cooling ef-
feet. For this reason, and because air contains

F ig u r e 4 . C l e a n in g the bottom of th e hole F i g u r e 5. W a t e r c o u r s e s i n a r o l l e r c o n e b i t


F ig u r e 7. H y d r o s t a t ic p r e s s u r e on s id e s AND BOTTOM
OF TH E HOLE

Hydrostatic pressure is the force exerted on


adjacent bodies by a liquid th a t is standing still.
In a well, the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling
fluid (liquid) is determined by the unit weight or
density of the fluid and the height of the fluid
column. An increase in the hydrostatic pressure
F ig u r e 6. J et IN A ROLLER CONE B IT a t any depth can be obtained by increasing the
density of the fluid, usually accomplished with
mud by adding barite. Barite is a mineral that is
no significant foreign material, wear on the bit
4.2 times as dense as water.
bearings is much less with this method than with
The weight of drilling mud is m easured by
mud circulation.
means of a mud balance (fig. 8). Mud weight is

Supporting the Walis of the Well


A drilling fluid with the proper characteristics
can support a form ation th a t might otherwise
cave into a well. This type of drilling fluid, or
mud, plasters the wall.‫ ؟‬of a well like m ortar.
Futherm ore, the hydrostatic pressure created
by the weight of the fluid column in the hole
pushes against the plastered wall to support un-
consolidated or loose formations th at might fall
or slough into the well (fig. 7). H ard rock forma-
tions have little tendency to slough and can
therefore be drilled with air, gas, or w ater in-
stead of mud. F ig u r e 8. M e a s u r in g m u d w e ig h t
commonly expressed in term s of pounds per filtrate) into the permeable zones (sueh as sand),
gallon (ppg) or pounds per cubic foot (pcf or and the solid m aterial is left behind as a filter
lb/ft3). Table 1 compares the different ways of cake (fig. 9). This filtration slows to a very low
reporting mud weight and hydrostatic head

F
TAKLE 1
C o m p a r is o n o p U n it s U s e d t o R e p o r t
M u d W e i g h t , S p e c if ic G r a v it y , a n d
ressu re G r a d ie n t
‫ااءو‬ T H IN MUD CAKE

Pressure Head
Specific per 1,000 ft
Lb/ft3 Gravity of Depth (psi)
MUD.Fli.TRA•
7.5 56.0 ‫م‬.‫ و‬0 390
8.0 59.8 0.96 416 TH IC K MUD CAKE

F ig u r e 9. F il t e r c a k e
9.5 71.1 1.14 494
10.0 75.0 1.20 520
10.5 78.5 1.26 546
11.0 82.5 1.32 572 rate when a good filter cake has been formed on
the walls of a well. A good filter cake is thin,
12.0 90.0 1.44 624
12.5 93.6 1.50 650 slick, and impermeable. Finely ground clays or
13.0 97.5 1.56 676 other substances are added to drilling mud to
13.5 101.0 1.62 702 improve its wall-building quality, its ability to
14.0 105.0 1.68 728
14.5 108.5 1.74 754 form a filter cake. M easurement by means of a
15.0 112.3 1.80 780 filter press (fig. 10) of the amount of filtrate th at
15.5 115.9 1.86 806
16.0 120.0 1.92 832

17.0 127.5 2.04 884


17.5 130.9 2.10 910
18.0 135.0 2.16 935

19.0 142.1 2.28 987


19.5 145.8 2.34 1,013
20.0 149.6 2.39 1,035

(pressure). A 10-ppg mud exerts about 0.5 psi


per foot of depth. Hydrostatic pressure can be
calculated by using one of the following equa-
IN D U S T R IE S
tions:
1. h y d r o s ta tic p r e s s u r e (psi) = d e p th
(ft) X mud weight (ppg) X 0.052, or
OF DRESSER

2. h y d r o s ta tic p r e s s u r e (psi) = d e p th
(ft) X mud weight (pcf) X 0.00695.
F ilter cake, the plasterlike coating formed
from mud on the walls of a well, has the ability
COURTESY

to seal the wellbore and prevent the loss of


whole fluid. The force of the hydrostatic pres-
sure squeezes the liquid p a rt of the mud (the F ig u r e ١٠. F il t e r p r e s s
passes through a filter paper a t 100 psi helps in-
dicate the wall-building quality of th at mud.
— ...i
Certain difficulties may arise if the fluid loss ^٧٥ ‫ا‬
of a mud becomes excessive. First, the filter
cake may become thick enough to reduce the
diam eter of the hole, causing tight places in the
hole th a t may stick the drill stem. Second, muds
with a high fluid loss may in some instances
cause sloughing and caving of shale formation.
Third, filtrate entering the productive zones
may reduce the rate of oil flow after completion.

Preventing Entry of
Formation Fiuids into the Well '•٠٠٠١١٠‫؛‬ ‫ رءة م‬f‫م ا‬i '• 1
‫مي؛و؟مو‬
The pressures of gas, oil, or w ater in forma- ‫هم‬ ‫ءمح?أا‬
tions penetrated by the bit may exceed the
hydrostatic pressure of the fluid column in a
F ig u r e 11. M u d flo w in d ic a t o r
well. If this happens, form ation fluid will enter
the well (a kick). To kill a kick, the blowout
preventers (BOFs) are closed to hold back- gain in volume. An increase in mud flow return
pressure on the column a t the surface. Then can be seen on a mud flow indicator (fig. 11),
heavier mud is circulated in order to obtain and an increase in mud pit volume can be seen
enough pressure a t the bottom of the hole to on a pit volume indicator (fig. 12).
overcome the form ation pressure.
W ater or mud produces sufficient hydrostatic
head to overcome form ation pressures usually
encountered. The addition of weighting m aterial
to mud being circulated in a well can make a
mud dense enough to hold back almost any for-
mation pressure. When form ation pressures are
expected to be high, a high mud weight is need-
ed, so the pits and other equipment should be ar-
ranged to handle the heavy mud. A mud weight
of 16 to 18 ppg is considered heavy.
Special valves and fittings a t the wellhead,
called blowout prev en ters, are used for
emergency control when form ation fluids enter
the hole. They close in the well and allow mud of
a weight great enough to control the pressure to
be circulated. M aintaining the proper mud
weight and carefully controlling other mud
characteristics are toe best ways to prevent
blowouts. Crew members on a rig should know
toe first signs of an impending blowout: toe
volume of fluid returning from toe hole in-
creases, and when toe pump is shut down, mud
continues to flow from toe well and mud pits F ig u r e 12. P it v o l u m e in d ic a t o r
enough to carry out cuttings as the hole is
Composition of drilled. Sometimes the form ations near the sur-
Drilling Mud face contain enough clay to make up a good
mud; if not, bentonite or sacked clay m ust be
Although three types of fluids are used for mixed before the well is started. Bentonite is a
drillin g -w ater-b ase muds, oil muds, and clay th at reacts with fresh w ater to give it
gaseous fluids, the g reatest share of attention viscosity, ability to build filter cake, and gel
m ust be paid to the properties and conditioning s tre n g th -a ll properties necessary to make a
of water-base muds because they are used so ex- good mud (fig. 13).
tensively.
N atural m ud is often used for surface drilling
and for making hole rapidly below the conductor
Water-base Muds
casing. When the shallow formations contain
Fresh w ater muds. The composition of spud gumbo and other low-grade clays, w ater plus
mud, the fluid used to s ta rt a well, varies with cuttings can make an acceptable natural mud.
d rillin g p ra c tic e s a ro u n d th e c o u n try . When natural mud is used, a lot of w ater must
Sometimes w ater alone is used; a t other times a be used to keep the weight and viscosity of the
fairly good quality of mud is needed. The w ater mud low. It is usually improved by chemical
is obtained from a nearby source such as a well, treatm ent as the depth of the hole increases.
stream , or lake. A t some locations surface for- Wells have been drilled to 12,000 feet on the
mations may consist of loose sand and gravel. In Gulf Coast, using natural mud with a little com-
such cases, the spud mud should have the ability mercial bentonite to thicken the mud and ‫؛‬m-
to build up a filter cake on the wall of the hole to p ro v e its w all-b u ild in g and filte r-lo s s
prevent caving. It should also be viscous (thick) capabilities.

F ig u r e ‫ ول‬. B e n to n ite r e a c t i n g w ith w a t e r


Chemically treated muds. Phosphate m ud is a gypsum sometimes added for control and st ab‫؛‬،‫؛‬-
natural, water-base mud to which phosphate is ty. Saturated saltw ater mud is a special water-
added as a thinning agent. When native days base fluid used for drilling a bed of salt. If a
are drilled with a natural mud, the viscosity of freshw ater mud is used to drill a salt bed, the
the mud tends to get too high. Then the viscosity hole enlarges because the fresh w ater in the
is controlled by adding a little phosphate to the mud dissolves the salt. Saturated saltw ater mud
mud; too much, however, can cause the viscosity overcomes this problem.
to increase.
Organic chemicals are widely used in many
parts of the world for treating mud. Brand Oil Muds
names of these chemicals vary according to the Oil muds are sometimes employed when a well
mud company th at sells them. An old standby, is about to enter a producing zone or when
but now seldom used, is a combination of caustic special drillin g problem s such as high
soda and quebracho (an extract obtained from a tem peratures, sloughing shale, or stuck pipe are
South American tree of the same name). Addi- encountered. The two types of oil muds are oil-
tion of this m ixture changes the color of a drill- base and invert-oil muds. Both are expensive
ing mud to red. The organic chemical in widest and m ust be handled with special care on the
use today for thinning and filtration control is
job•
lignosulfonate. Chrome lignosulfonates are sold Oil-base muds. Basically, an oil-base mud
under a number of trade names; they are very consists of diesel oil, emulsifiers, stabilizing
effective but also expensive and should be used agents, salt, and less than 5 percent w ater. The
only as ordered by a mud e n ^ n ee r. In fact, all exact composition depends on the supplier.
mud chemicals should be carefully mixed and Although oil-base mud has a small amount of
added to the mud system exactly as specified by w ater, any additional w ater is a contam inant
the mud man, for mud chemistry can be very th at m ust be avoided. Even a very small amount
complicated. may cause undesirable thickening of the fluid.
Invert-oil muds. Invert-oil mud may contain
C a lc iu m -tre a te d m uds. Lim e (calcium
from 10 to 50 percent w ater by volume. The
hydroxide) was first used for calcium treatm ent
w ater is emulsified as small droplets in the oil.
of mud. L ater, gypsum (calcium sulfate) and
Properly prepared, invert-oil muds are very
calcium chloride were also found to be effective.
tight emulsions. They are used much less com-
Calcium-treated muds are still in use, but
monly today than they were in the early 1970s
chrome lignosulfonate muds with very little lime
are much more widely used in the deep, high-
tem perature, high-pressure wells of today.
Testing of
Oil-emulsion muds. An oil-emulsion mud is a
water-base mud into which oil has been mixed. Drilling Mud
The oil is spread out, or dispersed, in the w ater
in the form of an oil-in-water emulsion. Diesel oil Drilling crews are usually made responsible
is the kind usually used. for m easuring mud weight, funnel viscosity, and
sometimes filtrate loss. They may also measure
S altw ater muds. Offshore wells are often sand and salt content and alkalinity. Deep, ex-
drilled with seaw ater, which is an excellent pensive wells require testingfor allphysical prop-
source of calcium and magnesium. These wells erties, as well as electrolytic properties, of the
are spudded with seaw ater and saltw ater clay mud. Such testing is done at regular intervals by
(attapulgite) and later improved with bentonite, a mud engineer or technician. The reason for
caustic soda, and chrome lignosulfonate, with such testing is to determine what properties the
mud has a t a given time so th at it can he treated
if necessary to give it the properties th at are
needed in the drilling situation being en-
countered.

Density or Weight Test


Density, or weight per unit of volume, can he
expressed as pounds per gallon (ppg), pounds
per cubic foot (lb/ft3), specific gravity, or pounds
per square inch per 1,000 feet of mud in the hole
(psi/1,000 ft). The last m easurem ent is toe most
convenient for calculating hydrostatic head of
toe mud column for any depth of hole because it
is in toe same units used for pump pressure and
form ation fluid pressure. A mud balance
(fig. 14) is used to m easure toe mud density. The
density is kept high enough to prevent kicks,
and low enough to prevent lost circulation and
to improve rate of penetration (ROP).
F ig u r e 15. M arsh fu n n ei

.‫<مان‬
F i g u r e 4 ‫ل‬. M u d balance

Viscosity and
Gel Strength Tests
Viscosity and gel strength are related to toe
flow properties of mud. Routine m easurem ent
IN D U S T R IE S
of viscosity is made with a Marsh funnel
(fig. 15), which gives a timed rate of flow. The
gel strength of mud is a m easurem ent of its
ability to thicken, or gel, when a t rest. Gel
OF DRESSER

strength m easurem ent is made by using a


direct-indicating viscometer (fig. 16) and follow-
ing a given procedure. A mud m ust be thick
enough to carry cuttings up the hole, and thin
COURTESY

enough to flow freely through toe surface


system. In hard-rock country, it is necessary to
add bentonite, polymers, or the like to get a

10
viscosity th a t is high enough. In gumbo country,
it is necessary to add thinners to lower the
viscosity.

Filtration and
Wall-building Tests
Filtration rate is one of the most im portant
properties of drilling mud, for it is a m easure of
the relative amount of w ater in the mud lost to
permeable formations and therefore of the
relative amount of filter cake deposited on the
permeable walls of the hole. M easurements are
made with instrum ents called filter presses
(fig. 17), either a t low tem peratures or a t high
tem peratures th at simulate downhole condi-
tions. Results give the volume of filtrate and the
thickness of the filter cake.

F ig u r e 18. S creen set

(fig. 18), which gives the sand content of the


mud in percent by volume. Anything caught on a
200-mesh screen is called sand.

Solid, Liquid, and Oil


Content Determination
F i g u r e ‫ ?ل‬. H i g h - t e m ? e r a t u r e , h ig h -p re s s u re filtra -
TIO N T E ST E R
Many properties of drilling m ud-density,
viscosity, gel strength, and filtration ra te -d e -
pend in large p art upon the solid content of the
Sand Content Determination mud. The calculated specific gravity of the solid
p a rt gives an indication of the relative amounts
M easurement of the sand content of mud is of drill solids and weight m aterial present,
made with a simple apparatus called a screen set which are of special importance for heavy muds.

١١
Because the mud viscosity is affected by the weight or density, if the viscosity is higher than
relative volume of solids, it is im portant to know the recommended range and the solids content
this volume so th at a decision can be made about is also higher than the recommended range, the
the treatm ent needed. For example, if the solid mud clearly needs dilution.
content is too large, w ater instead of chemicals
should be used for thinning. Gel strength and Determination of pH
filtration rate are related to the attracting and
repelling forces between solid particles in the The pH of a drilling fluid indicates its relative
mud, and thus to the types of solids and their acidity or alkalinity. A perfectly neutral liquid
volume has a pH of 7. An acid solution has a pH less
For research purposes, solid content can be than 7; an alkaline solution has a pH more than
determined by evaporating a weighed portion of 7. The m easurem ent of pH employs either the
the mud and weighing the residue, then colorimetric method, using chemically treated
calculating the volume. For saltw ater muds, a paper strips, or the electrom etric method, using
correction for salt content m ust be applied. For glass electrode pH m eters. Bentonite-extended
oil-emulsion muds, the mud is distilled and the muds usually have a pH within the range of
liquid is condensed and measured. Stills are 8.5-9.5; most thinners must have a pH above 9
available for determ ining the content of solids to become activated; the corrosion rate is
and liquids in mud (fig. 19). At a given mud minimum a t a pH of 1 0 - 2 ‫ ; ل‬lime systems have a
pH around 12.

Other Tests
Mud tests such as filtrate analysis, cation ex-
change, resistivity, and electrical stability of
emulsions may be carried out by a mud engineer
for the purpose of dealing with special drilling
problems.

Treatment of
Drilling Mud
In many drilling operations, it becomes
necessary to change the chemistry of the mud
from one type to another. Such a change is
referred to as a conversion or breakover.
Reasons for making a conversion may be (1) to
m aintain a stable wellbore, (2) to provide a mud
th at will tolerate higher weight, (3) to drill salt
formations, and (4) to reduce the plugging of
producing zones.

Breakover
F i g u r e ‫ و ل‬. S t i l l t o D E T E R M IN E SOLID AND LIQ U ID GONTENT
Chemicals added to mud cause an increase in
OF MUD viscosity followed by a decrease in viscosity. The

١۶
term breakover refers to this thin-thick-thin se- To calculate the amount o f barite needed -
quence of events. Even though lignosulfonate 1. for mud weighing less than 12.0 ppg, add
muds do not experience this sequence, the con- 60 sacks of barite to increase each 100 bar-
version of a lignosulfonate mud is still referred rels (bhl) of mud 1 ppg; or
to as a breakover. Lime muds, gyp muds, 2. for mud weighing more than 12.0 ppg,
calcium chloride muds, saturated saltw ater divide the desired weight by 0.2 to find the
muds, and potassium chloride muds all ex- number of sacks of barite needed to in-
perience a breakover. In the conversion of crease each 100 bbl of mud 1 ppg. For ex-
freshw ater muds, mud viscosity increases as ample, to raise the mud weight from 18.0
lime, gyp, and other chemicals are added; but to 19.0 ppg, the calculation would b e -
when a certain poi^t is reached, the viscosity 19 - 9 5 = 0.2 -‫ ؛‬sacks of barite/100 bbl mud.
decreases as additional chemicals are added.
When a mud is to be converted, certain pro- Since it is desirable to add barite a t such a rate
cedures should precede the breakover, as th a t the mud will make a t least one complete cir-
follows: culating cycle ‫ ؛‬٢٠^ ١ pump suction to the bottom
of the hole and back to pump suction while the
١- W ater should be added to the mud to lower barite is being added, the cycle time m ust also be
the percentage of solids. calculated.
2. All chemicals should be conveniently posi-
tioned so th at they can be added to obtain To calculate the cycle tim e -
even distribution. cycle time =
3. Rig personnel should be given instructions bbl mud in hole + bbl mud in pit
concerning the rate a t which m aterials are bbl/min pump output
to be added (number of minutes per sack).
where
bbl mud in hole/1,000 ft of hole = (diameter in
Weight-up inches)^;
bbl mud in pit =
Increasing mud weight is a fairly simple pro-
pit length (ft) X width (ft) X depth (ft) ■
cedure. The im portant thing is to add the weight
m aterial a t a rate th at will keep the mud weight
constant in the suction pit while circulating. bbl/min pump output = pump output in
Careful weighing of the mud in the suction pit gal/min X 0.024, or
will tell w hether the weight m aterial is being bbl/min pump output = bbMstroke X
added too slow, too fast, or a t the right rate. strokes/min.
Calculating how many sacks of barite are
needed to increase the mud weight of a cir-
In an example of a weight-up operation in
culating system and how fast these sacks should
which the mud weight m ust be raised from 18.0
be added can be done by close approximation for
to 19.0 lb/gal, it has been calculated th at 95
field use, using rule-of-thumb methods. It can
sacks of barite m ust be added to each 100 bbl of
also be done very accurately by mud engineers,
mud. Total volume of mud in the system in-
using specific methods and tables.
eludes the hole volume plus the pit volume.
Approxim ate calculation for field use. Calculate the approximate hole volume by
Calculations m ust be made for two quantities: squaring the diam eter of the hole, in inches, for
(1) the amount of barite th a t m ust be added to 1,000 ft of hole depth. If the hole is 978‫ ا‬inches in
the mud in the system to produce the weight of diam eter, round the number off and call it 10.
mud desired and (2) the time during which the There will be 102 = 100 bbl mud per 0‫ل‬,0)‫ ل‬ft of
barite m ust be added. hole. If the hole is 10,000 ft deep, then multiply

13
by 10 to calculate th at the hole contains 100 weight in ppg) to a desired weight (in ppg). As
bbl X 10 = 1,000 bbl mud. Then calculate the an example, the chart is m arked to indicate rais-
pit volume. Suppose there are two pits, each ing 13.0-ppg mud to 15.0-ppg weight. 147 sacks
with a mud volume of 7 ft by 8 ft by 20 ft of weighting m aterial having a specific gravity
( 7 x 8 x 20). (Depth of the mud is 7 feet, of 4.2 are needed to obtain 15.0-ppg fluid. If the
regardless of how deep the pit is.) The cubic mud system contains 1,500 ‫ اال( ا‬, then 2,205 sacks
volume of each pit is 1,120 ft3 or 2,240 ft3 for (or 220,500 lb of barite) m ust be added to obtain
both. Since there are approximately 5.6 ft3/bbl, the desired weight of 15.0 ppg. Major mud com-
the total pit volume is 2,240 400 = 5.6 ‫ د‬bbl. panies sell API-grade barite, which has a
The total volume of mud in the system is guaranteed specific gravity of 4.2. Assuming a
therefore 400 + 1,000 = 1,400 bbl. It will be circulation rate of 10 bbl/min, the time to cir-
necessary to add 95 X 14(1,400 1,330 = (100 ‫ب‬ culate the system i s -
sacks of barite. If the pump output is 10 bbl/min,
then the cycle time for adding toe barite will be 1,500 bbl 10 ‫ ب‬bbl/min = 150 minutes.
140 minutes (1,400 10 ‫)ب‬.
M ixing and adding. The mixing system in
Accurate calculation. Mud engineers have the foregoing example, in order to raise the mud
weight 2.0 ppg during the time required for one
more accurate means of making toe calculation
for weight-up. Table 2 shows toe number of circulation, has to handle barite as follows:
100-lb sacks of barite required to raise toe 2,205 sacks 150 ‫ ب‬minutes = 15 sacks per
weight of 100 bbl of mud (of a given initial minute.

TABLE 2
M u d -W e ig h t A d ju s t m e n t w it h B a k it e o r W ater

Initial
Mud Desired Mud W e^ht (lb/gal)
Weight
(lb/gal) 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0
9 29 59 90 123 156 192 229 268 308 350 395 442 490 542 596 653 714 778
9.5 29 60 92 125 160 196 234 273 315 359 405 452 503 557 612 672 735
10 43 30 61 93 128 164 201 239 280 323 368 414 464 516 571 630 691
10.5 85 30 31 62 96 131 167 205 245 287 331 376 426 479 531 588 648
11 128 60 23 31 64 98 134 171 210 251 294 339 387 437 490 546 605
11.5 171 90 46 19 32 66 101 137 175 215 258 301 348 397 449 504 562
12 214 120 69 37 16 33 67 103 140 179 221 263 310 357 408 462 518
12.5 256 150 92 56 32 14 34 68 105 144 184 226 271 318 367 420 475
13 299 180 115 75 48 27 12 34 70 108 147 188 232 278 327 378 432
13.5 342 210 138 94 63 41 24 11 35 72 111 150 194 238 286 336 389
14 385 240 161 112 76 54 36 21 10 36 74 113 155 199 245 294 345
14.5 427 270 185 131 95 68 48 32 19 9 37 75 116 159 204 252 303
15 470 300 208 150 110 82 60 43 29 18 8 37 77 119 163 210 259
15.5 513 330 231 169 126 95 72 54 39 26 16 8 39 79 122 168 216
16 556 360 254 187 142 109 84 64 48 35 24 15 7 40 81 126 172
16.5 598 390 277 206 158 123 96 75 58 44 32 23 14 7 41 84 129
17 641 420 300 225 174 136 108 86 68 53 40 30 21 13 6 42 86
17.5 684 450 323 244 189 150 120 96 77 62 49 38 28 20 12 6 43
18 726 480 346 262 205 163 132 107 87 71 57 45 35 26 18 12 5
The lower left half of this table shows the number of barrels of water which must be added to 100 bbl of mud to produce desired
weight reductions. To use this portion of the table, locate the initial mud weight in the vertical column at the left, then locate the
desired mud weight in the upper horizontal row. The number of barrels of water to be added per 100 bbl of mud is read directly
across from the initial weight and directly below the desired mud weight. For example, to reduce an 11 lb/gal mud to a 9.5 lb/gal
mud, 128 bbl ‫ص‬water must be added for every 100 bbl of mud in the system.
The upper right half of this table shows the number of sacks of barite which must be added to 100 bbl of mud to produce desired
weight increases. To use this portion of the table, locate the initial mud weight in the vertical column to the left, then locate the
desired mud weight in the upper horizontal row. The number of sacks of barite to be added per 100 bbl of mud is read directly
across from the initial weight and directly below the desired mud weight. For example, to raise an 11 lb/gal mud to 14.5 lb/gal,
251 sacks of barite must be added per 100 bbl of mud in the system.

14
To add barite this fast requires good hoppers X = l,000(l)/2.66 = 376 bbl
and bulk barite tanks. Two or three rig tanks on This formula does not consider the effect of
the line usually mix the required amount of solids settling from decreased viscosity. When
barite in the time required. Most rig-tank hop- large amounts of w ater are to be added,
pers mix 5 to 10 sacks per minute without too m aterials to increase the viscosity m ust be
much difficulty. It should be rem embered that added to prevent the settling of weighting
the addition of weighting m aterial results in a material from the mud. Various m aterials can be
liquid volume gain of 6.7 bbl for each 100 sacks used for this purpose (starch, polyacrylates, car-
of barite, or about 163 bbl for the example. Four boxymethyl cellulose), m aterials th at are also
600-sack tanks have to be emptied to raise the used to lower fluid loss. These m aterials are
assumed 1,500 bbl of mud from 13.0- te 15.0-ppg added through the hopper a t a slow rate to avoid
weight. That is a lot of material, and no prudent plugging the hopper.
toolpusher likes to have empty tanks for long. If
less storage is available on the job, mud mixing
m ust proceed a t a slower rate. The usual pro- Thinning
cedure is to order more barite, circulate a t a To thin the mud means to lower the viscosity.
slower rate, and raise the mud weight over two In the case of water-base muds, thinning can be
or more circulations. done by adding w ater or chemicals. W ater
decreases mud weight, whereas chemicals
Water-back do not. Therefore, when using weighted muds, a
careful choice m ust be made about whether to
Occasionally it becomes necessary to reduce a
add w ater, chemicals, or both to obtain
higher mud weight to a lower mud weight. For
minimum treating costs. When the percentage
example, a heavier mud may be needed to drill a
of solids is in the correct range, chemicals are
high-pressured formation. Then, after casing is
added. If the percentage of solids is high, w ater
set and the high-pressured formation is behind
is usually added.
the casing, it is sealed off. The formations below
The chemicals most widely used to thin water-
the casing may be normally pressured, and a
base muds are the lignosulfonates. They can be
decrease in mud weight is possible.
used in all water-base mud systems. The lignites
In water-base muds, reduction in mud weight
receive the next widest application; phosphates
is usually done with water. The following for-
and tannates are now rarely used. When large
mula can be used to approximate the volume of
am ounts of thinners are added, they are usually
w a te r n e e d e d to re d u c e th e w e ig h t:
put through the hopper. Small amounts of thin-
V(W i - w 2) ners are usually added from the chemical barrel.
w 2 - 8.34
where Adding 0 ‫ال‬
X = bbl of w ater required
V = original volume of mud in bbl When oil is added to mud, an emulsifying
W'l = initial mud weight in lb/gal agent m ust also be added. Lignosulfonates are
w2 = desired mud weight in lb/gal good emulsifying agents. A mud gun should be
used to break the oil into small droplets so that
For example, if the total volume of the system is
they can be carried in suspension easily (fig. 20).
1,000 bbl, and if it is desired to lower the mud The oil and the emulsifing agent are usually
weight from 12.0 lb/gal to 11.0 lb/gal, then toe added through the mud hopper and should be
required am ount of w ater would b e - added a t a uniform rate, timed so th at the entire
1,000(12 - 11) system is treated in one or more complete cir-
culations.

15
w ater and added to the liquid mud as a solution.
Generally the mixing and feeding is done by
means of a ehemical tank th at will regulate the
rate of flow (fig. 21).

Safe Handling of
Mud and Mud Chemicals
Mud control frequently involves the use of
chemicals th at are hazardous to those who han-
die them. Everyone on the job m ust be folly
aware of the hazards and know the best first-aid
treatm ent in the event of an accident. When
'
new chemicals are used, the drilling crews
should be instructed in precautions to be taken
F ig u r e 2‫ م‬. U s in g a mud gun
in their handling and storing.
Barrels containing chemicals for treatm ent
Chemical Treating are usually elevated above the mud ditch. An
adequate installation requires a sturdy stairway
Mud is often treated with chemicals to control and working platform. The top of the barrel
such properties as weight, viscosity, gel should be no more than waist high for a man on
strength, filtration, pH, and contamination. the platform so th at his face and upper body are
Numerous chemicals are available. They are always in the clear.
generally obtained in tee form of dry powders, Mixing dry chemicals through the mud hopper
flakes, or liquids, and are usually dissolved in is generally not hazardous. However, if several
■ ‫ ا‬- . . ‫م‬ .
'1‫مأبمث با‬

storage”
FACILITIES

F ig u r e 21. E q u ip m e n t f o r c h e m ic a l t r e a t m e n t o f m u d

16
men are adding chemicals a t the same time, they
m ust use team work and be concerned about
mutual protection. They should be careful not to
clog the mud hopper, for a clogged hopper can
cause splashing of liquid mud.
Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) is furnished
as a dry chemical in paper bags. It is extremely
dangerous to handle, especially for toe eyes. It
is a strong alkali th at burns toe skin, especially
if toe skin is wet. Muds th at are heavily treated
with alkalis also burn the skin, either on direct
contact or after soaking through clothing. With
skin burns, toe first rule is to wash the burn with
a flood of w ater (fig. 22). Afterwards, a wash

a small, steady stream , the mud usually takes it


readily. On the other hand, the sudden addition
of a large batch of caustic may thicken the mud,
plug the outlet, and cause the mixture to run
over the hopper or squirt up into a worker’s
face. Crew members should wear goggles when
handling caustic, and possibly rubber gloves as
well.
Starch preservatives in treated mud have a
formaldehyde base and often other bactericides
as well. These are poisons when taken internal-
ly, and the fumes and dust can seriously affect
the lungs and eyes. Handling them requires
judgm ent and caution.
F ig u r e 22. F i r s t a id f o r c h e m ic a l b u rn s op th e s k in The use of oil-base or invert-oil mud calls for
certain safeguards. Losses of fluid should be
kept to a minimum because these muds are ex-
with vinegar is helpful. Crew members should be pensive. Contamination with w ater must be
careful about muddy clothing. Burns may not strictly avoided. The oil muds m ust be kept off
occur immediately, but toe mud should be the rig to prevent a slippery, oily mess th at can
washed off to prevent them. Eye burns need be hazardous. Oil muds can also damage rubber
prom pt washing with a lot of w ater (flg. 23), hoses, gaskets, and the like; so synthetic, oil-
followed by application of boric acid ointm ent or resistant rubber parts should be used with oil
caster oil. Eye burns should receive a p, hysician’s muds.
attention as quickly ‫ ق ه‬possible. The oil in oil-base and invert-oil muds is flam-
If caustic soda is properly handled, it can be mable. Even though the oil used has a high flash
mixed safely in a chemical barrel, but caustic in point to reduce fire hazard and even though oil
w ater generates heat th at can cause a barrel to muds contain from 5 to 50 percent w ater to fur-
boil over. If caustic is added through a hopper in ther reduce the fire hazard, oil muds may not be

17
fireproof. Although most oil muds contain
enough solids and w ater to keep them from
Mud Circulating Systems
burning, they m ust be treated as if they could be Route of Circulation
readily ignited. No Smoking signs should be
placed around the rig and strictly observed, Circulation of drilling mud begins from the
e th e r precautions should also be taken to avoid mud pits, with suction lines leading to the mud
fires in case overheating, crude-oil contamina- pumps (fig. 24). Mud pumps send the mud
tion, or gas-cutting of the mud occurs. through the rotary hose into the swivel, down

SWIVEL

STANDPIPE

‫ □س‬HOUSE
ROTARY HOSE

MUD
KE LLY
PUMP

DISCHARGE

SECTION LINE
D R ILLP IP E
MUD M IXING HOPPER
٧ ٧ ٥ PIT
MUD RETURN LINE

CHEMICAL TAN K
ANNULUS

DITCH ٠ ٨ SHALE
SHAKER

MUD PIT
D R ItL COLLAR
‫ ء ر و‬RESERVE PIT I
SHALE SLIDE

BOREHOLE

F ig u r e 24. R o u te o f c ir c u l a t in g f l u id

18
through the drill stem, and out through the bit. to contain the cuttings of sand and shale th at
The mud returns to the surface through the an- have been removed from the hole during the
nulus of the borehole, then through the mud course of drilling. The second pit is large enough
return line back into the mud pits. The mud is to contain enough mud to fill the hole when the
made up and conditioned in the surface system, entire drill stem is out of the hole, with a
using various m aterials and auxiliary equip- reasonable margin to spare. A shale shaker at
ment. the outlet of the mud retu rn line screens the
The mud pump is the prim ary component of larger cuttings out of the mud stream before the
any system using a liquid as the circulating fluid. stream reaches the settling pit, thus allowing
It furnishes the pressure for sending the fluid the settling pit to be smaller than would other-
through the system.. The swivel perm its the drill wise be possible. Where it can be employed, cir-
stem to be raised or lowered while circulating culating through the reserve pit provides nearly
and rotating. The drill stem, made up of kelly, solids-free fluid for drilling. Such an arrange-
drill pipe, and drill collars, rotates the bit, fur- m ent is used extensively in surface drilling with
nishes weight for drilling, and provides the con- a flocculated clear w ater system.
duit through which fluid flows to the bit. Drilling
fluid passes through the bit, out the nozzles, and EARTHEN RETAINING W ALLS

up through the annulus, which is the space be-


tween the drill stem and the wall of the well
Fluid returning to the surface through the an-
nulus carries with it the cuttings made by the
bit. When the fluid reaches the surface, it flows
into the mud pits through a mud return line,
after having rock cuttings, sand, and shale
separated from it by devices such as shale
shakers, desanders, desilters, and centrifuges.

Mud Pits
The main functions of mud pits a r e -
1. to accumulate mud circulated from the
well;
2. to supply fluid to the pump for circulation;
and
3. to store mud so as to provide enough fluid
to fill the hole when pipe is removed.
A drilling rig for medium-depth holes can
usually operate quite satisfactorily with earthen
pits for circulation. Although most rigs are
equipped with steel pits, a look a t a system with
earthen pits is useful to understand the basic
functions of mud pits (fig. 25). When earthen
pits are being used, a short trench between the
،١٢٥ pits ensures th at the mud stream travels tee
full length of each pit before reaching tee pump.
The slow movement of tee mud allows the cut-
tings to settle out before the mud is pumped F ig u r e 25. E a r t h f .n p it s fo r f l u id c ir c u l a t io n and
back into the well. The first pit is large enough W ASTE D IS?O S A L

19
Steel mud pits form a better arrangem ent for pit. In this way, mud can be diverted directly to
fluid circulation than do earthen pits; usually a settling tank, reserve tank, or suction tank.
two, three, four, or even more steel pits are used Equipm ent such as shale shakers, agitators,
for a circulating system. Steel pits have many desanders, desilters, degassers, or centrifuges
advantages over earthen ones. They have a is easily installed on steel mud pits (fig. 26).
known volume, can be easily cleaned, and allow A nother advantage steel tanks offer is th at flex-
a positive pressure to be maintained to aid in ible lines between the mud pump and tanks and
pump suction. Chemical treatm ent of the mud is between the tanks themselves enable fast rig-
easier with steel tanks than with earthen pits ging up on new locations (fig. 27).
because the volume of mud in the tanks can be Often rigs with steel pits also have large,
accurately figured. Steel troughs, or ditches, earthen pits bulldozed out of the ground nearby.
can be perm anently installed with steel pits and These are called reserve pits. Reserve pits are
are easier to clean than earthen trenches. In- used to receive waste fluid, cuttings, and even
cidentally, steel ditches should be arranged so trash th at accumulates as a well is drilled
th at the mud stream can be diverted around any (fig. 28). Sometimes a small area of a large

MUD GAS SEPARATOR

DEGASSER
DESANDER

DES ‫؛؛‬-TER ^ ٧ ٥ RETURN LINE

S H ^ E SHAKER

w
F ig u r e •2 6 . A u x il ia r y e q u ip m e n t in s t a l l e d ©n s t e e l m u d p it s

20
REVIEW QUESTIONS
LESSONS IN ROTARY DRILLING
Unit /, Lesson 8: Circulating System s

W hat are the five prin ،:‫؛‬pa ‫ ؛‬purposes of fluid circulation in rotary drilling ?

)‫(ل‬ ______________________________________________________________

)2( _________________________________________________________
)3( ______________________________________________________________
)4( ______________________________________________________________

(5) ______________________________________________________________

Name the types of circulating fluids possible to use.

) ‫_______________________________________ ( ل‬ )4( _______________________________________

)2( ---------------------- )5( _____________________________________


(3) ... (6) _______________________________________

Name the main components of circulating equipment.

)‫_______________________________________ ( ل‬ )5( _______________________________________


)2( ____________________________ _ )6( _____________________________________
)3( _______________________________________ )7( _______________________________________
(4) (8) _______________________________________

Mud m ust have the p ro p e r_____________________ a n d _______________________________ to lift

cuttings and to keep them in suspension both during circulation and during the time circulation is
stopped.

The usual method for cleaning the hole is by circulation of fluid through _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ in the bit. High-velocity stream s of fluid blast the bottom of the hole, creating a

_______________________ th a t moves the chips from the face of the form ation as fast as they are
formed.

W hat is hydrostatic pressure, and how can it be increased in a well?

(1)
(2)
7. W hat are the first two signs of an impending well blowout?

)‫ (ل‬------------------------------

— - ------------------------------------------------ )2 (

8. W hat type of fluid is most commonly used for drilling?

9. W hat three im portant properties does bentonite give to w ater or water-base mud?

(1) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- —
(2) .. . — — ■■■—
(3)

10. The organic chemical in widest use today for thinning and filtration control of drilling mud is

١٦ W hat is the difference in w ater content between oil-base muds and invert-oil muds?

12. Match the properties of drilling mud (listed on the left) with the equipment used to test for each
(listed on the right).

) ‫(ل‬ Density, or weight A. Screen set


B. Filter press
(2) Viscosity and gel strength
c. Mud balance
(3) Filtration rate and wall-building ability
D. ? a p e r strips or glass
(4) Sand content electrode m eter
F. Marsh funnel and
(5) Solid, liquid, and oil content directiindicatingviscom eter
(6) pH F. Still

List the reasons for making a chemical conversion of mud.

(1)

(2)

(3)
(4)
14. List the procedures th a t should he carried out before drilling mud is converted.

)‫ل‬( _____________________________ -_________________________________________________

)2( ________________________________________________________________
)3( ___________________________________________________________________
)4( ___________________________________________________________________

15. Increasing mud weight requires two calculations, either approximate or accurate. W hat factors
must be calculated?

(1)
(2) _______________________________________________________________________________

16. To what procedure does the term water-back refer?

17. W hat is the difference between the effects of adding w ater to mud and adding chemical thinners to
mud?

18. When oil is added to mud, an m ust also be added.

19. W hat is the first-aid treatm ent for both chemical burns of the skin and chemical burns of the eye?

20. Trace the route of circulation of drilling mud by naming (in order) the main items of equipment
through which it travels, beginning with the mud pumps.

)‫_______________________________________ ( ل‬ )5(
)2( _____________________________________ )6( _____________________________________
)‫_______________________________________ (ة‬ )7( _______________________________________
)4( _______________________________________

21. Name the three main functions of the mud pits.

)‫_____________________________________ (ل‬
)2( ___________________________________
(3)
22. Name six items ‫ ءه‬auxiliary mud-handling equipment th at are usually placed on or adjacent to the
mud pits.

)‫_______________________________________ ( ل‬ )4( _______________________________________


)2( _______________________________________ )5( _______________________________________
)3( _______________________________________ )6( _______________________________________

23. W hat are the two general types of mud pumps used for rotary drilling?

) ‫رل‬ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(2)

24. W hat are the four circulation components in which pressure losses take place while drilling?

) ‫) _________________________________________ (ل‬3 ( ------------------------------------------------------


)2( ------------------------------------------------------------ )4( ------------------------------------------------------

25. State the two im portant disadvantages of drilling with air or

1 ) ___________________________________________________
2) ....

26. How does foam help in moving w ater out of the hole when drilling with air?

27. W hat circulating fluid is most commonly used for workover drilling?
M U D PITS

SHEAR RELIEF VALVE


PULSATION (POP-OFF VALVE)
D A M ‫ ؟‬ENER HIGH-PRESSURE
RELIEF LI^ES
TO PITS

IN TA K E LINES
TO PUM PS

CENTRlPtyGAIi
:TION C H A RGE

F ig u r e 27. L in e s fr o m m u d p u m p s t o s t e e l p it s

‫ما|ب‬
‫ئ م‬

‫بمجمأ؛‬ ‫خ؟؛وء‬-

‫مآ‬

-‫ءت‬:,-‫حءت‬
‫م;تب‬

« ‫ءهث ممنءب‬
F ig u r e 2 8 . f tE S E R ¥ E p it s

21
F ig u r e 29. L a y o u t o f m u d t a n k s a n d r e l a t e d f a c il it ie s

reserve pit is partitioned off for storage of The diagram of a layout of tanks, piping,
surplus good mud not in use a t the moment. pumps, and related facilities shows the flow of
mud through a typical system (fig. 29). The
Auxiliary equipment becomes essential when hookup includes centrifugal pumps th at are used
heavy mud is being circulated. The savings in rig for mixing, transferring fluids from one tank to
time, mud m aterials, and chemicals made possi- another, and operating the mud guns. Jet
ble by these devices more than justify their cost. siphons are also operated by fluid from the cen-
Shale shakers remove large particles from the trifugal pumps to move sand or cuttings from
returning mud, thus lessening the need for set- the active tanks to waste (fig. 30).
tling time and making it possible to use smaller
pits than would otherwise be needed. Mud
agitators enable weighting m aterial to be kept
in suspension in the mud. They prevent channel-
ing through the pits and ensure th at the mud is
homogeneous. Degassers remove entrained gas
from the mud much more quickly than does
allowing the mud to lie quietly in a pit. Desilters,
desanders, and mud centrifuges are useful in
separating sand or shale particles from liquid
mud and in salvaging weighting m aterial (usual-
ly barite, which is very expensive). F ig u r e 30. J e t s if h o n
The essential features of mud-handling equip- Mud Pumps
m ent for very deep drilling include-
1. a capacity of 800 barrels in the working A rig usually has two mud pumps, which are
pits, plus £00 barrels of ready reserve; the very heart of a fluid-circulating system for
2. paddle agitators and mud guns for stir- rotary drilling. Their function is to give power
ring; to the fluid in the form of pressure and volume,
3. high-capacity centrifugal pumps for mix- thus moving the fluid from the pit, through the
ing and transferring mud; drill stem, to the bit (where hydraulic power is
4. a je t hopper for rapid mixing of dry mud; expended for jetting), back up the annulus, and
5. bulk-bin storage for barite; back to the pit. Mud pumps are either duplex or
6. covered storage for sacked material; triplex.
7. convenient storage for mixing chemicals Duplex, double-acting pum ps. The duplex,
and mud additives; double-acting pump is widely used for rotary
8. ample w ater storage and supply; drilling (fig. 31). Each of the two cylinders of
9. a mud-gas separator; and this pump is filled on one side of the piston a t the
10. built-in piping and ditches. same time th at fluid is being discharged on the

PULSATION
DAMPENER

‫ب‬
DISCHARGE
‫س‬I
‫م‬
‫ةصا سم‬:‫ض‬ ■‫دح‬
‫ء‬‫س‬
,.‫ا‬‫م‬
‫ء‬■
‫س' م‬

VALVE t
POTS

CYLINDER
HEAD COVERS

SUCTION
LINE

F ig u r e 31. D u plex m ud pu m p
DISCHARGE VALVES ‫■' مخ‬

'ALVE COVERS

‫؛‬PULSATION
CYLINDER HEA ‫(؟‬AMPENER
COVERS ‫'؛‬
F ig u r e 3 2 . O p e r a t io n o f PISTO N AND VALVES OF A D UPLEX
PUM P
S U C ^O N LINE

other side of the piston (fig. 32). Each complete


iS H ■
cycle of a piston results in the discharge of a F ig u re 33. T r ip le x pu m p
mud volume th at is twice the volume of the
cylinder, minus the volume of the piston rod.
The total volume for a duplex pump in one com- double-acting pumps for specific power ratings.
plete cycle is twice this amount because there The reason th at more power can be obtained
are two pistons. The volume of fluid pumped per from a relatively small triplex pump is th at
minute is determined by multiplying the volume triplex pumps operate a t higher speeds. Triplex
per complete cycle times the number of stroke- pumps can m aintain a smooth discharge flow a t
cycles per minute. Strokes per minute (spm) ac- higher pressures than duplex units, because
tually means cycles per minute, although a equal volumes of fluid are delivered a t each 120
duplex pump makes four strokes during each cy- degrees of crankshaft rotation (fig. 34).
cle. Fluid pumping rates are usually expressed
as gallons per minute for a given pump and, for
a given pump, vary according to the speed and
the diam eter of the liner installed. Duplex
pumps may be powered either by electric motors
through chain drives or by several engines from
a chain transmission, with the final drive ac-
complished by means of multiple V-belts or
m ultistrand chains.
T riplex, sin g le-a ctin g p u m p s. Triplex,
Intake
single-acting pumps (fig. 33) have been used for
drilling mud service since 1962, although multi-
cylinder pumps were used for acidizing, cement-
ing, and workover service long before that.
Single-acting pumps put pressure on only one
face of the pistons rather than on both sides, as
double-acting pumps do. Triplex pumps have F ig u r e 3 4 . O p e r a t io n o f p is t o n a n d v a l v e s o f a
three pistons and are much lighter than duplex, PUM P

24
CENTRIFUGAL ELECTRIC
PUMP , PUMP MOTOR

= = ‫؛؛‬ ‫م‬.‫عتت‬

'

- ■■ ' » ri-

F ig u r e 3 5 . C e n t r if u g a l p u m p f o r s u c t io n c h a r g in g o f a t r ip l e x pu m p

Liners, rods, and pistons for a triplex unit are small. Because the triplex pump operates at
much lighter and cost less than comparable high speed, it usually has a centrifugal pump to
parts for a duplex pump of similar size. There charge the suction (fig. 35).
are no stuffing boxes or rod packings in a single- M ud m anifold. A manifold assembly is used
acting pump. And because of their high-speed for connecting two pumps (fig. 36). Long-radius
operation, triplex pumps can pump high ٧٢(‫؛‬- els and tees are employed, and union couplings
umes of fluid with liners th at are relatively th at are tightened and loosened with a hammer

VIBRATOR HOSE

;‫ن ي‬

F ig u r e 36. H i g h -p r e s s u r e m u d m a n if o l d
are placed at critical points. Special valves are The valve caps may need to he removed so th at
used in the hookup to perm it isolation of any the valves may he looked at, or perhaps the
p art of the manifold in case of a leak during a cylinder heads m ust he pulled so th at pistons
critical operation or to perm it repairs on one and liners may be examined. Valve seats, if
p art of the system while the other p a rt is worn excessively, may have to he pulled, or a
operating under pressure. Short lengths of hose piston and rod (or liner) may have to be changed
from the pumps to the manifold assembly are because of wear. Sometimes the liner may have
flexible and have connectors for quick rigging to he removed and replaced with a liner of
up. Because the hoses are flexible, many of the smaller size in order to increase the pump
vibrating pulsations th at originate in the pump pressure as a well is drilled deeper. Servicing a
are absorbed. The hoses are called vibrator pump is merely a routine job when the proper
hoses because of this action. tools are available, but it can be difficult and
M aintenance o f pum ps. W orn valves, dangerous when makeshift methods are used.
pistons, rods, and liners are expendable parts of The tools are large, the parts are heavy, and a
mud pumps th at m ust be replaced routinely. lot of force is sometimes needed. Crew members
These parts are subject to severe loads and wear m ust work safely to avoid injury.
out quickly if not correctly fitted and properly
installed, particularly when operated under high Standpipe and Rotary Hose
pressure. The new crew member on the rig is
often called on by the derrickm an to help open The extension of piping from ground level up
up (work on) a pump after the decision about into the derrick is called the standpipe (fig. 38).
what needs attention has been made (fig. 37). It anchors the upper end of the rotary hose and

F i g u r e •3 7 . S e r v i c i n g a m u d pum p
gooseneck on the swivel. The ends of the hose
are tied to the derrick and the swivel with safety
chains fastened to clamps on the hose.
The standpipe and hose form a flexible link for
drilling fluid in the circulating system. The hose
can be raised or lowered as required. A 48-foot
standpipe with a 55-foot hose perm its about 80
feet of vertical travel by the swivel and kelly
(fig.39). This distance is needed to make
mousehole connections with a 45-foot kelly and
30-foot singles, with a reasonable margin to pre-
vent bending the hose too sharply a t the stand-
pipe. A higher standpipe and a 75-foot hose are
needed when range 3 drill pipe (45 feet long) is
being used.

F ig u r e 3 8 . S t a n d p ip e and h o se a rra n g em en t

keeps the hose clear of the rig floor when the


kelly has been drilled down and the swivel is
near the rotary table. The standpipe is firmly
clamped to the derrick and is topped with a
gooseneck fitting. One end of the rotary hose is
attached to the gooseneck on the standpipe, and
the other end of the hose is attached to a F ig u r e 3 9 . S t a n d p ip e h e ig h t fo r a 5 5 -fo o t h o se

£7
The rotary hose, also called the mud hose or to poor handling when laid down for rig moves.
the kelly hose, is an im portant p art of the cir- The hose should be wrapped on a reel when
culating system (fig. 40). It m ust be flexible as taken down, and g reat care should be taken in
well as leakproof under high pressure, give long attaching a cable or sling to prevent damage to
service under severe conditions, and handle the rubber cover. API offers specifications for
various types of fluids th at may contain a high both rotary hoses and vibrator hoses (fig. 42).
percentage of abrasive solids (fig. 41). Rotary
hoses generally receive fairly good treatm ent TUBE
when in the derrick but are frequently subjected
BREAKER
FABRIC

PRIMARY
CARCASS

‫؛‬T R A V E L IN ‫؛‬
BLOCK

W IR F
REINFCRCEMENT

HOOK
SECONDARY
^ CARCASS

CABLE
REINFORCEMENT
(MAY BE OF
MULTIPLE tAYERS)

•SWIVEL
GOOSENECK■
OPEN-WEAVE
FABRIC

SW IVEL

‫ه‬ COVER

ROTARY
^OSE —j

THREADE□
٠ " " COUPLING

F ig u re ‫ ص‬. R o ta ry hose a tta c h e d to th e s w iv e l


GOOSENECK F ig u re 41. C o n s tru c tio n o f r o ta r y h o se
ROTARY VIBRATOR AND D R !LLIN G H O SE
D IM E N SIO N S AND PR E S S U R E S

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
T h re a d s
Size, S ta n d a rd (L in e W orking P ressure, psi T e st P ressu re, psi
In sid e L e n g th . ? ip e
D ia, ft.
G rade G rade G rade G rade G rade G rade G rade G rad G rade G r^de
‫' ة‬ L T G rad e A D D

2 ‫ ؛‬35 2‫ةأ‬ A B 1500 2000 3000 4000


40 2 ‫ل‬/‫ة‬ A B, C 1500 2000 4000 3000 4000 8000

10 ‫و‬ A B ‫ ء‬D E 1500 2000 4000 5000 7500 3000 4000 8000 10,000 15,000
12 3 A B C ‫ را‬E 1500 2000 4000 5000 7500 3000 4000 8000 10,000 15,000
lb 3 A B >‫ را ؛‬E 1500 2000 4000 5000 7500 3000 4000 8000 10,000 15,000
2% 20 3 A u )‫ (ا ت‬E 1500 2000 4000 5000 7500 3000 4000 8000 10,000 15,000
30 3 A B C ‫ (ا‬E 1500 2000 4000 5000 7500 3000 4000 8000 10,000 15,000
bo 3 A B ('. ‫ را‬E 1500 2000 4000 5000 7500 3000 4000 8000 10,000 15,000
bb A B c ‫ (ا‬E 1500 2000 4000 5000 7500 3000 4000 8000 10,000 15,000

no 4 Q D ‫ج‬ 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000


12 4 c I) E 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
lb 4 c 1) K 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
20 4 c D E 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
3 30 4 c I) E 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
bb 4 c D 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
60 4 c D E 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
70 4 c l> E 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
7 ‫ا‬b 4 c I) 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000

٢ 10 4 £ D E 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000


12 4 c ‫ (ا‬K 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
lb 4 c ‫ را‬E 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
20 4 c ‫ <ل‬E 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
3% 30 4 c ‫ (ا‬E 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
55 4 c ‫ را‬E 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
60 4 c ‫ رل‬E 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
70 4 c ‫ (ا‬E 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000
7 ‫ا‬b 4 c ‫نط را‬ 4000 5000 7500 8000 10,000 15,000

10 5 ‫ء‬ D 4000 5000 8000 10,000


12 5 c D 4000 5000 8000 10,000
١٨ 5 c ‫(ا‬ 4000 5000 8000 10,000
20 5 c D 4000 5000 8000 10,000
4 ‫ي‬ 30 5 c D 4000 5000 8000 10,000
55 5 c ٧ 4000 5000 8000 10,000
60 5 c ‫(ا‬ 4000 5000 8000 10.000
70 5 c D 4000 5000 8000 10,000
75 ‫<ل‬
5 c 4000 5000 8000 10,000

COURTESY OF A PI S P E C 7
ROTARY HOSE
17‫ أ؛‬D efinitions. R otary drilling hose is used as on th e hose assem blies when o th er connections are
the flexible connector betw een the top of th e stand- applied, upon ag reem en t of the u ser and th e ‫؛‬١١^ ١١٧-
pipe and the swivel which allows fo r vertical trav el. fa c tu ‫ ؟‬er, if th e assem bly is p ressu re te sted in
I t is usually used in lengths of 45 feet and over. accordance w ith Table 11.1 w ith o th e r connections
R otary v ib ra to r hoses a re used as flexible con-
nect‫ ؟‬rs betw een th e mud pum p m anifold and the 17.5 T est P ressu re. Each hose assem bly shall
standpipe m anifold to accom m odate alig n m en t and be individually te sted a t the applicable p ressu re
isolate v ib ra ti‫ ؟‬n. They are usually used in lengths specified in Table 17.1 and held fo r a m inim um
period o f one ( ‫ )ل‬m inute.
17.2 SizesanR otarSy drillin g hose and ro ta ry vibra- 17.6 W orking P ressu re. The m axim um w orking
to r hose s^all be fu rnished in th e sizes and lengths p ressu re of th e hose assem bly shall be th a t shown
given in ‫ ؟‬able 17.1 as specified on the purchase in Table 17.1. The su rg e pressu res encountered in
or^er. A dditional lengths of v ib ra to r hose m ay be the system shall be included in the w orking pres-
ordered, and lengths of drilling hose m ay be ordered sure. The hose shall be designed to have a m inim um
in five foot increm ents. They m ay be m arked w ith b u rst p ressu re of a t le a st 2 ‫ ف أ‬tim es th e w orking
th e A P I m onogram if they m eet the o th e r r e ‫ ؟‬uire- pressure.
m ents of th is specification. 17.7 M a k in g . The hose assem bly conform ing to
17.3 D imensions. D im ensions of ro ta ry hose shall th is specification shall be m arked w ith th e A P I
conform to th e r e t i r e m e n t s of Table 17.1 and m onogram , th e w orking p ressu re and th e m anu-
Fig. 17.1, except as noted in P ar. 17.2. fa c tu re r's id entification. Each len g th of hose shall
17.4 Connections. R o ta ry hose assem blies shall have a longitudinal lay line of a d iffe re n t color
be fu rnished w ith ex tern al connections thread ed th an the hose cover. M arkings, w hether embossed
w ith li‫ ؟‬e-pi‫ ؟‬e th re ad s a s specified in A P I Spec. 5B: o r p rin ted in distinctive colors, shall be vulcanized
A P I S p e c ific a tio n f o r Thread ing, G aging, and o r sim ilarly affix ed into th e hose cover.
Thread Inspection ٠/ Casing, T ub in g , and. L in e N O T E: See A ppendix E : Recommended P rac-
Pipe Threads. The A P I m onogram m a^ be retain ed tice f o r Care and Use ٠/ R o ta ry Hose.

ROTARY V IBRATOR AND D R ILLIN G HOSE


D IM EN SIO N S

F ig u r e 42. API S PE C IF IC A T IO N S FOR H OSES


MUD R E ^R N
LINE

LMsnaasH■
‫م مء ء بؤإ‬
‫؛ب م م ء | م‬

F ig u r e 43. M u d r e t u r n l in e

Mud Return I;ine if the fluid has to move a long distance from the
wellhead to the pits.
The mud return line from the w ellhead-the
line th at allows the mud to return to the pit or Storage and Mixing Faciiities
shale shaker by the action o fg ra v ity -is usually A rrangem ents m ust be made on any rig for
6 to 8 inches in diam eter (fig. 43). However, if storing, mixing, and treating mud. Usually
the mud is viscous or if a large volume of mud is sacked bentonite and treating chemicals are
being circulated, a return line of 10-inch kept in a mud house, bulk barite in metal bins,
diam eter is required. A large line is also needed and w ater for drilling in storage tanks (fig. 44).

BULK BAR ITE


'ANKS BINS
‫"؛‬S،‫؛‬SS‫؛‬r

‫؛‬11‫جمغبمة م حءة‬

F ig u r e 44. M u d a n d c h e m ic a l s t o r a g e

30
Hoppers and pumps are used for mixing toe have minimum restrictions in order to perm it
mud ingredients efficiently. high flow. Some rigs are arranged with high-
pressure piping and use one of the regular
M ud-m ixing hopper. J e t hoppers are used
piston pumps for the purpose of mixing and
universally for adding solid m aterials to liquid
transfer. However, a low-pressure system of
mud (fig. 45). A low-pressure mud-mixing hop-
piping with a centrifugal pump is much less ex-
per is used with a centrifugal pump. The pump is
pensive to install, faster, and less troublesome
used to circulate mud from toe pit to toe hopper
to operate than a high-pressure system.
and then back to toe pit. The high velocity of toe
Chemical tanks. Generally, the container
fluid through toe je t lowers toe pressure in toe
used to'feed chemicals into mud is placed on toe
base and sucks m aterials placed in the hopper in-
mud pit near toe pump suctions and close to toe
to toe stream , where they become mixed with
chemical storage point. A large-capacity, open-
toe fluid. M aterials such as clay, bentonite,
top tank with a paddle stirrer offers a workable
barite, and chemicals are fed into toe mud
arrangem ent.
through toe hopper.
M ud-m ixing pum p. A centrifugal pump for
Hydraulics of Mud Circulation
mud service may develop a pressure of only 50
psi and yet move more than 1,000 gallons of liq- Fluid, or hydraulic, power a t the bit is very im-
uid per minute (gal/min). Suction and dis- p ortant to toe drilling process. Hydraulic power
charge lines for this type of pump should m ust remove the cuttings from the bottom of

F ig u r e 45. J et H O P P E R FOR MUD A D D ITIV ES

31
Table 3 dem onstrates w hat is m eant by
pressure losses. If it is assumed th at a mud
pump a t the surface is pumping mud a t the rate
of 400 gal/min a t 2,000 psi, then pressure losses
shown in table 3 will occur as the mud travels
through the components of the circulating
system.

TABLE 3
P r e s s u r e L o s se s w ith M u d P um p a t
P u m p i n g R a t e o p 4 0 0 g a l / m i n a t 2 , 0 0 0 PSI

C i t a t i o n ‫اا؛اا مااااا ه ه‬، Pressure Loss Percent of Loss

Surface equipment 50 psi 2.5


Drill stem 650 psi 32.5
Bit nozzles 1,200 psi 60.0
Return annulus 100 psi 5.0

Total loss 2,000 psi 100.0

It should be noted th at the g reatest loss of


pressure occurs as the mud is jetted out of the
bit nozzles. The high velocity is desirable for effi-
cient removal of the bit cuttings. In the example
given, only 100 psi is required to move the mud
to the surface. It m ust be noted th a t only one set
of circumstances is covered. The depth of the
hole, weight of the mud, size of the bit nozzles,
and diam eters of the piping and the hole
through which the mud moves all have a bearing
the hole so th at the bit can cut into the forma- on the amount of pressure lost in a circulating
tion and not simply redrill cuttings. The mud system. Drilling engineers spend a great deal of
pump is the source of the hydraulic power for time in studying the factors th at affect hydraulic
the mud stream . Some of this power is lost as power in order to make the most efficient use of
the mud travels through the surface piping and the mechanical power available.
down the drill stem. It is lost because the inside
surfaces of the pipe are rough and produce t'ric-
tion and turbulence in the mud stream , both of
which reduce the power. At the bit, the mud Air Circulating Systems
leaves the drill stem through je t nozzles, and the
hydraulic power th at is still left in the mud after When it is possible to circulate with air or gas,
its trip through the drill stem leaves the bit at the rate of drilling is faster than when a liquid
high velocity and lifts the cuttings off the bot- m ust be used. Penetration rates are higher,
tom of the hole. Then the rem aining hydraulic footage per bit is greater, and bit cost is lower.
power forces the mud up the annulus and back Air or gas cleans the bottom of the hole more ef-
to the surface. Once the mud reaches the sur- fectively than mud; it does an excellent job of
،face, all of the hydraulic power is used up cooling when it expands on leaving the bit; and
(fig. 46). One term for this loss of hydraulic it transports cuttings to the surface quickly. In
power is pressure loss. Engineers often speak of addition, with air or gas circulation, it is easy to
such losses as system pressure losses. identify the formation, even though cuttings are
small; and it is easy to detect indications of gas, Rig Equipment
oil, or water.
These advantages of air or gas circulation are In air drilling, the air does not make a com-
usually overbalanced by two im portant disad- plete circulation. It makes one trip through the
vantages, however. First, if the walls of the well compressors, down the drill stem, and back to
tend to slough, or cave, into the hole, air or gas the surface, where it is blown to waste. Skid-
cannot prevent them from doing so, and sticking mounted compressors furnish the high-pressure
of the drill stem becomes likely. Second, it is im- air for a regular rotary rig arranged for air drill-
possible to prevent formation fluids from enter- ing (fig. 4?). Other equipment required to han-
ing the wellbore because neither air nor gas can die air for circulation includes chemical treat-
exert enough pressure to keep them out. This m ent equipment to use against corrosion and
second disadvantage is especially im portant specialized equipment such as (1) mist pumps for
because most wells encounter water-bearing injecting foamers and fluid when drilling with
formations a t some time. foam or mist, (2) hamm er drills to increase
Two further disadvantages of drilling with air penetration rates, and (3) air bits, special bits
or gas are (1) the ever-present hazard of fire, with extra-heavy shanks and ducts to allow air
and (2) the problem of corrosion. Chemicals to to flow through the bit bearings.
combat corrosion are available now, but the In preparing to drill with air, the usual pro-
added cost and effort of using them m ust be con- cedure is as follows. Rigging up for using mud
sidered. as the circulating medium is done first. Then the

٠٠
-- ‫ ك ب‬،‫ه ء ق م ح م‬
1
F ig u re 47. A ir c o m p re sso rs f o r air
PILOT LIGHT
BYPASS LINE

MUD TANKS STANDPIPE


FLEXIBLE LINE COMPRESSOR LINE
CHEMICAL PUMP

PUMPS

COMPRESSOR RIG BLOOEY LI^E

PREVAILING A W IN D S

F ig u re 48. A rra n g e m e n t of E ‫ ؟‬U IFM E N T f © r a i r c i r c u l a t i o n

F ig u r e 49. B low out FR EV EN TER S f o r a ir d r il l in g


compressors or a connection to a supply of high-
pressure gas is installed (fig. 48). Next, the
blowout preventers (fig. 49) and a rotating head
are hooked up, and safety precautions are put
into effect to minimize the fire hazard. A
rotating head, or rotating blowout preventer
(fig. 50), makes a seal around the kelly to pre-
vent the air or gas from leaking during drilling,
while still allowing the drill stem to rotate. An
exhaust line, or blooey line, equivalent to the
mud retu rn line for mud circulation, is con-
nected below the rotating head to vent the air or
gas to a location a t a safe distance from the rig
(fig. 51). If gas is being used, a pilot light is set

OF NL IN D U S T R IE S
up a t the end of-the exhaust line to ignite the gas
as it leaves.
C alculating the volum e o f a i r needed. Air or
gas usually returns up the annulus a t a rate of
about 3,000 ft/min, depending on several
variables. The most im portant of these variables

COURTESY
are the rate of penetration, well depth, and
amount of w ater entering the well. Other
variables are the diam eters of the hole and drill F ig u r e 50. R o ta tin g head

F ig u r e 51. B looey LIN E


pipe, type of formation being drilled, and size of Use of Foam
cuttings. Using gas instead of air requires more
volume to produce the same lifting capacity In air-drilled wells in which water-producing
under given conditions, since gas is lighter than formations are encountered, it sometimes
air. becomes necessary to employ foaming agents to
reduce the am ount of pressure th at would other-
As one can see in table 4, 50 percent more air wise be needed to lift the w ater out of the hole.
is required a t 6,000 feet when toe rate of When w ater is encountered, it flows into the
penetration is 90 feet per hour (ft/h) than at wellbore and begins to fill it. As the hole fills up
2,000 feet when toe rate is 30 ft/h. More gas with w ater, more and more air pressure is re-
than air is required at all depths and penetration quired to lift the w ater out of the hole. Enough
rates.
٢^ ^ ١١٢ eventually gets into the hole so th a t not
enough air pressure is available to overcome the
Determ ining the size ofcom pressors needed.
weight of the water. For example, a 5,000-foot
A fter toe necessary volume of air or gas is
column of salt w ater exerts 2,340 psi on bottom,
calculated, the necessary size of compressors
and a t least th at much air pressure is required to
must be determined. In reality, compressors will
remove toe w ater. Because this much air
not be used unless air is toe circulating fluid.
pressure is not readily available, chemicals
Gas is used only if there is a high-pressure
similar to soap are used to cause the w ater in toe
source nearby, and in th at case no compression
annulus to froth and foam into a large volume.
is necessary.
The foam reduces toe pressure needed to move
Single-stage com pressors are used for the w ater out of the hole. As much as 50 barrels
pressures up to 125 psi; two-stage or three-stage of w ater per hour entering toe hole can be
units are used for pressures up to 300 psi. For handled by adding a foaming agent. The
even higher pressures such as those often need- soaplike chemicals are mixed with w ater in a
ed when w ater is encountered and foam or small tank and pumped into toe air stream going
aerated mud m ust be used, booster compressors into toe well by means of a small pump (fig. 52).
are necessary. Booster compressors take the C orrosion-inhibiting chemicals are injected into
output of one or two units and raise toe pressure toe air stream along with the foaming agent.
to pressures ranging from 500 to 1,500 psi. The foam is blown away a t the surface. If w ater

TABLE 4
A p p r o x im a t e R ate of C ir c u l a t io n ( f t 3/ m i n ) i n 8 % - i n c h H o l e w i t h
4 ‫؛‬/ i n c h - 2 ‫ ه‬R ILL P ip e w it h V o l u m es to P roduce L if t in g P o w e r E q u iv a l e n t t o a V e l o c it y of 3 ,0 0 0 f t / m in

Drilling Rates
Well Depth Compressed Air Natural ٥ ‫؛‬

30 ft/h 90 ft/h 30 ‫س‬ 90 ft/h

2,000 ft 1,039 ft3/mln 1,113 ft3/min 1,326 ft3/min 1,426 ft3/min

4,000ft 1,174 ft3/min 1,323 ft3/min 1,486 ft3/min ‫ل‬,‫؛ س‬،</‫<ا؛ااا‬


ft 6,000 1,3‫ل‬0 ‫ال سسم‬ ft3/min 1,573 1,646 ‫س ?و‬ ft3/min 1,946
‫ص‬
• ______________

.‫”'سث‬

F ig u r e 52. Chem i c a l t a n k a n d p u m p p ©r c i r c u l a t i n g w it h fo a m

enters the well a t a rate of more than 50 barrels


per hour, it may be necessary to resort to drill-
Workover
ing with aerated mud. Circulating Systems
Use of Aerated Mud Circulating Fiuid
A erated mud is employed when sizable A rotary workover rig, which is actually a
amounts of w a te r - th a t is, more w ater than can light-duty drilling rig, often employs clear w ater
be handled with foaming a g e n ts -e n te r a hole as the circulating medium. Even if this w ater is
being drilled with air, or when there is a problem dark colored or muddy looking, it is called clear
of lost circulation. A erated mud may also be w ater around oil fields if it has few solids to set-
used when drilling through coral or cavernous tie out of suspension and does not gel, or stiffen,
limestone formations in situations th at make when not flowing. Most workovers are perform-
normal mud circulation impossible. ed with salt w ater because it is usually available

37
in toe field and because it does less damage to down the annulus, up the drill stem, through the
reservoir formations than fresh w ater. Regular hose, and back to the tank.
drilling mud is employed if well pressure is ex- Regardless of whether conventional or re-
pected to be high. If toe well must be deepened verse circulation is used, fluid retu rn from the
and therefore a new form ation m ust be drilled, wellhead to the tank is through a pipe th at is 2
drilling mud is used because cuttings m ust be or 3 inches in diam eter. The settling and suction
carried to toe surface and heavy fluid to control pits are usually combined in one tank. Mixing of
form ation pressure may be required. In some dry mud is kept to a minimum, and chemical
cases, foam or aerated mud m ust be used as toe treatm ent is seldom required. A reserve pit is
circulating fluid. seldom needed because shale or sand disposal is
not a major requirem ent and there is usually not
Route of Circulation and Equipment much w astew ater. Most heavy-duty workover
rigs are provided with a shale shaker, which is
Circulation for a workover is usually conven-
usually mounted on the mud tank.
tio n a l-th a t is, down toe drill stem and up toe
The addition of air to the mud being pumped
annulus (fig. 53). However, on many workover
into the well lowers the hydrostatic pressure of
jobs it is desirable to employ reverse circulation.
In such cases, toe blowout preventer is closed the fluid in the annulus to less ‫ذ ا‬ formation
pressure and speeds up the rate of penetration.
around toe drill stem, and fluid flow is directed
The hydrostatic pressure is lowered to the point
a t which circulation is still possible, but some
form ation fluid will enter the well. In some in-
stances the amount of formation fluid removed
in this m anner has been more than 1,000 barrels
per hour.
Form ation fluid removed in this m anner may
not be salty, but the presence of air causes con-
siderable corrosion unless inhibiting chemicals
are employed. The usual treatm ent is to add
lime to the w ater being pumped into the hole.
The mud is aerated by injecting high-pressure
air produced by compressors (usually a t about
1,000 psi) into the standpipe. The air-mud mix-
ture goes down the drill stem and returns up the
annulus. Because the air expands on its way to
the surface, the column of mud is lightened and
flows out of the well. J e t collars placed in the
drill stem perm it some of toe compressed air to
return to toe surface before it reaches toe bit.
For aeration, a mud m ust be of good quality
and have low gel strength so th at air can easily
break out. The mud is recycled, so it m ust be
deaerated after each circulation for handling by
toe mud pumps.
In drilling with aerated mud, sufficient casing
m ust be set. Annular velocity is so g reat th at it
may destroy an open hole unless the formation
F ig u r e 53. C ir c u la t io n s y s te m f o r a w o rk o v e r rig is hard rock.
GLOSSARY

hazard as well as to transport the cuttings a suitable distance


from the well.
blowout n: an uncontrolled flow of gas, oil, or other well
acidize v: to treat oil-bearing limestone or other formations, fluids into the atmosphere. A blowout, or gusher, occurs
using a chemical reaction with acid, for the purpose of in- when formation pressure exceeds the pressure applied to it
creasing production. Hydrochloric or other acid is injected by the column of drilling fluid. A kick warns of an impending
into the formation under pressure. The acid etches the rock, blowout. See kick.
enlarging the pore spaces and passages through which the blowout preventer n: one of several valves installed at the
reservoir fluids flow. The acid is held under pressure for a wellhead to prevent the escape of pressure either in the an-
period of time and then pumped out, and the we'll is swabbed nular space between the casing and drill pipe or in open hole
and put back into production. Chemical inhibitors combined (hole with no drill pipe) during drilling completion opera-
with the acid prevent corrosion of the pipe. tions. Blowout preventers on land rigs are located beneath
aeration ٢،: the technique of injecting air or gas into a fluid. the rig at the land’s surface; on jackup ٠١■platform rigs, they
For example, air is injected into drilling fluid to reduce the are located at the water’s surface; and on floating offshore
density ol' th‫ ؛؛‬fluid. rigs, on the seafloor.
annular space n: 1. the space surrounding a cylindrical ol)- borehole n: the wellbore; the hole made by drilling or boring.
‫نءز‬،‫ ا؛‬within a cylinder. 2. the space around a pipe in a See wellbore.
wellbore, the outer wall of which may be the wall of either breakover ‫ ;أر‬the change in the chemistry of a mud from one
the borehole or the casing; sometimes termed the annulus.
type to another; also called a conversion.
annulus n: also called annular space. See annular space.

casing n: steel pipe placed in an oil or gas well as drilling


back-presssure n: 1. the pressure maintained on equipment progresses to prevent the wall of the hole from caving in dur-
or systems through which a fluid flows. 2. in reference to ing drilling and to provide a means of extracting petroleum if
engines, a term used to describe the resistance to exhaust the well is productive.
gas flow through the exhaust pipe. cementing n: the application of a liquid slurry of cement and
ball up v: to collect a mass of sticky consolidated material, water to various points inside or outside the casing.
usually drill cuttings, on drill pipe, drill collars, tool joints,
centrifugal force n: the force that tends to pull all matter
and so forth. A b it w ith such m aterial a tta ch e d to it is term ed from the center of a rotating mass.
a balled-up bit. The condition frequently is a result of inade-
quate pump pressure or ‫!!؛‬Sufficient drilling fluid. centrifugal pump n: a pump with an impeller or rotor, an
impeller shaft, and a casing, which discharges fluid by cen-
barite or baryte n: barium sulfate, BaS04, a mineral foe- trifugal force.
quently used to increase the weight or density of drilling
mud. Its specific gravity is 4.2 (i.e., it is 4.2 times heavier centrifuge n: a machine that uses c e n tr ifu g a l force to
than water). separate substances of varying densities; also called the
shake-out or grind-out machine. A centrifuge is capable of
bearing 1 ;‫أر‬. an object, surface, or point that supports. 2. a
spinning substances at high speeds to obtain high centrifugal
machine part in which another part (such as a journal or forces.
pin) turns or slides.
chain drive n: a mechanical drive using a driving chain and
bentonite n: a colloidal clay, composed primarily of mont-
chain gears to transmit power. Power transmissions use a
morillonite, that swells when wet. Because of its gel-forming
roller chain, in which each link is made of side bars,
properties, bentonite is a major component of drilling muds.
transverse pins, and rollers on the pins. A double roller chain
See gel and ™‫يس‬
is made of two connected rows of links, a triple roller chain
bit n: the cutting or boring element used in drilling oil and of three, and so forth.
gas wells. The bit consists of a cutting element and a cir-
culating element. The circulating element permits the circulation n: the movement of drilling fluid out of the mud
passage of drilling fluid and utilizes foe hydraulic force of foe pits, down the drill stem, up the annulus, and back to the
fluid stream to improve drilling rates. In rotary drilling, mud pits.
several drill collars are joined to the bottom end of foe drill
pipe column. The bit is attached to foe end of the drill collar. complete a well v: to finish work on a well and bring it to
Most bits used in rotary drilling are roller cone bits. productive status. See well completion.
blooey line n: foe discharge pipe from a well being drilled by compressor n: a device that raises the pressure of a com-
air drilling. The blooey line is used to conduct the air or gas pressible fluid such as air or gas. Compressors create a
used for circulation away from the rig to reduce foe fire pressure differential to move or compress a vapor or a gas.

39
consuming power in the process. They may be positive- chemical additives is the most common drilling fluid, wells
displacement compressors 0‫ آ‬nonpositive-displacement com- can also be drilled using air, gas, water, or oil-base mud as
pressors. the drilling fluid. Also called circulating fluid. See mud.
condition v: to treat drilling mud with additives to give it drill pipe ‫أر‬: the heavy seamless tubing used to rotate the bit
certein properties. Sometimes the term applies to water and circulate the drilling fluid. Joints of pipe approximately
used in boilers, drilling operations, and so on. To condition 30 feet long are coupled together by means of tool joints.
and circulate mud is to ensure that additives are distributed drill stem n: all members in the assembly used for drilling by
evenly throughout a system by circulating the mud while it is the rotary method from tee swivel to the bit, including the
being conditioned. kelly, drill pipe and tool joints, drill collars, stabilizers, and
conversion n: the change in tee chemistry of a mud from various specialty items. Compare drill string.
one type to another; also called a breakover. Reasons for drill string n: the column, or string, of drill pipe with
making a conversion may be (I) to maintain a stable attached tool joints that transmits fluid and rotational power
wellbore, (2) to provide a mud that will tolerate higher from the kelly to the drill collars and bit. Often, especially in
weight 0‫ آ‬density, (3) to drill soluble formations, and (4) to the oil patch, the term is loosely applied to both drill pipe and
provide protection to producing zones. drill collars. Compare drill stem.
core n: a cylindrical sample taken from a formation for duplex pump n: a reciprocating pump having two pistons or
geolo^cal analysis. Usually a conventional core barrel is plungers, used extensively as a mud pump on drilling rigs.
substituted for tee bit and procures a sample as it penetrates
the formation, v: to obtain a formation sample for analysis.
corrosion n: a complex chemical or electrochemical process
by which metal is destroyed through reaction with its en-
vironment. For example, rust is corrosion.
cuttings n pi: the fragments of rock dislodged by the bit and
brought to the surface in tee drilling mud. Washed and dried electric log n: also called an electric well log. See electric
samples of the cuttings are analyzed by geologists to obtain well log.
information about the formations drilled electric well log n: a record of certain electrical
cylinder n: 1. the unit of an intern‫؛‬l-combust‫؛‬on engine in characteristics of formations traversed by tee borehole,
which combustion and compression take place. 2. a chamber made to identify the formations, determine the nature and
in a pump from which the piston expels fluid. amount of fluids they contain, and estimate tee‫؛‬،' depth. Also
called an electric log or electric survey,
emulsifying agent n: material added to solid-in-liquid or
liquid-in-liquid suspensions to separate the individual
suspended particles. Also called disperse‫ •؛‬or emulsifier.
emulsion n: a mixture in which one liquid, termed tee
dispersed phase, is uniformly distributed (usually as minute
degasser n: tee device used to remove unwanted gas from a globules) in another liquid, called the continuous phase or
liquid, especially from drilling fluid. dispersion medium. In an oil-water emulsion, tee oil is the
density n: the mass or weight of a substance per unit dispersed phase and the water the dispersion medium; in a
volume. For instance, the density of a drilling mud may be water-oil emulsion, the reverse holds. A typical product of oil
10 pounds per gallon (ppg), 74.8 pounds per cubic foot wells, water-oil emulsion is also used as a drilling fluid.
(lb/ft3), or 1 198.2 kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3). electrolytic property n: tee ability of a substance, usually in
derrickman n: tee crew member who handles the upper end solution, to conduct an electric current.
of the drill string as it is being hoisted out of or lowered into
the hole. He is also responsible for tee circulating machinery
and the conditioning of the drilling fluid.
desander n: a centrifugal device for removing sand from
drilling fluid to prevent abrasion of the pumps. It may be
operated mechanically ()٢ by a fast-moving stream of fluid in-
side a special cone-shaped vessel, in which case it is filter cake n: 1. compacted solid or semisolid material re-
sometimes called a ' Compare desilter. maining on a filter after pressure filtration of mud with tee
desilter n: a centrifugal device for removing very fine par- standard filter press. Thickness of the cake is reported in
tides, or silt, from drilling fluid to keep tee amount of solids thirty-seconds of an inch or in millimetres. 2. the layer of
in the fluid at the lowest possible point. Usually, the lower concentrated solids from the drilling mud that forms on the
the solids content of mud, the faster is the rate of penetra- wells of the borehold opposite permeable formations; also
tion. A desilter works on the same principle as a desander. called wall cake or mud cake.
downhole mud motor n: also called a turbodrill. See tur- filter press n: a device used in the testing of filtration prop-
bodrill. erties of drilling mud. See mud.
drill collar n: a heavy, thick-walled tube, usually steel, used filtrate n: a fluid that has been passed through a filter.
between the drill pipe and the bit in tee drill stem to provide fishtail bit n: a drilling bit with cutting edges of hard alloys;
a pendulum effect to the drill stem and weight to the bit. also called a drag bit. First used when tee rotary system of
drilling fluid n: circulating fluid, one function of which is to drilling was developed about 1000, it is still useful in drilling
force cuttings out of the wellbore and to the surface, ft also very soft formations.
serves to cool the bit and counteract downhole formation flash point n: the temperature at which a petroleum product
pressure. While a mixture of clay, barite, water, and ignites momentarily but does not burn continuously.

40
flocculation n: the coagulation of solids in a drilling fluid
produced by special additives or by contaminants, I
formation n: a bed or deposit composed throughout of
substantially the same kind of rock; a lithologic unit. Each internal-combustion engine n: a heat engine in which the
different formation is given a name, frequently as a result of pressure necessary to produce motion of the mechanism
the study of the formation outcrop at the surface and results from the ignition or burning of a fuel-air mixture
sometimes based on fossils found in the formation. within the engine cylinder.
formation fluid n: fluid (such as gas, oil, or water) that ex-
ists in a subsurface rock formation.
j
jet n: 1. a hydraulic device operated by pump pressure to
clean mud pits and tanks in rotary drilling and to mix mud
components. 2. in a perforating gun using shaped charges, a
gas-cut mud n: a drilling mud that has entrained formation
highly penetrating, fast-moving stream of exploded particles
gas, giving the mud a characteristically fluffy texture. When
that cuts a hole in the casing, cement, and formation.
entrained gas is not released before the fluid returns to the
well, the weight 0،' density of the fluid column is reduced. jet bit n: a drilling bit having replaceable nozzles through
Because a large amount of gas in mud lowers its density, which the drilling fluid is directd in a high-velocity stream to
gas-cut mud must be treated to lessen the chance of a the bottom of the hole to improve the efficiency of the bit.
blowout.

gel n: a semisolid, jellylike state assumed by some colloidal


dispersions at rest. When agitated, the gel converts to a fluid
state, v: to take the form of a gel; to set.

gel strength n: a measure of the ability of a colloidal disper-


kelly n: the heavy steel member, three-, four-, or six-sided,
sion to develop and retain a gel form, based on its ’ ’
to shear. The gel strength, or shear strength, of a drilling suspended from the swivel through the rotary table and con-
nected to the topmost joint of drill pipe to turn the drill stem
mud determines its ability to hold solids in '
Sometimes bentonite and other colloidal clays are added to as the rotary table turns. It has a bored passageway that per-
mits fluid to be circulated into the drill stem and up the an-
drilling fluid to increase its gel strength.
nulus, or vice versa.
kick n: an entry of water, gas, oil, or other formation fluid
into the wellbore. It occurs because the pressure exerted by
the column of drilling fluid is not great enough to overcome
the pressure exerted by the fluids in the formation drilled. If
prompt action is not taken to control the kick or kill the well,
hammer drill n: a drilling tool that, when placed in the drill a blowout will occur. See blowout.
stem just above a roller cone bit, delivers
percussion blows to the rotating bit. Hammer drilling com-
bines the basic features of rotary and cable-tool drilling (i.e.,
bit rotation and percussion), v: to use such a tool.

hopper n: a large funnel- or core-shaped device into which liner n: 1. any string of casing whose top is located below the
dry components (such as powdered clay or cement) can be surface. A liner may serve as the oil string, extending from
poured in order to uniformly mix the ' with the producing interval up to the next string of casing. 2. in
water (or other liquids). The liquid is injected through a noz- jet-perforating guns, a conically shaped metallic piece that is
zle at the bottom of ^he hopper. The resulting mixture of dry part of a shaped charge. It increases the efficiency of the
material and liquid may be drilling mud to be used as the cir- charge by increasing the penetrating ability of the jet. 3. a
culating fluid in a rotary drilling operation or may be cement replaceable tube that fits inside the cylinder of an engine or a
slurry used to bond casing to the borehole. pump.
hydraulic adj: 1. of or relating to water or other liquid in lost circulation n: the loss of quantities of whole mud to a
motion. 2. operated, moved, or effected by water or liquid. formation, usually in cavernous, fissured, or coarsely
permeable beds, evidenced by the complete or partial failure
hydrostatic head n: the pressure exerted by a body of water of the mud to return to the surface as it is being circulated ‫؛‬١١
at rest. The hydrostatic head of fresh ٢^ ^ ١١٢is 0.433 psi per the hole. Lost circulation can lead to a blowout and, in
foot of height. Those of other liquids may be determined by general, reduce the efficiency of the drilling operation. It is
comparing their gravities with the gravity of water. See also called lost returns. See blowout.
pressure gradient.

hydrostatic pressure n: the force exerted by a body of fluid


at rest; hydrostatic pressure increases directly with the M
weight and depth of the fluid. In drilling, the term refers to
the pressure exerted by the drilling fluid in the wellbore. See manifold ‫أر‬: an accessory system of piping to a main piping
hydrostatic head. system (or another conductor) that serves to divide a flow

41
into several parts, to combine several flows into one, or to valves, and mud agitators. Mud pits are also called shaker
reroute a flow to any one of several possible destinations. pits, settling pits, and suction pits, depending on their main
mix mud v: to prepare drilling fluids from a mixture of water purpose. Also called mud tanks.
or other liquids and one or more of the various dry mud- mud pump n: a large reciprocating pump used to circulate
making materials (such as clay, weighting materials, the mud on a drilling rig. A typical mud pump is a single- or
chemicals, and so forth). double-acting, ،١٠٠■ or three-cylinder piston pump whose
mousehole n: an opening through the rig floor, usually lined pistons travel in replaceable liners and are driven by a
with pipe, into which a length of drill pipe is placed tem- crankshaft actuated by an engine or motor. Also called a
porarily for later connection to toe drill string. slush pump.
mud n: toe liquid circulated through the wellbore during mud return line n: a trough or pipe placed between the sur-
rotary drilling and workover operations. In addition to its face connections at the wellbore and the shale shaker,
function of bringing cuttings to toe surface, drilling mud through which drilling mud flows upon its return to the sur-
cools and lubricates the bit and drill stem, protects against from the hole.
blowouts by holding back subsurface pressures, and deposits
a mud cake on toe wall of toe borehole to prevent loss of
fluids to toe formation. Although it originally was a suspen-
sion of earth solids (especially clays) in water, the mud used
in modern drilling operations is a more complex, three-phase
mixture of liquids, reactive solids, and inert solids. The liquid
phase may be fresh water, diesel oil, or crude oil and may oil-base mud n: an oil mud that contains from less than 2
contain one or more conditioners. See drilling fluid. percent up to 5 percent water. The water is spread out, or
mud additive n: any material added to drilling fluid to dispersed, in the oil as small droplets.
change some of its characteristics or properties,
ol-emulsion mud n: a water-base mud in which water is the
mud balance n: a beam balance consisting of a cup and a continuous phase and oil is the dispersed phase. The oil is
graduated arm carrying a sliding weight and resting on a spread out, or dispersed, in the water in small droplets,
fulcrum, used to determine toe density or weight of drilling which are tightly emulsified so that they do not settle out.
mud. Because of its lubricating abilities, the use of an "
mud cake n: the sheath of mud solids that forms on toe wall mud increases the drilling rate and ensures better hole con-
of the hole when toe liquid from toe mud filters into toe for- ditions than other muds. Compare oil mud.
mation; also called wall cake or filter cake.
mud conditioning n: toe treatment and control of drilling oil mud n: a drilling mud in which oil is the continuous phase.
mud to ensure that it has toe correct properties. Condition- Oil-base mud and invert-oil mud are types of oil muds. They
ing may include toe use of additives, the removal of sand or are useful in drilling certain formations that may be difficult
other solids, the removal of gas, the addition of water, and or costly to drill with water-base mud. Compare oil-emulsion
other measures to prepare the mud for conditions en- mud.
countered in a specific well.
operator n: the person or company, either proprietor or
mud engineer n: a person whose duty is to test and maintain lessee, actually operating an oilwell or lease. Generally, the
toe properties of the drilling mud that are specified by toe oil company by whom the contractor is engaged.
operator.
mud flow indicator n: a device that continually measures
and sometimes records the flow rate of mud returning from
the annulus and flowing out of the mud return line. If toe
mud does not flow at a fairly constant rate, a kick or lost cir-
culation may have occurred.
mud-gas separator n: a device that separates toe gas from permeability n: 1. a measure of toe ease with which fluid can
the mud coming out of a well when gas cutting occurs or flow through a porous rock. 2. toe fluid conductivity of a
when a kick is being circulated out. porous medium. 3. the ability of a fluid to flow within the in-
mud gun n: a pipe that shoots a jet of drilling mud under terconnected pore network of a porous medium.
high pressure into toe mud pit to mix additives with toe mud
or to agitate the mud. pH value n: a unit of measure of toe acid or alkaline condi-
tion of a substance. A neutral solution (like pure water) has a
mud logging n: toe recording of information derived from pH of 7; acid solutions are less than 7; basic, or alkaline, solu-
examination and analysis of formation cuttings made by the tions are above 7. The pH scale is a logarithmic scale; a
bit and mud circulated ©ut of toe hole. A portion of the mud substance with a pH of 4 is more than twice as acid as a
is diverted through a gas-detecting device. Cuttings brought substance with a pH of 5. Similarly, a substance with a pH of
up by the mud are examined under ultraviolet light to detect 9 is much more than twice as alkaline as a substance with a
the presence of oil or gas. Mud logging is often carried out in pH of 8.
a portable laboratory set up at toe well.
mud pits n pi: a series of open tanks, usually made of steel pressure gradient n: a scale of pressure differences in which
plate, through which the drilling mud is cycled to allow sand toere is a uniform variation of pressure from point to point.
and sediments to settle out. Additives are mixed with the For example, toe pressure gradient of a column of water is
mud in the pits, and toe fluid is temporarily stored toere about 0.433 psi/ft of vertical elevation. The normal pressure
before being pumped back into toe well. Modern rotary drill- gradient in a formation is equivalent to the pressure exerted
ing rigs are generally provided with three or more pits, at any given depth by a column of 10 percent salt water ex-
usually fabricated steel tanks fitted with built-in piping, tending from that depth to the surface (0.465 ps‫؛‬/ft).
substance is 0.95. In determining the specific gravity of
gases, the comparison is made with the standard of air or
hydrogen.
rate of penetration n: a measure of the speed at which the spud in v: to begin drilling; to start the hole,
bit drills into formations, usually expressed in feet per hour,
standpipe n: a vertical pipe rising along the side of the der-
resistivity n: toe electrical resistance offered to toe passage rick or mast, which joins the discharge line leading from the
of current; the opposite of conductivity. mud pump to the rotary hose and through which mud is
rig manager n: an employee of a drilling contractor who is in pumped going into the hole.
charge of the entire drilling crew and toe drilling rig. Also suction pit n: the mud pit from which mud is picked up by
called a toolpusher, drilling foreman, rig supervisor, or rig the suction of the mud pumps; also called a sump pit or mud
superintendent. suct^n pit.
rig up ١١; to prepare the drilling rig for making hole; to install swivel n: a rotary tool that is hung from the rotary hook and
tools and machinery before drilling is started, traveling block to suspend and permit free rotation of the
rotary drilling n: a drilling method in which a hole is drilled drill stem. It also provides a connection for the rotary hose
by a rotating bit to which a downward force is applied. The and a passageway for the flow of drilling fluid into the drill
bit is fastened to and rotated by toe drill stem, which also stem.
provides a passageway through which the drilling fluid is cir-
culated. Additional joints of drill pipe are added as toe drill-
mg progresses.
rotary hose n: a reinforced, flexible tube on a rotary drilling
rig that conducts the drilling fluid from the mud pump and
standpipe to the swivel and kelly; also called the mud hose or toolpusher n: an employee of a drilling contractor who is in
the kelly hose. charge of the entire drilling crew and the drilling rig. Also
rotary table n: toe principal component of a rotary, or called a drilling foreman, rig manager, rig supervisor, or rig
rotary machine, used to turn the drill stem and support toe superintendent.
drilling assembly, ft has a beveled gear arrangement to transmission n: the gear or chain arrangement by which
create toe rotational motion and an opening into which
power is transmitted from the prime mover to the
bushings are fitted to drive and support toe drilling drawworks, mud pump, or rotary table of a drilling rig.
assembly.
triplex pump n: a reciprocating pump with three pistons or
rotating blowout preventer n: also called rotating head. plungers.
See rotating head.
turbodrill n: a drilling tool that rotates a bit attached to it by
rotating head ‫أر‬: a sealing device used to close off toe an- the action of the drilling mud on the turbine blades built into
nular space around the kelly when drilling with pressure at toe tool. When a turbodrill is used, rotary motion is imparted
toe surface, usually installed above toe main blowout only a t the bit; therefore, it is unnecessa‫ ^؛‬to rotate toe drill
preventers. A rotating head makes it possible to drill ahead stem. Although straight holes can be drilled with the tool, it
even when there is pressure in the annulus that toe weight of is used most often in directional drilling.
toe drilling fluid is not overcoming; toe head prevents toe
well !٢™ blowing out. It is used mainly in the drilling of for-
mations that have low permeability. The rate o ^ n e tr a tio n
through such formations is usually rapid.

s V-belt n: belt with a trapezoidal cross section that is made to


run in sheaves, or pulleys, with grooves of corresponding
shape.
shale n: a fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of con-
viscometer n: a device used to determine the viscosity of a
solidated silt and clay or mud. Shale is the most frequently
substance; also called a viscosimeter.
occurring sedimentary rock.
viscosity n: a measure of the resistance of a liquid to flow.
shale shaker n: a series of trays with sieves that vibrate to
Resistance is brought about by toe internal friction resulting
remove cuttings from toe circulating fluid in rotary drilling
from toe combined effects of cohesion and adhesion. The
operations. The size of the openings in the sieve is carefully
viscosity of petroleum products is commonly expressed in
selected to match toe size of the solids in the drilling fluid
and the anticipated size of cuttings. Also called a shaker. terms of the time required for a specific volume of the liquid
to flow through an orifice of a specific size.
shear n: action or stress that results from applied forces and
that causes or tends to cause two adjoining parts of a body to
slide relative to each other in a direction parallel to their
plane of contact.
single n: a joint of drill pipe. w
specific gravity n: toe ratio of toe weight of a ^ ven volume
of a substance at a given temperature to the weight of an wall cake n: also called filter cake or mud cake. See filter
equal volume of a standard substance at toe same cake.
temperature. For example, if 1 cubic inch of water at 39°F water-back v: 1. to reduce the weight or density of a drilling
weighs 1 unit and 1 cubic inch of another solid or liquid at mud by adding water. 2. to reduce toe solids content of a
39°F weighs 0.95 unit, then the specific gravity of toe mud by adding water.
water-base mud n: a drilling mud in which ‫ و ه‬continuous characteristics of the producing formation or formations.
phase is water. In water-base muds, any additives are These techniques include open-hole comp)etions, sand-
dispersed in the water. Compare oil-base mud. exciusion completions, tubingless completions, multiple com-
weight up v: to increase the weight or density of the drilling pletions, and miniaturized completions.
fluid by adding weighting material. wellhead n: the equipment installed at the surface of the
wellbore n: a borehole; the hole drilled by the bit. A wellbore wellbore. A wellhead includes such equipment as the cas-
may have casing in it or may be open (uncased), or a portion inghead and tubing head, adj: pertaining to the wellhead
of it may be cased, and a portion of it may be open, (e.g., wellhead pressure).
well completion n: the activities and methods necessary to workover n: the performance of one or more of a variety of
prepare a well for the production of oil and gas; the method remedial operations on a producing oilwell to try to increase
by which a flow line for hydrocarbons is established between production. Examples of workover jobs are deepening, plug-
the reservoir and the surface. The method of well completion ging back, pulling and resetting liners, squeeze cementing,
used by the operator depends on the individual and so forth.

44
ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS
LESSONS IN ROTAR¥ DRILLING
Unit /, Lesson 8: Circulating System s

(1) Transporting cuttings to toe surface 14. (1) Mud pits should be cleaned thoroughly.
(2) Cleaning the bottom of toe hole (2) W ater should be added to the mud to lower percen-
(3) Cooling toe bit and lubricating toe drill stem tage of solids.
(4) Supporting toe walls of the well (3) Ail ehemicals should be positioned conveniently.
(5) Preventing entry of formation fluids into the well (4) Rig personnel should be given instructions concern-
ing the rate at which materials are to added.
2. (1) Water
(2) Mud 15. (1) How many sacks of barite are needed
(2) How fast these sacks should be added

16. Reducing mud weight by adding water


I ‫؛‬L ,, ’ these fluids
17. Water decreases mud density, whereas chemicals do
3. (1) Mud pumps not.
(2) Rotary hose
(3) Swivel 18. emulsifying agent
(4) Drill stem
(5) Bit 19. Flushing with water
(6) Mud return line
(7) Mud pits 26. (1) Mud pumps
(8) Compressors (for air drilling) (2) Rotary hose
(3) Swivel
4. viscosity; gel strength (4) Drill stem
(5) Bit
5. jet nozzles; turbulence (6) Annulus
(7) Mud pits
6. (1) Force exerted on adjacent bodies by a liquid standing
still 21. (1) To accumulate mud circulated from the well
(2) By increasing the density of toe fluid (2) To supply fluid to the pump for circulation
(3) To store enough mud to fill the hole when pipe is
7. (1) Volume of fluid returning from toe hole increases. removed
(2) Mud continues to flow when toe pump is shut down.
22. (1) Shale shakers
8. Water-base mud (2) Mud agitators
(3) Degassers
9. (1) Viscosity (4) Desilters
(2) Ability to build filter cake (5) Desanders
(3) Gel strength (6) Mud centrifuges

10. lignosulfonate 23. (1) Duplex, double-acting


(2) Triplex, single-acting
11. Oil-base mud: less than 5 percent water 24. (1) Surface equipment
Invert-oil mud: from 10 to 50 percent water (2) Drill stem
(3) Bit nozzles
12. (1)C (4) Return annulus
(2)E
(3)B 25. (1) Air cannot prevent sloughing of the walls of the well,
(4)A and sticking of toe drill stem becomes likely.
(5)F (2) Air cannot exert enough pressure to prevent forma-
(6)D tion fluids from entering toe wellbore.

26. Foam causes the water to froth and foam into a large
13. (1) To maintain a stable wellbore volume and thus reduces toe pressure needed to move
(2) To provide a mud that will tolerate higher weight the water out of the hole.
(3) To drill soluble formations
(4) To provide protection to producing zones 27. Salt water
‫م ‪,‬آ'ا‬

Anda mungkin juga menyukai