INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWER SYSTEMS IEEE Std 142-1991

Table 13—Formulas for the Calculation of Resistances to Ground

Multiple electrodes in parallel yield lower resistance to ground than a single electrode. Multiple rods are commonly
used to provide the low grounding resistance required by high-capacity installations. Adding a second rod does not,
however, provide a total resistance of half that of a single rod, unless the two are several rod lengths apart. A useful rule
is that grounding systems of 2–24 rods placed one rod length apart in a line, hollow triangle, circle, or square will

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IEEE Std 142-1991 IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR GROUNDING OF

provide a grounding resistance divided by the number of rods and multiplied by the factor F taken from Table 14.
Additional considerations with respect to step and touch potentials would be addressed by the geometry.

Table 14—Multiplying Factors for Multiple Rods

Number of Rods F
2 1.16
3 1.29
4 1.36
8 1.68
12 1.80
16 1.92
20 2.00
24 2.16

Placing additional rods within the periphery of a square, circle, or other shape will not appreciably reduce the
grounding resistance below that of the peripheral rods alone.

4.1.5 Current-Loading Capacity

One factor which should not be overlooked in designing a grounding system is the current-loading capacity of a
connection to earth. The temperature and moisture conditions immediately surrounding the electrode have a direct
effect on the resistivity of this section of the grounding circuit. Currents passing from the electrode into the earth will
have a definite effect on these two conditions. Therefore, the current-loading capacity of a connection must be
analyzed from the standpoint of the nature of the grounding circuit and the types of loading which it can normally be
expected to carry. Information useful in this regard for steel rods in concrete (reinforcing bars) is given in [3], [17],
[42], and [15], pp. 102–108.

Currents of low magnitude, even if of long duration, will result in relatively little heating. The effect of heat conduction
and the movement of moisture due to capillary action will maintain, in most cases, the resistivity of the earth at the
electrode close to the original value.

Where the earth must dissipate high currents for short durations, no appreciable amount of heat can be dissipated by
the normal process of thermal conductivity. The permissible current density for a given temperature rise is inversely
proportional to the square root of the soil resistivity. The effective resistance of the earth connection therefore depends
on the number of such situations that could occur in succession before stable conditions in the earth are reestablished.

Since approximately 25% of the grounding resistance of each rod electrode occurs within a 0.1 ft (0.03 m) radius of the
rod surface, serious heating and vaporization of the moisture adjacent to the rods may occur on heavy faults. When the
moisture is boiled away, the effectiveness of the rod in the dried-out earth is substantially reduced, and arcing below
the ground surface is likely. The boiling away of soil water results in steaming, or “smoking,” at the ground surface
near the electrode. To prevent the “smoking” electrodes, a maximum current per foot of rod length for the total rod
system should not exceed the values as determined by the following formula:
34 800 ⋅ d ⋅ L
I = -------------------------------- (8)
p⋅t
For a 1 ft, 5/8 in (0.32 m) rod, this yields 116 A in 2500 Ω · cm soil and 58 A for 10 000 Ω · cm soil

where

d = rod diameter
L = length in meters

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INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWER SYSTEMS IEEE Std 142-1991

ρ = ohm meter
t = seconds (valid for short time only)

Ground currents of high magnitude and long duration are unusual, but could occur as the result of ground faults that are
not cleared promptly. If ground currents of this type are anticipated, the system must cover a relatively large area and
employ a sufficient number of electrodes to keep the current density in the earth to a low value [3], [36].

4.1.6 Soil Treatment

Soil resistivity may be reduced anywhere from 15 to 90% by chemical treatment, (depending on the kind and texture
of the soil) [23]. There are a number of chemicals suitable for this purpose, including sodium chloride, magnesium
sulfate, copper sulfate, and calcium chloride. Common salt and magnesium sulfate are most commonly used.

Chemicals are generally applied by placing them in a circular trench around the electrode in such a manner as to
prevent direct contact with the electrode. While the effects of treatment will not become apparent for a considerable
period, they may be accelerated by saturating the area with water. This may be done by providing a trickle of water
from piping at the electrode locations. Also, such treatment is not permanent and must be renewed periodically,
depending on the nature of the chemical treatment and the characteristics of the soil. Chemical treatment also has
adverse effects on the corrosion protection of the ground electrodes, which must be assessed ([13], [22], [411).

Soil chemical treatment is an active solution to the problem of high resistivity soils. To be effective, a regular
maintenance scheme must be established to ensure low resistance grounding is achieved.

4.2 Ground Electrodes

Basically all ground electrodes may be divided into two groups. The first group comprises underground metallic
piping systems, metal building frameworks, well casings, steel piling, and other underground metal structures installed
for purposes other than grounding. The second group comprises electrodes specifically designed for grounding
purposes.

Made electrodes may be subdivided into driven electrodes, steel reinforcing bars in below-ground concrete, buried
strips or cables, grids, buried plates, and counterpoises. The type selected will depend on the type of soil encountered
and the available depth. Grids are frequently used for substations or generating stations to provide equipotential areas
throughout the entire station in locations where hazards to life and property would justify the higher cost. They also
require the least amount of buried material for a given electrode resistance. Buried plates have not been used
extensively in recent years because of the high cost as compared to rods or strips. Also, when used in small numbers
they are the least efficient type of made electrode. The counterpoise is a form of buried cable electrode most often used
to ground transmission-line towers and structures (see Tables 13 and 14 and Reference [39]).

When multiple electrodes are used, spacings of less than 10 ft (3 m) may not provide the most economical use of
materials.

In selecting the number and size of grounding terminals, their current-discharge limitations must be recognized. If
these are exceeded, the earth around the electrode may be exploded by steam generation or may be dried out to the
extent of becoming nonconductive.

4.2.1 Existing Electrodes

Metal building frames are normally attached by long anchor bolts to their concrete foundations footings. The anchor
bolts in concrete serve as electrodes, while the metal building frame is simply a grounding conductor. For safety
grounding and for small distribution systems where the ground currents are of relatively low magnitude, such
electrodes are usually preferred because they are economical in first cost. However, before reliance can be placed on
any electrodes of this group, it is essential that their resistance to earth be measured to ensure that some unforeseen

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