ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Outline of Lecture: Module 1

I.THE HUMAN ORGANISM

A. Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

B. Structural and Functional Organization
C. Characteristics of Life
D. Homeostasis
E. Terminology and the Body Plain

II.CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

A. Basic Chemistry
B. Chemical reactions
C. Acids and Bases
D. Inorganic Chemistry
E. Organic Chemistry

III. CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A. Cell Structure
B. Functions of the Cell
C. Cell Membrane
D. Movement through Cell Membrane
E. Organelles
F. Whole-cell Activity
G. Cellular Aspects of Aging

IV.TISSUES, GLANDS, and MEMBRANES

A. Epithelial Tissue
B. Connective Tissue
C. Muscle Tissue
D. Nervous Tissue
E. Membranes
F. Inflammation
G. Tissue Repair
H. Tissue and Aging

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 1

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
 I. HUMAN ORGANISM  Metabolism- use of energy to perform vital
functions
A. Introduction to Anatomy and  Responsiveness- ability to sense change in
Physiology the environment
 Anatomy- Is the scientific discipline that  Growth
investigates the structure of the body.  Development- growth+ differentiation
Examines the relationship between the  *Differentiation- change in
structure of a body part and its function. structure and function from
 Physiology- Scientific discipline that deals generalized to specialized
with the processes or functions of living  Reproduction –formation of new cells or
things. new organisms
 2 Basic Approaches to study anatomy D. Homeostasis
- Systematic Anatomy  It is a condition in which functions, fluids
- Regional Anatomy and other factors of the internal
environment are maintained despite
B. Structural and Functional fluctuations in the internal/external
Organization environment.
 *Set point- normal values/
 Chemical Level- involves how atoms parameter
interact to form molecules
 Cell Level- basic functional and structural  Negative Feedback- acts to resist or
unit reverse the process when conditions go
 Tissues Level- group of cells outside of the range.
 Organ Level- two or more tissues; perform
one or more common function  Positive Feedback- encourages and
 Organ System Level- group or organs that intensifies a change in the body’s
has common function or set of functions. physiological condition, actually driving it
 Organism farther out of the normal range. This type
C. Characteristics of Life of feedback is normal for the body,
 Organization- specific relationships of provided there is a definite endpoint.
individual parts of organism

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 2

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
 E. Terminology and the Body Plan  Body Parts and Regions( Fig 1)
Fig 1
 Anatomical Position: refers to a person
standing upright
 Supine: When lying face downward
 Prone: When lying face downward
 Anterior: In front of, front
 Posterior: After, behind, following, toward
the rear
 Distal: Away from, farther from the origin
 Proximal: Near, closer to the origin
 Dorsal: Near the upper surface, toward the
back
 Ventral: Toward the bottom, toward the
 Central region of the body: Head, neck and
belly
trunk
 Superior: Above, over
 Trunk- further subdivided into thorax,
 Inferior: Below, under
abdomen, pelvis
 Lateral: Toward the side, away from the
 Upper Limb- arm, foream, wrist, hand
mid-line
 Lower limb- thigh, leg ankle and foot
 Medial: Toward the mid-line, middle, away
 Abdomen- divided into quadrants or
from the side
regions (Fig 2)
 Caudal: Toward the back, toward the tail
Fig 2
 Bilateral: Involving both sides of the body
 Unilateral: Involving one side of the body
 Ipsilateral: On the same side of the body
 Contralateral: On opposite sides of the
body
 Parietal: Relating to a body cavity wall
 Visceral: Relating to organs within body
cavities
Quadrants- 4
 Axial: Around a central axis
Regions-9
 Intermediate: Between two structures

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 3

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
  Body Cavities -Parts-
- Three large cavities of the body  Parietal membrane: lines the wall of the
cavity
 Thoracic cavity- contains the trachea,  Visceral membrane: is in contact with the
bronchi, lungs, esophagus, heart and internal organs
great blood vessels, thymus gland, lymph  Serous fluid: secreted by the serous
nodes, and nerves membrane and protects organs against
 Mediastinum- separates to L friction
and
-Contains: Trachea,  3 Serous membrane lined cavities in
Esophagus, BV, Thymus, the thoracic cavity
Heart
 Diaphragm- separates - 1(One) Pericardial Cavity-
thoracic cavity form surrounds the heart
abdominal cavity  visceral pericardium, parietal
 Abdominal cavity- contains stomach, liver, pericardium; pericardial fluid
gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, small
intestines, and most of the large intestine - 2 (Two) Pleural Cavity- surrounds
the lungs
 Pelvic Cavity- contains the end of the large  visceral pleura, parietal
intestine, rectum, urinary bladder, and pleura, peural fluid
internal reproductive organs
 Abdominopelvic cavity
 Serous Membrane lined cavity in the
 Serous Membranes Abdominopelvic cavity/peritoneal
- Sac that encloses/ covers a certain cavity- visceral peritoneum, parietal
organ in the body specifically in the peritoneum, peritoneal fluid.
trunk area

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 4

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
  Planes
 Elements: unique substances that cannot
be broken down by ordinary chemical
means

 Each element has unique physical and

chemical properties
– Physical properties: those detected
with our senses
– Chemical properties: pertain to the
way atoms interact with one
another

 Sagittal plane: divides the body into left  Atoms: more-or-less identical building
and right parts blocks for each element
 Transverse plane: divides the body into
superior and inferior parts  Atomic Structure
 Frontal (coronal) plane: divides the body
into anterior and posterior parts  The nucleus consists of neutrons and
protons
II. CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE – Neutrons:
• No charge
A. Basic Chemistry • Mass= one atomic mass unit
(amu)
 Matter, Mass and Weight – Protons:
• Positive charge
 Matter- anything that occupies space • Mass of 1 amu
 Mass- amount of matter in an object  Electrons are found orbiting the nucleus
 Weight- gravitational force acting on an – Electrons:
object of a given mass • Negative charge
• Mass of 1/2000 amu
 Elements and Atoms

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 5

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
  Electrons and Chemical Bonds

 Chemical Bonds- sharing or transferring

their outermost electrons
 Electron shells (energy levels) surround the
nucleus of an atom
– Bonds are formed using the
electrons in the outermost electron
shell
 Valence shell: outermost energy level
 Atoms are electrically neutral because the
containing chemically active electrons
number of protons in atoms equals the
 Octet rule: except for the first shell, which
number of electrons
is full with two electrons, atoms interact in
a manner to have eight electrons in their
valence shell
 Electronegativity- ability of atom’s nucleus
to pull electrons towards it.

 Types of Chemical Bonds

Bonds Between Atoms:

 Ionic bond: formed when one atom loses
 Atomic number: equal to the number of an electron and another accepts that
protons electron
 Mass number: equal to the mass of the -Ionic bonds form between atoms by the
protons and neutrons transfer of one or more electrons
 Atomic weight: average of the mass -Ions: charged atoms resulting from the
numbers of all isotopes gain or loss of electrons
 Isotope: atoms with same number of – Anions: negatively charged ions
protons but a different number of neutrons due to gaining one or more
electrons

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 6

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
 – Cations: positively charged ions structure that behaves as an independent
due to losing one or more electrons unit
-Ionic compounds form crystals instead of  Compound: two or more different kinds of
individual molecules atoms chemically combined
-Example: NaCl (sodium chloride) – covalent compound: a molecule
– ionic compound: organized array
Covalent bond: the sharing of electrons of ions
-Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of two
or more electrons  Dissociation
-Electron sharing produces molecules  Separation of ions in an ionic compound by
– single covalent bond: sharing of a polar water molecules
pair of electrons (H — H)  Dissociated ions are called electrolytes
– double covalent bond: sharing of because they can conduct electricity
two pairs of electrons (O ═ C ═ O)  Molecules that do not dissociate in water
– polar covalent bond: an unequal are called nonelectrolytes
sharing of electrons between two
atoms resulting in a slightly positive B. Chemical reactions
charge on one side than the other  Occur when chemical bonds are formed,
– nonpolar covalent bond: An equal rearranged, or broken
sharing of electrons of two atoms – Reactants: substances that enter a
resulting in even charged chemical reaction
distribution among atoms of – Products: substances that result
molecule from the chemical reaction
Bonds Between Molecules  Written in symbolic form using chemical
 Hydrogen bonds: The attraction of equations
oppositely charged ends of one polar  Chemical equations contain:
molecule to another polar molecule – Number and type of reacting
substances
 Molecules and Compounds – Products produced
– Relative amounts of reactants and
 Molecule: two or more atoms held products
together by chemical bonds to form a

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 7

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
  Synthesis Reaction  Types of energy
 Combination of reactants to form a new – Potential: stored (inactive) energy
larger product that could do work
– Anabolism- all synthesis reaction – Kinetic: energy that does work by
that occurs in the body causing the movement of an object
– Dehydration reaction: a synthesis  Can be neither created nor destroyed
reaction in which water is a product  Easily converted from one form to another
– Mechanical: directly involved in
 Decomposition Reaction moving matter
 Breakdown of larger reactants into smaller – Chemical: stored in the bonds of
products chemical substances
– Catabolism- decomposition – Electrical: results from the
reactions that occur in the body movement of charged particles
– Hydrolysis reaction: a – Radiant or electromagnetic: travels
decomposition reaction that uses in waves (i.e., visible light,
water ultraviolet light, and
 Exchange Reaction X-rays)
 Combination of decomposition reaction and  Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) stores and
synthesis reaction provides energy
– Source of immediately usable
 Reversible Reaction energy for the cell
 All chemical reactions are theoretically
reversible  Factors Influencing Rate of Chemical
A + B  AB Reactions
AB  A + B  Concentration: higher reacting particle
 If neither a forward nor reverse reaction is concentrations produce faster reactions
dominant, chemical equilibrium is reached  Temperature: chemical reactions proceed
quicker at higher temperatures
 Energy and Chemical Reactions  Catalysts: increase the rate of a reaction
 Energy without being chemically changed
 The capacity to do work (put matter into – Enzymes are biological catalysts
motion)

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 8

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
  Particle size: the smaller the particle the Example: Carbonic acid-bicarbonate
faster the chemical reaction system
– Carbonic acid dissociates, reversibly
C. Acids and Bases releasing bicarbonate ions and
 Acids release H+ and are therefore proton protons
donors – The chemical equilibrium between
HCl  H+ + Cl – carbonic acid and bicarbonate
 Bases release OH– and are proton resists pH changes in the blood
acceptors
NaOH  Na+ + OH– D. Inorganic Chemistry
 Acid-Base concentration is measured using 
Mostly concerned with non-carbon-
a pH scale containing substances but does include
pH Scale such carbon-containing substances as CO,
 Ranges from 0 to 14 CO2, and HCO3-
 Indicates the H+ concentration of a
solution  Inorganic Compounds
– Neutral solutions have an equal  Oxygen(O2)- is involved with the
number of H+ and OH– and a pH of extraction of energy from food molecules
7.0 to make ATP
– Acidic solutions have more H+ than  Carbon Dioxide(CO2)- is a by-product of
OH– and a pH of less than 7.0 the breakdown of food molecules
– Basic (alkaline) solutions have  Water(H2O)- has many important
fewer H+ than OH– and a pH properties for living organisms and is
greater than 7.0 essential for life
 The normal PH range for human blood Properties of Water
7.35- 7.45 Stabilizes body temperature
– The high heat capacity of water
 Salts are formed by the reaction of an acid allows it to absorb and release
and a base large amounts of heat before
 Buffers are chemicals that resist changes changing temperature
in pH when acids or bases are added Protection
– acts as a lubricant or cushion

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 9

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
 Chemical reactions – Their major function is to supply a source
– Most of the chemical reactions of cellular food
necessary for life do not take place
unless the reacting molecules are Examples:
dissolved in water – Monosaccharides – glucose and
– Water also directly participates in fructose
many chemical reactions – Disaccharides – sucrose and lactose
Transport – Polysaccharides – starch and
– Polar solvent properties: dissolves glycogen
ionic substances, forms hydration  Lipids
layers around large charged – Dissolve in nonpolar solvents, such as
molecules, and serves as the body’s alcohol or acetone, but not in polar
major transport medium solvents, such as water
– Contain C, H, and O, but the proportion of
E. Organic Chemistry oxygen in lipids is less than in
Substances contain carbon, are covalently carbohydrates
bonded, and are often large – Buiding blocks of fats- glycerol and fatty
Usually have carbon-carbon or carbon- acids
hydrogen bonding Fatty acids
Saturated: only single covalent bonds
 Organic Compounds between carbons
Molecules unique to living systems Unsaturated: one or more double covalent
They include: bonds between carbons
– Carbohydrates Monounsaturated fats
– Lipids Polyunsaturated fats
– Proteins Trans fats
– Nucleic Acids – Examples of Fats:
 Fats or triglycerides: energy
 Carbohydrates  Phospholipids: structural
– Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen components of cell membranes
• Ratio of 1:2:1 (C:H:O)  Eicosanoids: regulate
physiological processes

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 10

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
  Steroids: regulate physiological • a hydrogen atom
processes A side chain designated by the symbol R
Examples of Lipids Found in the Body attached to the same carbon atom as the
 Fats: found in subcutaneous tissue and hydrogen
around organs Functions of Proteins
 Phospholipids: chief component of cell  regulate chemical reactions (enzymes)
membranes  structural proteins provide the framework
 Steroids: cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, for many of the body’s tissues
sex hormones, and adrenal cortical  responsible for muscle contraction
hormones  Fibrous proteins
 Eicosanoids: prostaglandins, leukotrienes,  Extended and strand-like
and thromboxanes proteins
 Fat-soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E, and  Examples: keratin, elastin,
K collagen, and certain
 Lipoproteins: transport fatty acids and contractile fibers
cholesterol in the bloodstream  Globular proteins
 Compact, spherical proteins
 Proteins with tertiary and quaternary
– Macromolecules structures
– Contain C, H, O, N, and some S  Examples: antibodies,
– Building block of proteins- amino acids hormones, and enzymes
– Composed of 20 basic types of amino acids Denaturation
bound together with peptide bonds Disruption of hydrogen bonds, which
o Dipeptide: Two amino acids changes the shape of proteins and makes them
o Tripeptide: Three amino acids nonfunctional
o Polypeptide: Many amino acids Enzymes
– Proteins are polypeptides of hundreds of  Speed up chemical reactions by lowering
amino acids the activation energy
Amino Acids  Most are globular proteins that act as
Organic acids containing biological catalysts
• amino group (-NH2)  Are chemically specific
• a carboxyl group (COOH)

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 11

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
  Frequently named for the type of reaction 2. Synthesize molecules
they catalyze  cells differ from each other because
 Names usually end in -ase they synthesize different kinds of
 Chemical events of the body are regulated molecules
primarily by mechanisms that control 3. Provide a means of communication
– concentration of enzymes  achieved by chemical and electrical
– activity of enzyme signaling
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
 mitosis
III. CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR  meiosis
FUNCTIONS
C. Cell Membrane
A. Cell Structure – Plays a dynamic role in cellular activity
 The cell is the basic structural and  encloses cell
functional unit of life  supports the cell contents
 Each cell is a highly organized unit  a selective barrier that regulates
– Plasma membrane: forms the what goes into and out of the cell
outer boundary of the cell  plays a role in communication
– Cellular organelles: each performs between cells
specific functions – Separates intracellular substances from
– Nucleus: contains the cell’s genetic extracellular substances
material and directs cell activities  intracellular: inside cells
– Cytoplasm: the material between  extracellular (intercellular):
the plasma membrane and nucleus between cells

B. Functions of the Cell  Fluid Mosaic Model

1. Metabolize and release energy  Lipid bilayer
 chemical reactions that occur within – double layer of lipids with
cells imbedded, dispersed proteins
 release of energy in the form of  Bilayer consists mainly of phospholipids
heat helps maintain body and cholesterol (20%)
temperature

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 12

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
 – Phospholipids have hydrophobic – Osmotic pressure: the force
(nonpolar tails) and hydrophilic required to prevent the movement
(polar heads) bipoles of water across a selectively
– Cholesterol gives the membrane permeable membrane
added strength and flexibility – Isosmotic solutions: have the same
concentration of solute particles as
D. Movement through Cell Membrane a reference solution
– Ions and molecules move across plasma – Hyperosmotic solutions: have a
membranes by: greater concentration of solute
particles than a reference solution-
 Diffusion cell shrinkage
 The movement of a solute from an area of – Hyposmotic solutions: have a
higher concentration to an area of lower lesser concentration of solute
concentration within a solvent particles than a reference solution-
- at equilibrium, there is a uniform lysis d/t swelling
distribution of molecules
 Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse directly  Mediated Transport
through the plasma membrane  Process by which transport proteins
 Most non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions mediate, or assist in, the movement of ions
do not diffuse through the plasma and molecules across the plasma
membrane membrane
 Some specific non-lipid-soluble molecules  Characteristics:
and ions pass through membrane channels  Specificity: selectiveness
or other transport proteins  Competition: similar molecules or
 Leak channels ions compete for a transport
 Gated Channels protein
 Osmosis Saturation: rate of transport
 Diffusion of water (a solvent) across a cannot increase because all
selectively permeable membrane, such as transport proteins are in use
the cell membrane, from a region of higher
water concentration to one of lower water
concentration

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 13

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
  Facilitated diffusion the pump. The Na+-K+ pump can again
– Is a carrier mediated transport process bind to Na+ and ATP.
that moves substances across the cell
membrane from area of higher  Secondary Active Transport
concentration to an area of lower – Symport of Na+ and Glucose
concentration at that substance 1. A Na+-K+ pump (ATP-powered
– No ATP usage pump) maintains a concentration of
– Ex. Transfer of glucose into cells Na+ that is higher outside the cell
than inside.
 Active Transport 2. Sodium ions move back into the cell
– Atp usage through a carrier protein
– Ex. Sodium-Potassium Pump (symporter) that also moves
1. Three sodium ions (Na+) and adenosine glucose. The concentration
triphosphate (ATP) bind to the Na+-K+ gradient for Na+ provides energy
pump, which is an ATP-powered pump. required to move glucose against
2. The ATP breaks down to adenosine its concentration gradient.
diphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate (P)
and releases energy. That energy is used  Vesicular Transport
to power a shape change in the Na+-K+  Transport of large particles and
pump. Phosphate remains bound to the macromolecules across plasma membranes
Na+-K+-ATP binding site. – Endocytosis: the movement of
3. The Na+-K+ pump changes shape, and the materials into cells by the formation
Na+ are transported across the membrane. of a vesicle
4. The Na+ diffuses away from the Na+-K+  Phagocytosis: the
pump. movement of solid material
5. Two potassium ions (K+) bind to the Na+- into cells
K+ pump.  Pinocytosis: the uptake of
6. The phosphate is released from the Na+-K+ small droplets of liquids
pump binding site. and the materials in them
7. The Na+-K+ pump resumes its original  Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
shape, transporting K+ across the involves plasma membrane
membrane, and the K+ diffuses away from receptors attaching to

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 14

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
 molecules that are then taken formed by
into the cell golgi app;
– Exocytosis: the secretion of secreted by
materials from cells by vesicle exocytosis
formation Lysosomes Cytoplasm Contains
E. Organelles enzyme that
digest material
Organelle Location Function (s) taken into the
Nucleus Center of Contains DNA cell
cell and nucleoli; Peroxisome Cytoplasm Breaks down
RNA synthesis fatty acids,
Ribosomes Cytoplasm protein amino acids,
synthesis and hydirgen
Rough ER Cytoplasm Many peroxide
ribosomes Mitochondrion Cytoplasm Aerobic
attached; respiration;
protein ATP synthesis
synthesis
Smooth ER Cytoplasm lipid Microtubule Cytoplasm Supports
synthesis; cytoplasm;
detoxification assist in cell
Golgi App Cytoplasm Modifies division and
protein form
structure; components of
packages cilia and
proteins in flagella
secretory Centrioles cytoplasm Facilitate
vesicles movement of
Secretory cytoplasm Contains chromosomes
Vesicles materials during cell
produced in division
the cell; Cilia Cell Move subs.

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 15

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
 surface over surfaces • mRNA then travels from the
of certain cells nucleus to the ribosomes
Flagella Sperm cell Propel sperm where the information is
surface cells translated into a protein
Microvilli Extensions Increase
on Cell surface area of 2. Translation
surface certain cells • requires both mRNA and
transfer RNA (tRNA)
• tRNA brings the amino acids
F. Whole-cell Activity necessary to synthesize the
protein to the ribosome
 Gene Expression
 Cell Cycle
 DNA
– DNA serves as master blueprint for 2 Phases:
protein synthesis 1. Interphase/Nondividing phase- DNA
– DNA controls enzyme production replication
and cell activity is regulated by 2. Cell Division- through Mitosis

enzymes (Proteins) Stages of Mitosis

– Genes are segments of DNA i. In prophase, each chromosome consist
carrying instructions for a of 2 chromatids joined at the
polypeptide chain centromere
ii. In metaphase, the chromosomes align
 Protein Synthesis in the center of the cell
iii. In anaphase, chromatids separate at
 Two step process the centromere and migrate to

1. Transcription opposite poles

• cell makes a copy of the iv. In telophase, the two new nuclei
gene necessary to make a assume their normal structure and cell

particular protein: division is completed, producing two

messenger RNA (mRNA) new daughters.

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 16

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
  Following telophase, cytoplasm division is  Ectoderm
completed, and two separate daughter – Forms the outermost layer of skin
cells are produced. , and the nervous system

G. Cellular Aspects of Aging

A. Epithelial Tissue
1. Cellular Clock – Covers surfaces
2. Death Genes – Has little extracellular material
3. DNA damage – Usually has a basement membrane
4. Free Radicals – Has no blood vessels
5. Mitochondrial Damage – Epithelial cells
– Have a free, or apical, surface (not
IV. TISSUES, GLANDS, and attached to other cells)
MEMBRANES – A lateral surface (attached to other
cells)
 TISSUES – A basal surface (attached to the
– Tissues are collections of similar cells and basement membrane)
the extracellular matrix surrounding them
– Histology is the study of tissues  Epithelial Tissue Functions
– The four primary tissue types are 1. Protecting underlying structures
 Epithelial tissue – Example: outer layer of skin and
 Connective tissue oral mucosa
 Muscle tissue 2. Acting as barriers
 Nervous tissue – Example: outer layer of skin
– Primary tissue types are derived from the 3. Permitting the passage of substances
embryonic germ layers – Example: epithelium in the lungs
 Endoderm 4. Secreting substances
– Forms the lining of the digestive – Example: mucous glands and
tract and its derivatives sweat glands
 Mesoderm 5. Absorbing substances
– Forms tissues such as muscle, – Example: epithelial cells of the
bone, and blood vessels intestine

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 17

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
  Stratified epithelium- has more than one
 Epithelial Tissue Classification cell layer
 Stratified Squamous- non
Epithelia are classified according to the keratinized (moist) and keratinized
number of cell layers and the shape of the  Stratified Cuboidal-rare
cells  Stratified Columnar-rare

 Simple Epithelium- has one layer of cells  Pseudostratified epithelium- has one layer,
 Simple Squamous- flat and thin but appears to have two or more layers

 Transitional epithelium- is stratified

epithelium that can be greatly stretched
(from cuboidal to squamous)
 Simple Cuboidal cubelike

 Simple Columnar tall and thin

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 18

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
  Structural and Functional • Example: Lining of
Relationships the nasal cavity and
trachea
• Cell Layers and Cell Shapes  Glands in Epithelial Tissue
– Simple epithelium is involved with:
• Diffusion  A gland is a single cell or a multicellular
• Secretion structure
• Absorption that secretes
– Stratified epithelium serves a protective
role – Endocrine glands- do not have ducts;
– Squamous cells function in: Secrete hormones directly into the
• Diffusion blood
• Filtration – Exocrine glands- have ducts; Secretions
– Cuboidal or columnar cells, which contain are released onto a surface or into a
cellular organelles cavity
• Secrete
• Absorb Structure of Exocrine Glands
– Free Cell Surfaces Simple: have one duct
• A smooth, free surface reduces Compound: have ducts that branch
friction repeatedly
• Example: Lining of blood Tubules: ducts end in small tubes
vessels Acini: ducts end in saclike structures
• Microvilli are cylindrical extensions Alveoli: ducts end in hollow sacs
of the cell membrane that
increase surface area (cells
involved in absorption of
secretion)
• Example: Lining of
the small intestines
• Cilia propel materials over the cell
surface

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 19

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
 Exocrine Glands and Secretion Types
Merocrine – no loss of cellular material
(Ex. sweat glands)
Apocrine – part of the cell pinches off
(Ex. mammary glands)
Holocrine – entire cell is shed
(Ex. sebaceous glands)
Sweat glands and mammary glands
Classified by:
-Structure
-How products leave the cell
B. Connective Tissue
 Consist of cells seperated from each other
by abundant extracellular matrix
 Functions
1. Enclosing and separating
2. Connecting tissues to one another
(Ex. Ligaments and Tendons)
3. Supporting and moving (Ex. Bones
and cartilage)
4. Storing (Ex. Adipose tissue and
Bones)
5. Cushioning and insulating
Adipose tissue)
6. Transporting (Ex. Blood)
7. Protecting (Ex. Blood and Bones)
 Connective Tissue Cells
 Specialized cells of various connective
tissues produce the extra cellular matrix
Anatomy and Physiology Manual
For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
– End in suffixes that identify the cell
functions
• Blast (germ) cells form the
matrix
• Cyte (cell) cells maintain it
• Clast (break) cells break it
down
 Classification of Connective Tissue (6)
Mesenchyme:
– embryonic connective tissue that
gives rise to six major categories of
connective tissue
 Loose, or areolar, connective tissue is the
“loose packing” material of the body
– Fills the spaces between organs
– Holds organs in place
 Adipose tissue (fat)
– Stores energy
– Pads and protects parts of the body
– Acts as a thermal insulator
 Dense connective tissue consists of a
matrix containing densely packed fibers
(Ex. – Collagen fibers (Ex. tendons,
ligaments, and dermis of the skin)
Elastic fibers (Ex. elastic ligaments and in
the walls of arteries)
 Cartilage provides support
– Hyaline cartilage (Ex. covers ends
of bones and forms costal
cartilages)
20
 – Fibrocartilage (Ex. disks between • Voluntary, multinucleated,
vertebrae) and striated (banded)
– Elastic cartilage (Ex. external ear) Cardiac
 Bone has a mineralized matrix • Muscle of the heart
– forms most of the skeleton of the • Connected to one another
body by intercalated disks
• Compact bone has more (contain gap junctions)
matrix than spaces • Involuntary, striated, and
• Cancellous bone has more usually have one nucleus
spaces then matrix per cell
 Blood has a liquid matrix
– Found in blood vessels Smooth
– Produced in hemopoietic tissue (red • Forms the walls of hollow
bone marrow) organs (except the heart)
and also is found in the skin
C. Muscle Tissue and the eyes
Main fxn: to contract, or shorten, making • Involuntary, not striated,
movement possible and have a single nucleus
– Length of muscle cells is greater than
the diameter D. Nervous Tissue
– Sometimes called muscle fibers  Brain, SC, Ganglia/ Spinal Nerves
because they often resemble tiny  Specialized to conduct action potentials
threads (electrical signals)
- Neurons- conduct action potentials
 Three types of muscle tissue - Neuroglia -support the neurons;
surround neurons
Skeletal  Neurons have 3 parts:
• Meat of animals - Cell Body- contains the nucleus
• Constitutes ~40% of a - Dendrites-
person’s body weight - Axon
• Attaches to the skeleton and
allows for movement

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 21

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines
 E. Membranes G. Tissue Repair
 Mucous membranes line cavities that open  Tissue repair is the substitution of viable
to the outside of the body cells for dead cells by:
– Digestive, respiratory, urinary, and – Regeneration: the new cells are the
reproductive tracts same type as those that were
– Contain glands destroyed and normal function is
– Secrete mucus usually restored
 Serous membranes line trunk cavities that – Fibrosis: replacement, a new type of
do not open to the outside of the body tissue develops that eventually causes
– pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal scar production and the loss of some
cavities tissue function.
– Do Not contain glands
– Secrete serous fluid H. Tissue and Aging
 Synovial membranes line freely movable  Cells divide more slowly as people age
joints  Injuries heal more slowly
 Extracellular matrix containing collagen
F. Inflammation Process and elastic fibers becomes less flexible and
 Function of the inflammatory response is to less elastic
mobilize body’s defenses isolate and  Consequently:
destroy harmful agents – Skin wrinkles
 Five symptoms: – Elasticity in arteries is reduced
– Redness – Bones break more easily
– Heat
– Swelling
– Pain
– Disturbance of function
 Chronic inflammation results when the
agent causing injury is not removed or
something else interferes with the healing
process

Anatomy and Physiology Manual 22

For exclusive use of Medical Colleges of Northern Philippines