DIPS v7 -MANUAL

 Daylight Envelope / Slope Plane

For planar sliding, the daylighting condition can be defined either by a daylight envelope
(when considering pole vectors) or by the plane itself (when considering dip vectors).

 When considering pole vectors, all pole vectors that fall within the Daylight Envelope (of
the slope plane) represent planes which can kinematically daylight from the slope (i.e.
the dip vectors of these planes all point "out" from the slope plane).
 When considering dip vectors, all dip vectors that fall outside the slope plane (great
circle) represent planes which can kinematically daylight from the slope.

These two criteria are exactly equivalent. All poles that fall within a daylight envelope,
are represented by corresponding dip vectors outside the slope plane. In fact, the Daylight
Envelope itself is defined by all possible pole vectors whose dip vectors lie exactly on the slope
plane (i.e. parallel to the slope plane).

 Friction Cone

A friction cone defines the limits of frictional stability on a stereonet. It is important to

note the following:

96
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
 When considering pole vectors, we use a POLE friction cone, and the friction angle is
measured from the CENTER of the stereonet. All poles OUTSIDE of the POLE friction cone
represent planes which dip steeper than the friction angle, and can slide if kinematically
possible. The cone angle for a POLE friction cone = friction angle.
 When considering dip vectors (or intersections), we use a PLANE friction cone, and the
friction angle is measured from the EQUATOR (perimeter) of the stereonet. All dip
vectors INSIDE the PLANE friction cone represent planes which dip steeper than the
friction angle, and can slide if kinematically possible. The cone angle for a PLANE friction
cone = 90 - friction angle.

You can see the difference in the above figures. In both cases, the friction angle = 30
degrees. For the pole vector plot the 30 degrees is measured from the stereonet center; for
the dip vector plot the 30 degrees is measured from the stereonet perimeter (the cone angle
in this case = 90 - 30 = 60 degrees).

 Lateral Limits

The daylighting conditions described above for planar failure, represent theoretical
limits of all possible planes which can daylight from a slope face.

In practice it has been observed that planar failure tends to occur only if the dip direction
of a plane is within a certain angular range of the slope face dip direction. Typically a value of
20 to 30 degrees is used based on empirical observations (Goodman 1980, Hudson and
Harrison 1997).

You can define the lateral limits for planar failure in the sidebar or the kinematic analysis
dialog. The lateral limits define two straight lines through the center of the stereonet, at
plus/minus the specified angle from the slope dip direction. The lateral limits add a further
restriction to the critical zone for planar sliding (poles or dip vectors must be within the lateral
limits in order to slide).

Use Lateral Limits

In the Kinematic Analysis dialog for Planar Sliding you will notice a Use Lateral Limits
checkbox. If you do not want to use lateral limits, you can turn off this checkbox. In this
case, the lateral limits option will be disabled (you will not be able to input a value, and the
lateral limits will not be displayed or used for the planar sliding kinematic analysis).

If the lateral limits are turned off, then the entire daylight envelope will be considered
kinematically valid. All poles within the daylight envelope (or all dip vectors outside the
slope plane) will be considered for planar sliding. This represents a worst case and most
conservative scenario in which all theoretically possible planes are considered for planar
sliding.

Alternatively, you can select the Planar Sliding (No Limits) option from the sidebar. This is a
shortcut for disabling the lateral limits for planar sliding, and is equivalent to turning off
the Use Lateral Limits checkbox in the Kinematic Analysis dialog.

97
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
 Planar Sliding Results

Planar Sliding analysis results are displayed in the Legend.

 The number of poles (or dip vectors) within the critical zone are counted.
 Results are expressed as a percentage of all poles in the file, and as a percentage of poles
within individual sets (if sets are defined).

These percentages give an estimate of "probability of failure" with respect to all planes
in the file, and with respect to all planes in individual sets. It does not matter whether you are
viewing poles or dip vectors, the results are identical since the critical zones are equivalent for
pole or dip vectors.

NOTE: a detailed summary of ALL kinematic analysis results for all failure modes is
available in the Info Viewer.

 Planar Sliding Assumptions

An important assumption regarding “pure” planar sliding on a single plane, is that

release planes are assumed to exist (e.g. lateral joints, tension cracks or other mechanism)
which allow a planar sliding failure to occur.

Such release planes are not explicitly modeled in the planar sliding kinematic analysis
but you should be aware that some release mechanism must exist to allow a block sliding on
one plane to be removed from the slope. Planar sliding can be considered a special case
of wedge sliding where sliding takes place on only one plane, and other planes act as release
planes.

10.2 PLANAR SLIDING (NO LIMITS)

The Planar Sliding (No Limits) kinematic analysis option in the sidebar is simply a
shortcut to the Planar Sliding option, with the Use Lateral Limits option automatically turned
off. See the Planar Sliding topic for complete details.

When the lateral limits are turned off, the entire daylight region is considered
kinematically valid, as shown below for pole vectors and dip vectors. The dip vector sliding

98
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
analysis (with no lateral limits) is sometimes referred to as the Markland test and is also used
for wedge sliding analysis.

Planar sliding analysis (pole vectors) with no lateral limits

 Markland Test

The dip vector planar sliding analysis with no lateral limits is sometimes referred to as
the Markland test and is also used for wedge sliding analysis. The critical planar sliding zone
for dip vectors (with no lateral limit) is also the primary critical zone for intersections for wedge
sliding analysis. Intersections which fall in this critical zone represent wedges which can slide,
see the wedge sliding topic for details.

Planar sliding analysis (dip vectors) with no lateral limits

99
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL

10.3 WEDGE SLIDING

The Wedge Sliding kinematic analysis failure mode is a test for sliding of wedges formed
by the intersection of two planes. The key elements of the wedge sliding kinematic analysis
are:

 Slope Plane
 Intersection plotting
 Plane friction cone (angle measured from perimeter of stereonet)

Wedges can slide on two planes (along the line of intersection) or on one plane (if one
plane has a more favorable orientation for sliding than the line of intersection). Wedge sliding
is based on the analysis of intersections. Dip vectors of individual planes are also considered
to determine if wedges slide on two planes or one plane. Pole vectors are not used.

Wedge sliding kinematic analysis, intersection points and contours

100
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL

 Intersection Plotting

When two joint planes intersect, they can form a wedge which can slide out of the slope
(depending on kinematic and frictional considerations). The intersection of two planes forms
a line in 3-dimensional space. The trend/plunge of the line plots as a single point on a stereonet
which we refer to as an intersection.

Wedge sliding kinematic analysis is based on the analysis of intersections. If an

intersection point satisfies the frictional and kinematic conditions for sliding, then it represents
a risk of wedge sliding.

In Dips there are several different options for the display of intersections on the
stereonet. You can plot:

 the intersection of ALL planes in the file (Grid Data Planes)

 contours of all intersections (Grid Data Planes)
 intersections of major planes (i.e. mean set planes and/or user planes)

In the above figure, the critical intersections of all Grid Data Planes are highlighted in
the critical zone, and intersection contours are also displayed. Since the maximum contour
concentrations do not overlap the critical zone wedge sliding is not likely to be a problem for
this example.

101
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
See the Intersections Overview topic for more information.

Wedge analysis using mean set plane intersections and contours

102
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
 Primary Critical Zone for Wedge Sliding

The primary critical zone for wedge sliding is the crescent shaped area:

 INSIDE the plane friction cone and

 OUTSIDE the slope plane

Intersections which plot in this zone represent wedges which satisfy frictional and
kinematic conditions for sliding. This is highlighted in red in the above figure.

 Sliding on Two Planes or One Plane

Depending on the wedge geometry, a wedge may slide along the line of intersection (i.e.
on two planes) or on one plane. Sliding on one plane can occur when the dip vector of one of
the wedge planes has a more favorable orientation for sliding than the line of intersection.
(Note: other failure modes such as rotational sliding or toppling are not considered in this
analysis).

Sliding on two planes or one plane is not directly highlighted on the stereonet, however
a complete summary of wedge sliding results is available in the Info Viewer and can also be
exported to Excel.

NOTE:

 In the primary critical zone, wedges can slide on either two planes or one plane.
 In the secondary critical zone, wedges always slide on one plane.

For sliding on a single plane, the dip vector of the sliding plane must be in the primary
critical zone. This is the same criteria used for Planar Sliding (with no lateral limits). However,
note that critical dip vectors are not displayed on the stereonet for wedge analysis, only the
critical intersections are plotted.

 Secondary Critical Zone for Wedge Sliding

The secondary critical zone for wedge sliding is the area between the slope plane and a
plane (great circle) inclined at the friction angle (the two areas highlighted in yellow in the
above figure, on either side of the primary critical zone). Critical intersections which plot in
these two zones always represent wedges which slide on one joint plane. In this region, the
intersections are actually inclined at LESS THAN the friction angle, but sliding can take place on
a single joint plane which has a dip vector greater than the friction angle.

 Friction Cone

A friction cone defines the limits of frictional stability on a stereonet. For Wedge sliding
analysis we use a PLANE friction cone.

When considering intersections (or dip vectors) the friction angle is measured from the
EQUATOR (perimeter) of the stereonet. All intersections or dip vectors INSIDE the PLANE

103
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
friction cone represent wedges or planes which dip steeper than the friction angle, and can
slide if kinematically possible. The cone angle for a PLANE friction cone = 90 - friction angle.

For kinematic wedge analysis it is assumed that both sliding planes have the same
friction angle.

 Lateral Limits

For wedge sliding analysis we do not consider lateral limits. Since the second joint plane
allows an extra degree of freedom of movement, it is possible for wedges to slide over the
entire lateral range. The second joint plane may act as a sliding plane or a release plane.

 Wedge Sliding Results

Wedge Sliding analysis results are displayed in the Legend for the currently displayed
intersection type (i.e. Grid Data Planes, mean set planes, user planes)

 The number of intersections within the critical zone is counted.

 Results are expressed as a percentage of all intersections.

This percentage gives an estimate of "probability of failure" with respect to the total
number of intersections for the currently displayed intersection type.

Note: currently the Legend and stereonet do not identify wedge sliding on two planes
or one plane. However, the Info Viewer provides a detailed breakdown of wedge sliding on
two planes or one for all intersection types. Furthermore, detailed kinematic analysis results
can be exported to Excel with the Export Data to Excel option in the File menu.

10.4 FLEXURAL TOPPLING

The Flexural Toppling kinematic analysis failure mode is a test for flexural toppling as
defined in Goodman (1980). The key elements of the flexural toppling analysis are:

 Slope plane
 Slip limit plane (based on slope angle and friction angle)
 Lateral limits

104
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
For Flexural Toppling you can use either Pole Vector Mode or Dip Vector Mode. The
results are equivalent regardless of the vector mode.

Flexural toppling kinematic analysis, pole vector mode

 Pole Vector Mode

To carry out Flexural Toppling analysis using pole vectors, the pole vector mode
must be in effect. This can be selected from the toolbar, the View menu or the Kinematic
Analysis dialog (Options = Pole).

105
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
For Flexural Toppling using pole vectors, the critical zone for toppling is defined by the
region:

 OUTSIDE the slip limit plane (see below for the definition of the slip limit plane)
 INSIDE the lateral limits

All poles that plot in this region represent a toppling risk. This is illustrated in the above
figure. In this example, the friction angle = 30 degrees, slope dip = 60, slope dip direction =
135, lateral limits = 30 (plus/minus).

 Dip Vector Mode

To carry out Flexural Toppling analysis using dip vectors, the dip vector

mode must be in effect. This can be selected from the toolbar, the View menu or
the Kinematic Analysis dialog (Options = Dip).

For Flexural Toppling using dip vectors, the critical zone for toppling is defined by the
region:

 INSIDE the daylight envelope of the slip limit plane (see below for the definition of the
slip limit plane)
 INSIDE the lateral limits

All dip vectors that plot in this region represent a toppling risk. This is illustrated in the
figure below. The input is the same as the pole vector example above.

NOTE1: the slip limit plane is not an actual physical plane although it is derived from the
slope angle and friction angle. Furthermore, the daylight envelope of the slip limit plane is also
not a physical construct, however it serves the purpose of defining a critical toppling zone for
dip vectors.

NOTE2: although the critical toppling region for dip vectors may appear to be much
smaller than the equivalent toppling region for pole vectors, they do in fact represent exactly
the same critical zones. Also remember that the Projection Type changes the apparent areas
on the stereonet. In these figures we have used Equal Angle projection. If you use Equal Area
projection, the pole and dip vector critical zones will be closer in apparent size, although the

106
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
dip vector region will still appear smaller due to the inherent nature of the flexural toppling
analysis.

Flexural toppling kinematic analysis, dip vector mode

 Slip Limit

Planes cannot topple if they cannot slide with respect to one another. Goodman
(1980) states that for slip to occur, the bedding normal must be inclined less steeply than a
line inclined at an angle equivalent to the friction angle above the slope.

This results in a “slip limit” plane which defines the critical zone for flexural toppling. The
Dip angle of the slip limit plane is derived from the SLOPE ANGLE – FRICTION ANGLE (in this
example 60 – 30 = 30 degrees). The DIP DIRECTION of the slip limit plane is equal to that of the
slope face.

 Lateral Limits

The Lateral Limits for flexural toppling have the same purpose as described for planar
sliding. They define the lateral extents of the critical zone with respect to the dip direction of
the slope. See the Planar Sliding topic for more information.

107
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
Note: for flexural toppling, the Lateral Limits must always be defined, they are not
optional.

 Flexural Toppling Results

Flexural Toppling results are displayed in the Legend.

 The number of poles (or dip vectors) within the critical zone are counted.
 Results are expressed as a percentage of all poles in the file, and as a percentage of poles
within individual sets (if sets are defined).

These percentages give an estimate of "probability of failure" with respect to all planes
in the file, and with respect to all planes in individual sets. It does not matter whether you are
viewing poles or dip vectors, the results are identical since the critical zones are equivalent for
pole or dip vectors.

NOTE: a detailed summary of ALL kinematic analysis results for all failure modes is
available in the Info Viewer.

10.5 DIRECT TOPPLING

The Direct Toppling kinematic analysis failure mode is a test for direct toppling as
defined in Hudson and Harrison (1997). The key elements of the direct toppling analysis are:

 Two joint sets intersect such that the intersection lines dip into the slope and can form
discrete toppling blocks
 A third joint set exists which act as release planes or sliding planes allowing the blocks
to topple

Direct toppling can be an issue when you have near vertical intersections dipping into
the slope and near horizontal base planes which undercut the blocks and form release planes.

Direct toppling analysis using intersections and pole vectors (base planes)

108
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL

Direct toppling kinematic analysis has several different criteria to simultaneously

consider. We will describe them with respect to the three zones labelled in the figure below.

Regions to consider for direct toppling analysis

109
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL

 Primary and Secondary Critical Zones

In the above figure, the highlighted red region containing zones 1 and 2 is the primary
critical zone for direct toppling (intersections and base plane poles). The highlighted yellow
region (zone 3) is the secondary critical zone where we consider oblique toppling (intersections
and base plane poles).

 Critical Intersections - Zones 1 and 2

Intersections which fall in the combined region of zones 1 and 2, represent the risk of
formation of toppling blocks. These are intersections which dip into the slope and are within
the lateral limits. This region is defined by the following:

 Straight line lateral limits (plus/minus specified angle from the slope dip direction).
 The outer curved limit of this region is given by a circle with cone angle equal to the
slope angle. The distance of this boundary from the stereonet perimeter = 90 - slope
angle (in the above figure = 90 - 70 = 20 degrees). This defines an upper limit for a
toppling type failure mode, and ensures that the angle between the slope face and the
toppling blocks is always less than or equal to 90 degrees. For a vertical slope zone 1
would extend to the stereonet perimeter.

110
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
Note that intersections which fall in zone 2 are closer to vertical than intersections in
zone 1, so may be considered a greater toppling risk than zone 1 intersections which are flatter.
The boundary between zone 1 and zone 2 is the friction cone of the base planes. This is not
directly relevant to the critical intersections, but is used to delineate a sliding or non-sliding
release mode for the base planes.

 Critical Intersections - Zone 3

Intersections which fall in zone 3 are referred to as oblique toppling intersections.

Basically, as intersections approach vertical, toppling in a direction outside of the lateral limits
becomes more likely. To account for this, we consider oblique toppling for near vertical
intersections which are outside of the straight line lateral limits.

Again note that the outer circular limit for zone 3 is simply the friction cone of the base
planes. Since this is not directly relevant to the critical intersections, this is a somewhat
arbitrary boundary and is used for convenience in the analysis. You may adjust this boundary
as required for consideration of oblique toppling, by adjusting the value of friction angle.

 Critical Base Planes - Zones 2 and 3

Any poles which fall in the combined region of zones 2 and 3 represent base planes
which may act as potential release surfaces for the toppling blocks. Poles inside zones 2 and 3
are inside the friction cone, therefore they are not sliding planes but can still act as release
planes. Poles in zone 3 are oblique release planes (outside the lateral limits) and poles in zone
2 are within the lateral limits.

NOTE: although not considered in the direct toppling analysis, base planes which dip
INTO the slope, may still act as release planes for direct toppling blocks. This is the half-circle
region opposite zones 2 and 3, within the friction cone. If a sufficient quantity of poles plots in
this region, then these may also be considered as potential base planes even though the planes
dip into the slope. Dips does not currently report these poles in the direct toppling analysis
results, you must keep track of these manually.

 Critical Base Planes - Zone 1

Poles which plot in zone 1 represent release planes which are also sliding planes, since
the poles plot outside of the friction cone. So if poles plot in zone 1 you may have combined
sliding and toppling modes occurring simultaneously.

 Lateral Limits

The Lateral Limits for direct toppling have the same purpose as described for planar
sliding. They define the lateral extents of the primary critical zone with respect to the dip
direction of the slope. See the Planar Sliding topic for more information. For direct toppling
note:

 The Lateral Limits must always be defined; they are not optional.

111
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
 We also consider the possibility of oblique toppling outside the lateral limits, as
described above.

 Friction Cone

The friction cone in direct toppling serves two purposes:

 delineates the zones of sliding or non-sliding release planes

 defines the limits of the oblique toppling zones

 Intersection Plotting

The intersection of two planes forms a line in 3-dimensional space. The trend/plunge of
the line plots as a single point on a stereonet which we refer to as an intersection. In Dips there
are several different options for the display of intersections on the stereonet. You can plot:

 the intersection of ALL planes in the file (Grid Data Planes)

 contours of all intersections (Grid Data Planes)
 intersections of major planes (i.e. mean set planes and/or user planes)

For direct toppling analysis you can use any of the above methods of intersection
plotting and results will be reported accordingly. See the Intersections Overview topic for more
information.

 Direct Toppling Results

112
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
A summary of direct toppling results is displayed in the Legend (critical intersections and
base planes).

NOTE: a detailed summary of ALL kinematic analysis results for all failure modes is
available in the Info Viewer.

10.6 KINEMATIC SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

The Kinematic Sensitivity Analysis option allows you to define ranges of values for the
slope dip, slope dip direction, friction angle and lateral limits, and generate kinematic analysis
sensitivity plots for each variable.

To use this option:

1. Select the Kinematic Analysis option.

2. Enter the mean slope input parameters in the sidebar.
3. Select the Kinematic Sensitivity button in the sidebar,
and enter ranges of values for the desired variables, and select OK.

See the Dips 7 What's New Quick Start Guide for more information.

113
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
XI. DATA PROCESSING
11.1 PROCESS DATA AND SAVE PROCESSED FILE

The Process Data option in the Analysis menu allows you to save a processed version of
the current Dips file. To save a processed Dips file:

1. Select Processed Data from the Analysis menu. You will see a dialog allowing you to
configure how the file is written. Make your selections and select OK.
2. You can then save the file with a standard Save As dialog.

The processed file will have the following properties, according to your selections in the
Processed Dips File dialog:

 Orientation Format

The user can save the processed data in any one of the four Orientation Formats
available in Dips (Trend / Plunge, Dip / Dip Direction, Strike / DipRight, Strike / DipLeft). This
will determine the format of ALL data in the two Orientation Columns of the processed file.

 Declination

The Declination in the processed file is ZERO. All of the data has been offset by the
declination (if any) recorded in the original file.

 Traverses

There are NO active Traverses in the processed file. If the original file contained Traverse
information, this will be saved in the processed file in comment form only. The Traverse
Column will automatically be saved as an Extra Column in the processed file. To preserve bias
correction information in the processed file, select the "Multiply quantity column by Terzaghi
weighting" checkbox in the Processed Dips File dialog (see below for details).

You may also save the Terzaghi weighting information in its own column, by selecting
the "Terzaghi weighting" checkbox. The Terzaghi weighting column will simply be an Extra
Column in the processed file.

 Quantity Column

If Traverses were present in the original file, the bias correction information can be
preserved by selecting the "Multiply quantity column by Terzaghi weighting" checkbox in the
Processed Dips File dialog. This will multiply the values in the Quantity Column by the weights
of each pole, so that UNWEIGHTED Contour and Rosette plots for the processed file will
actually reflect the WEIGHTED data concentrations. The Quantity Column title will be
Quantity*W in this case.

114
 DIPS v7 -MANUAL
This is the only way to preserve the bias correction information in the processed file.
NOTE: if a Quantity Column was not present in the original file, it will automatically be created
when you use this option.

If the "Multiply quantity column by Terzaghi weighting" checkbox is selected, then you
may preserve the original Quantity Column by selecting the "Original quantity column"
checkbox. This will save the original Quantity Column as an Extra Column in the processed file.

 Set Column

If Sets were defined in the original file, the Set Column can be saved in the processed
file as an Extra Column, by selecting the "Set ID" checkbox. This preserves the Set ID
information ONLY. All other Set information (i.e. window limits, mean planes) is NOT saved in
the processed file.

If you are saving the Set Column, a NEGATIVE Set ID can be used to identify "wrapped
data" in a given Set, by selecting the "Negative Set ID for wrapped data" checkbox. NOTE that
the pole orientation of data saved with a negative Set ID is the UNALTERED ORIENTATION!!!
This option is an aid for post-processing applications, and it is left to the user to convert the
data. For example, for mean orientation calculation outside of Dips, the user must calculate
the orientation of the upper (negative) pole when the Set ID is negative (i.e. plunge = – plunge,
trend = trend + 180).

 Extra Columns

All Extra Columns of the original file are automatically saved in the processed file, and
will appear AFTER the optional Extra Columns described above.

11.2 QUERY DATA

The Query Data option (available in the toolbar or the Analysis menu) allows you
to create a query to search for any subset of data in a Dips file. If the query is successful, a
newDips file will immediately be generated, and a new Grid View will display the selected data.

Note that the rows of the new subset file will be exactly as found in the original file, and
all of the Project Settings information will also be preserved (i.e. Global Orientation Format,
Declination, Traverse Information etc.) The new files created by Query Data are NOT processed
files. If you wish to save a processed Dips file, you must use the Process Data option in the
Analysis menu.

Also note: if Sets exist, the Set Column can only be saved as an Extra Column in the new
file created by the Query.

11.2.1 Creating an Expression

The first step in creating a query, is to create an Expression. As you can see at the top
of the Query Data dialog, an Expression consists of Data, Operator and Operand.

115