Muscular System
- the endoplasmic
• Because flexing muscles look like mice scurrying
beneath the skin, some scientist long ago
dubbed them muscles, from the Latin mus
meaning “little mouse.” Indeed, we tend to
think of the rippling muscles of professional
boxers or weight lifters when we hear the word
muscle.
3 muscle types:
But muscle is also the dominant tissue in the heart
and in the walls of other hollow organs. In all its forms,
muscle tissue makes up nearly half the body’s mass.
• Muscles are distinguished by their ability to
transform chemical energy (ATP) into directed
mechanical energy. In so doing, they become
capable of exerting force.
The Muscular System
 Muscles are responsible for all types of body
movement – they contract or shorten
Skeletal Muscle Characteristics
 “machines” of the body
Muscles (650): more than 600
❑ allow for movement and position
❑ produce heat
• The essential function of muscle is contraction
or shortening – a unique characteristic that sets
it apart from any other body tissue. As a result
of this ability, muscles are responsible for
essentially all body movement and can be
viewed as the “machines” of the body.
Terminologies
 All muscles share some terminology
 Prefix myo refers to muscle -
myometrium
 Prefix mys refers to muscle - myalgia
 Prefix sarco refers to flesh
 sarcoplasm - cytoplasm
of a muscle fiber
 Sarcolemma - cell
membrane of muscle
fiber
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum
reticulum of a muscle
fiber
 Sarcomere - the
smallest unit of
contraction within a
myofibril
• There are 3 types of muscle tissue- skeletal,
cardiac & smooth. These differ in their cell
structure, body location, & how they are
stimulated to contract. Some ways they are the
same:
• Skeletal & smooth muscle cells are elongated.
For these reason these type of muscle cells (but
not cardiac) are called muscle fibers or muscle
cells.
 Most are attached by tendons to bones
 Cells are multinucleate
 Striated – have visible banding
 Voluntary – subject to conscious control
 Reflexes - without command
 Cells are surrounded and bundled by connective
tissue
 Skeletal muscle fibers are packaged into the
organs called skeletal muscles that attach to the
body’s skeleton. As the skeletal muscles cover
our bony “underpinnings,” they help form the
much smoother contours of the body. Skeletal
muscle fibers are huge, cigar-shaped,
multinucleate cells. They are the largest of the
muscle fiber types – some raging from 30 cm
(nearly 1 foot) in length. Indeed the fibers are
large , hardworking muscles, such as the
antigravity muscles if the hip, are so big &
coarse that they can be seen with the naked
eye.
 Skeletal muscle is known as striated muscle
(because its fibers have obvious stripes) & the
voluntary muscle because it is the only muscle
 type subject to conscious control.) However it is
important to recognize that skeletal muscles are
often activated by reflexes ( without our “willed
command”) as well. When you think of skeletal
muscle tissue, the key words to remember are
skeletal, striated, and voluntary.
 Skeletal muscle tissue can contract rapidly and
with great force, but tires easily & must rest
after short periods of activity.
 Skeletal muscle fibers, like most cells are soft &
surprisingly fragile. Yet skeletal muscles can
exert tremendous power – indeed, the force
they generate in, say lifting a weight, is often
much greater than that required to lift the
weight.. The reason they are not ripped apart as
they exert force is that thousands of their fibers
are bundled together by connective tissue,
which provides strength & support to the
muscle as a whole.
Importance of Connective Tissue
 Help support & bind muscle fibers
 Increase muscle strength
 Provides a route (entry & exit) nerves &
blood vessels
Connective Tissue Wrappings of
Skeletal Muscle
Endo (within; inner); peri (around); epi (on, above,
upon)
 Endomysium – around single muscle fiber
 Perimysium – around a fascicle (bundle) of
fibers
Connective Tissue Wrappings of
Skeletal Muscle
• Many fascicles are bound together by an even
tougher “overcoat” of connective tissue called
an epimysium (= upon, over , beside), which
covers the entire muscle.
 Epimysium – covers the entire skeletal muscle
 Fascia – on the outside of the epimysium
Skeletal Muscle Attachments
• The epimysia blend either into strong, cordlike
tendons or into sheetlike aponeuroses (ex.
Epicranial), which attach muscles indirectly to
bones, cartilages or connective tissue coverings
• Besides simply acting to anchor muscles,
tendons perform several other functions. The
most important are providing durability &
conserving space. Tendons are mostly tough
collagenic fibers, so they can cross rough bony
projections, which would tear the more delicate
muscle tissues
• Because of their relatively small size, more
tendons than fleshy muscles can pass over a
joint.
• Many people think of muscles as always having
an enlarges “belly” that tapers down to a
tendon at each end. However, muscles vary
considerably in the way their fibers are
arranged. Many are spindle-shaped as just
described, but in others, the fibers are arranged
in a fan shape or circle.
 Epimysia blends into a connective tissue
attachment
 Tendon – cord-like structure (collagen
fibers)
 Aponeuroses – sheet-like structure
 Sites of muscle attachment
 Bones
 Cartilages
 Connective tissue coverings
Smooth Muscle Characteristics
 no striations
 Spindle-shaped cells
 Single nucleus
 Involuntary
 mainly in the walls of hollow visceral organs
 Contraction - slow, sustained and tireless
Smooth muscle has no striations & is involuntary,
which means that we cannot consciously control it.
Found mainly in the walls of hollow visceral organs such
as the stomach, urinary bladder, and respiratory
passages, smooth muscle propels substances along a
definite tract, or pathway, within the body. We can
best describe smooth muscle using the terms visceral,
non striated & involuntary.
 Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped, have a
single nucleus, and are surrounded by a scant
endomysium. They are arranged in layers &
most often there are 2 such layers, one running
circularly & the other longitudinally. As the 2
layers alternately contract & relax, they change
the size & shape of an organ. Moving food
through the digestive tract & emptying the
bowels & bladder are examples of
“housekeeping” activities normally handled by
smooth muscles. Smooth muscles contraction
is slow & sustained.
 If a skeletal muscle is like a sprinter, who runs
fast but tires quickly, the smooth muscle is like a
marathoner, who runs more slowly but keeps
up the pace for many miles.
Cardiac Muscle Characteristics
 has striations
 single nucleus
 branching cells joined by special junctions
called intercalated discs
 Involuntary
 arranged in spiral figure 8-shaped bundles
 Closely coordinated contraction & steady pace
Cardiac muscle is found in only one place of the
body-the heart, where it forms the bulk of the heart
walls. The heart serves as a pump, propelling blood into
the blood vessels and to all tissues of the body. Cardiac
muscle is like skeletal muscle that is striated, and like
smooth muscle in that it is involuntary and cannot be
consciously controlled by most of us. Important key
words are cardiac, striated, and involuntary.
 The cardiac fibers are cushioned by small
amount of soft connective tissue (endomysium)
and arranged in spiral figure 8-shaped bundles.
When the heart contracts, its internal
chambers become smaller, forcing the blood
into the large arteries leaving the heart. Recall
that cardiac muscle fibers are branching cells
joined by special junctions called intercalated
discs. These two structural features and the
spiral arrangement of the muscle bundles in the
heart allow heart activity to be closely
coordinated. Cardiac muscle usually contracts
at a fairly steady rate set by the heart’s “in
house” pacemaker, (SA node) but the heart can
also be stimulated by the nervous system to
shift into “high gear” for short periods, as when
you run to catch a bus.
Function of Muscles
 Produce movement
 Maintain posture
 Stabilize joints
 Generate heat
Definitions:
Producing movement is a common function of all
muscle types, but skeletal muscle plays three other
important roles in the body as well: it maintains
posture, stabilizes joints, and generates heat.
 Producing Movement – just about all
movements of the human body result from
muscle contraction. Skeletal muscles are
responsible for mobility of the body as a whole,
including all locomotion (walking, swimming &
cross country skiing , for instance) and
manipulation. They enable us to respond
quickly to changes in the external environment.
For example, their speed and power enable us
to jump out of the way of a runaway car & then
follow its flight with our eyes. They also allow
us to express our emotions with the silent
language of smiles and frowns.
 Scientists have studied the muscles
needed for both facial expressions, and
to do a small smile generally uses 10
muscles; a small frown uses 6. ...
However, since humans tend to smile a
lot, these muscles are stronger.
 They are distinct from the smooth
muscles of the blood vessel walls and
cardiac muscle of the heart, which work
 together to circulate blood and
maintain blood pressure, and the
smooth muscle of other hollow organs,
which forces fluids (urine, bile) and
other substances ( food, a baby)
through internal body channels.
 Maintaining Posture & Body Position – We are
rarely aware of the workings of the skeletal
muscles that maintain body posture. Yet they
function almost continuously, making one tiny
adjustment after another so that we maintain
an erect or seated posture despite the never-
ending downward pull of gravity
 Stabilizing Joints – as the skeletal muscle pull on
bones to cause movements, they also stabilize
the joints of the skeleton. Indeed, muscle
tendons are extremely important in reinforcing
and stabilizing joints that have poorly fitting
articulating surface (ex, shoulder joint)
 Generating heat – body heat is generated as a
by-product of muscle activity. As ATP is used
to power muscle contraction, nearly three
quarters of its energy escapes as heat. This
heat is vital in maintaining normal body
temperature. Skeletal muscle accounts for at
least 40 % of body mass, so it is the muscle type
most responsible for body heat.
Additional functions – some other roles are usually left
off lists of major muscle functions: Skeletal muscles
protect fragile internal organs by enclosure. Smooth
muscles form valves to regulate the passage of
substances through internal body openings, dilate and
constrict the pupil of the eyes, and activate the arrector
pili muscles that cause our hairs to stand on end.
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
 Multiple nucleus beneath the sarcolemma
 Sarcolemma – specialized plasma membrane
or cell membrane of the muscle fiber.
Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleate. Many
oval nuclei can be seen just beneath the plasma,
which is called the sarcolemma (“muscle husk”) in
muscle cells. The nuclei are pushed aside by long
ribbonlike organelles, the myofibrils, which nearly
fill the cytoplasm. smallest contractile unit
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
 Myofibril
 Complex organelle composed of
bundles of myofilaments
 Myofibrils are aligned to give distinct
bands
 I band =
light band
 A band =
dark band
 Myofibril - a long filamentous organelle with a
banded appearance found within a muscle cell
 The nuclei are pushed aside by long ribbonlike
organelles, the myofibrils, which nearly fill the
cytoplasm. Alternating light (I) and dark (A)
bands align the length of the perfectly aligned
myofibrils give the muscle cell as a whole its
striped appearance. A closer look at the
banding pattern revels that the light I band has
a midline interruption, a darker area called the
Z disc, and the dark A band has a lighter central
area called the H zone. The M line in the
center of the H zone contains tiny protein rods
that hold adjacent thick filaments together.
Each dark A band has a lighter region in its midsection
called the H zone (H for helle; “bright”).
Each H zone is bisected vertically by a dark line called
the M line (M for middle) formed by molecules of the
protein myomesin.
■ Each light I band also has a midline interruption, a
darker area called the Z disc (or Z line).
 Sarcomere
 muscle segment; region of a myofibril
between 2 successive Z discs
 Contractile unit of a muscle fiber
The region of a myofibril between two successive Z discs
is a sarcomere (sarko-mĕr; literally, “muscle
segment”).
Averaging 2 μm long, a sarcomere is the of a muscle
fiber—the functional unit of skeletal muscle. It contains
an A band flanked by half an I band at each end. Within
each myofibril, the sarcomeres align end to end like
boxcars in a train. If we examine the banding pattern of
a myofibril at the molecular
• So why are we bothering with all these terms –
dark this and light that? Because the banding
pattern reveals the working structure of the
myofibrils. First, we find that the myofibrils are
actually chains of tiny contractile units called
sarcomeres, which are aligned end to end like
boxcars in a train along the length of the
myofibrils. Second, it is the arrangement of
even smaller structures (myofilaments) within
sarcomeres that actually produces the banding
pattern.
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
 Organization of the sarcomere
 Thick filaments = myosin filaments
 Composed of the protein
myosin
 Has ATPase enzymes – split
ATP to generate power for
contraction
 Myofilaments - actin & myosin containing
structure
 Let’s examine how the arrangement of the
myofilaments leads to the banding pattern.
There are two types of threadlike protein
myofilaments within each of our “boxcar”
sarcomere. The larger thick filaments, also
called myosin filaments, are made mostly of
bundled molecules of the protein myosin, but
they also contain ATPase enzymes, which split
ATP to generate the power for muscle
contraction. Notice that the thick filaments
extend the entire length of the dark A band.
Also, notice that the midparts of the thick
filaments are smooth, but their ends are
studded with small projections (3d). These
projections, or myosin heads, are called cross
bridges when they link the thick and thin
filaments together during contraction.
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
 Organization of the sarcomere
 Thin filaments = actin filaments
 Composed of the protein actin + regulatory
binding protein
The thin filaments are composed of the
contractile protein called actin, plus some regulatory
proteins that play a role in allowing ( or preventing)
binding of myosin heads to actin. The thin filaments,
also called actin filaments, are anchored to the Z disc ( a
disclike membrane). Notice that the light I band
includes parts of two adjacent sarcomeres & contains
only the thin filaments. Although they overlap the ends
of the thick filaments, the thin filaments do not extend
into the middle of a relaxed sarcomere, and thus the
central region (the H zone, which lacks actin filaments
and looks a bit lighter) is sometimes called the bare
zone.
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
 Myosin filament heads
 projections,or cross bridges
These projections, or myosin heads, are called
cross bridges when they link the thick and thin filaments
together during contraction
When contraction occurs and the actin-
containing filaments slide toward each other into the
center of the sarcomeres, these light zones disappear
because the actin and myosin filaments are completely
overlapped. For now, however, just recognize that it is
the precise arrangement of the myofilaments in the
myofibrils that produces the banding pattern, or
striations, in skeletal muscle cells.
Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: The Sliding
Filament Theory
▪ Activation by nerve causes myosin heads
(crossbridges) to attach to binding sites of the
thin filament
▪ Myosin heads then bind to the next site of the
thin filament
▪ This continued action causes a sliding of the
myosin along the actin
▪ The result is that the muscle is shortened
(contracted)
When muscle fibers are activated by the nervous
system, the myosin heads attach to binding sites of
the thin filaments, and the sliding begins.
 Each cross bridge attaches and detaches several
times during a contraction, generating tension that
helps to pull the thin filaments toward the center of the
sarcomere. As this event occurs simultaneously in
sarcomeres throughout the muscle cell, the cell
shortens.
This “walking” of the myosin cross bridges, or
heads, along the thin filaments during muscle
shortening is much like a centipede’s gait. Some myosin
heads (“legs”) are always in contact with actin (“the
ground”), so that the thin filaments cannot slide
backwards as this cycle repeats again and again during
contraction. Notice that the myofilaments themselves
do not shorten during contraction; they simply slide
past each other.
The attachment of the myosin cross bridges to actin
requires calcium ions (Ca+). So where does calcium
come from? Action potentials pass deep into the
muscle cell along membranous tubules that fold inward
from the sarcolemma. Inside the cell, the action
potentials stimulate the sarcoplasmic reticulum to
release calcium ions into the cytoplasm. The calcium
ions trigger the binding of myosin to actin, initiating
filament sliding. This sliding process and the role of
calcium are depicted in the next slide.
The Sliding Filament Theory
• When the action potential ends, calcium ions
are immediately reabsorbed into the SR storage
areas, and the muscle cell relaxes and settles
back to its original length. This whole series of
events takes a few thousandths of a second.
• In a relaxed muscle cell, the regulatory proteins
forming part of the actin myofilaments prevent
myosin binding (a). When an action potential
(AP) sweeps along its sarcolemma and a muscle
cell is excited, calcium ions (CA2+) are released
from intracellular storage areas (the sacs of the
sarcoplasmic reticulum).
• The flood of calcium acts as the final trigger for
contraction, because as calcium binds to the
regulatory proteins on the actin filaments, the
proteins undergo a change both in their shape
and their position on the thin filaments. This
action exposes myosin-binding sites on the
actin, to which the myosin heads can attach (b),
and the myosin heads immediately begin
seeking out binding sites.
• The free myosin heads are “cocked”, much like
a set mousetrap. Myosin attachment to actin
“springs the trap,” causing the myosin heads to
snap (pivot) toward the center of the
sarcomere. When this happens, the thin
filaments are slightly pulled toward the center
of the sarcomere (c). ATP provides the energy
needed to release and recock each myosin head
so that it is ready to attach to a binding site
farther along the thin filament. When the AP
ends and calcium ions are returned to SR
storage areas, the regulatory proteins resume
their original shape and position, and again
block myosin binding to the thin filaments. As a
result, the muscle cell relaxes and settles back
to its original length.
The Cross Bridge Cycle
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum – specialized smooth
ER
 store calcium; release it on demand when the
muscle fiber is stimulated to contract
Another very important muscle fiber organelle the
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), a specialized smooth ER.
The interconnecting tubules and sacs of the SR surround
each and every myofibril just as the sleeve of a loosely
crocheted sweater surrounds your arm. The major role
of this elaborate system is to store calcium and to
release it on demand when the muscle fiber is
stimulated to contract. As you will see, calcium
provides the final “go” signal for contraction.
Nerve Stimulus to Muscles
 Motor unit
 One neuron & all the muscle cell it
stimulates
 Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a
nerve cell (motor neuron) to contract
(Slide - branching axon to motor unit) The nerve
Stimulus and the Action Potential
To contract, skeletal muscle cells must be
stimulated by nerve impulses. One motor neuron
(nerve cell) may stimulate a few muscle cells or
hundreds of them, depending on the particular muscle
and the work it does. One neuron and all the muscle
cells it stimulates is called a motor unit. When a long,
threadlike extension of the neuron, called the nerve
fiber or axon, reaches the muscle, it branches into a
number of axon terminals, each of which forms
junctions with the sarcolemma of a different muscle cell
(provide slides)
Neuromuscular junctions – association site of nerve
and muscle
• These junctions, called neuromuscular (literally,
“nerve-muscle”) junctions, contain vesicles
filled with chemical referred to as a
neurotransmitter. The specific
neurotransmitter that stimulates skeletal
muscle cells is acetylcholine, or Ach.
Synaptic cleft – gap between nerve & muscle
 filled with interstitial fluid
 nerve & muscle do not make contact
Now that we have described the structure of the
neuromuscular junction, we are ready to examine what
happens there.
• 1. When a nerve impulse reaches the axon
terminals
• 2. calcium channels open and calcium (Ca2+)
enters the terminal
• 3. calcium entry causes some of the synaptic
vesicles in the axon terminal to release
acetylcholine
• 4. which then diffuses across the synaptic cleft
and attaches to receptors (membrane proteins)
that are located in highly folded regions of the
sarcolemma
Sarcolemma becomes permeable to sodium (Na+)
Sodium rushing into the cell generates an action
potential
Once started, muscle contraction cannot be stopped
 5. if enough acetylcholine is released, the
sarcolemma at that point becomes temporarily
even more permeable to sodium ions (Na+),
which rush into the muscle cells, and to
potassium ions (K+), which diffuses out of the
cell. However, more Na+ enters than K+ leaves.
This imbalance gives the cell interior an excess
of positive ions, which reverses the electrical
conditions of the sarcolemma, an event called
depolarization, and opens more channels that
allow Na entry only……This “upset” generates
an electrical impulse current called an action
potential. Once begun, the action potential is
unstoppable; it travels over the entire surface of
the sarcolemma, conducting the electrical
impulse from one end of the cell to the other.
The result is contraction of the muscle cell.
 6. Note that while the action potential is
occurring, acetylcholine, which began the
process, is broken down to acetic acid and
choline by enzymes (acetylcholinesterase, or
AChE) present on the sarcolemma and in the
synaptic cleft.
For this reason, a single nerve impulse produces
only one contraction. This prevents continued
contraction of the muscle cell in the absence of
additional nerve impulses. The muscle cell relaxes until
stimulated by the next round of acetylcholine release.
The events that return the cell to its resting state
include: 1. diffusion of Potassium ions (K+) out of the
cell and 2. operation of the sodium-potassium pump,
the active transport mechanism that moves the sodium
and potassium ions back to their initial positions.
Events in the neuromuscular junction
ALS - Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
( Lou Gehrig’s disease)
The disease that Stephen Hawking defied for
decades. “ brief history of time”. Theoretical physicist/
cosmologist..IQ - 162; diagnosed at age 21 (1942-2018)
In some cases, a motor nerve impulse is unable
to reach the muscle. In ALS, or amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis ( Lou Gehrig’s disease), motor neuron
degenerate over time, resulting in paralysis that
gradually worsens. The cause of ALS is unknown, but
command characteristics include malfunctioning
mitochondria, inflammation, and the generation of free
radicals that damage DNA & tissue much like intense UV
light. The prognosis for ALS patients is generally death
within 3-5 years because the breathing muscles will
eventually be affected, resulting in suffocation.

Botox injections use various forms of botulinum toxin
to temporarily paralyze muscle activity.
• Botulinum toxin in Botox injections for both
cosmetic and therapeutic reasons.
• The toxins affect the body at the neuromuscular
junctions called synapses. At this site, Botox
prevents the release of the chemical
acetylcholine.
• Toxin can be injected but not ingested.
hypochondriasis, migraines, and cerebral
palsy–related uncontrolled movements.
Properties of Skeletal Muscle Activity (single cells or
fibers)
 Contractility – ability to shorten when an
adequate stimulus is received
 Excitability (irritability)– ability to receive and
respond to a stimulus
 Extensibility – ability to be stretched
 Elasticity – ability to recoil and resume resting
length after stretched
CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”
 a muscle cell will contract to its fullest
extent when it is stimulated
adequately; it never partially contracts
The “all-or-none” law of muscle physiology can be
likened to a light switch. It is either on or off—nothing
in between. This law applies to an individual muscle
cell and not the whole muscle, thus providing a muscle
with the ability to generate a graded response.
A muscle is made up of thousands of muscle cells,
and if only a few of those cells contract to their full
capacity, the overall response is still going to be
minimal, such as a twitch. In contrast, if many cells
contract, objects can be moved or locomotion can
result.
 Graded responses – different degrees of
skeletal muscle shortening
 By changing the frequency of muscle
stimulation
 By changing the number of muscle cells
being stimulated
MUSCLE RESPONSE TO INCREASINGLY RAPID
STIMULATION
 Twitch -single, brief, jerky contractions
 Tetanic Contraction
o muscles are stimulated so rapidly that
no evidence of relaxation is seen
o Completely smooth contractions &
sustained
Although muscle twitches (single, brief, jerky
contractions) sometimes result from certain nervous
system problems, this is not the way our muscles
normally operate. In most types of muscle activity,
nerve impulses are delivered to the muscle at a very
rapid rate – so rapid that the muscle does not get a
chance to relax completely between stimuli. As a result,
the effects of the successive contractions are “summed”
( added) together, and the contraction of the muscle get
stronger and smoother. When the muscle is stimulated
so rapidly that no evidence of relaxation is seen and the
contractions are completely smooth and sustained, the
muscle is said to be in fused, or complete, tetanus, or in
tetanic contraction. Until this point is reached, the
muscle is said to be exhibiting unfused, or incomplete
tetenus.
 Muscle force depends upon the number of
fibers stimulated
 More fibers contracting results in greater
muscle tension
 Muscles can continue to contract unless they
run out of energy
A tetanic contraction (also called tetanized state,
tetanus, or physiologic tetanus, the latter to
differentiate from the disease called tetanus) is a
sustained muscle contraction evoked when the motor
nerve that innervates a skeletal muscle emits action
potentials at a very high rate.
ENERGY FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION
 muscles used stored ATP for energy
 Bonds of ATP are broken to release
energy
  Only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is  Huge amounts of glucose are
stored by muscles needed

 After this initial time, other pathways must be  Lactic acid produces muscle
utilized to produce ATP fatigue (sore muscles)

Pathways for ATP Regeneration: MUSCLE FATIGUE AND OXYGEN DEBT

1. Direct phosphorylation of ADP Oxygen - get rid of lactic acid

2. Aerobic Pathway Fatigued muscle - unable to contract

3. Anaerobic glycolysis  When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to

contract
Energy for Muscle Contraction
 The common reason for muscle fatigue is
 Direct phosphorylation
oxygen debt
 Muscle cells contain creatine
 Oxygen must be “repaid” to tissue to
phosphate (CP)
remove oxygen debt
 CP is a high-energy molecule
 Oxygen is required to get rid of
 After ATP is depleted, ADP is left accumulated lactic acid

 CP transfers energy to ADP, to  Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and lack of
regenerate ATP ATP causes the muscle to contract less

 CP supplies are exhausted in < 15 sec TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS

 Aerobic Respiration  Isotonic contractions

 Supplies ATP at rest & during light /  Myofilaments are able to slide past
moderate exercise each other during contractions

 Series of metabolic pathways that occur  The muscle shortens, movement

in the mitochondria occurs

 Glucose is broken down to Carbon  Isometric contractions

dioxide and water, releasing energy (32-
 Muscle filaments are trying to slide,
36 ATP)
but the muscle is pitted against an
 This is a slower reaction that requires immovable object
continuous oxygen
 Tension in the muscles increases, but
 Anaerobic glycolysis & lactic acid formation do not shorten

 Reaction that breaks down glucose Muscle Tone

without oxygen
 State of continuous partial contractions
 Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid
 Some fibers are contracted even in a relaxed
to produce about 2 ATP
muscle
 Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
 Result of different motor units being
 This reaction is not as efficient, but is stimulated in a systemic way
fast
 Muscle remains firm, healthy, and constantly
ready for action
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
 If a nerve supply to a muscle is destroyed (as in
accident), the muscle is no longer stimulated in
this manner, and it loses tone and becomes
paralyzed. Soon after, it becomes flaccid, or
soft and flabby, and it begins to atrophy (waste
away).
Effects of Exercise on Muscle
 Results of increased muscle use
 Increase in muscle size
 Increase in muscle strength
 Increase in muscle efficiency
 Muscle becomes more fatigue resistant
MUSCLES AND BODY MOVEMENTS
Movement is attained due to a muscle moving an
attached bone
• There are five very basic understandings about
gross muscle activity:
1. With a few exceptions, all skeletal
muscles cross at least one joint
2. Typically, the bulk of skeletal muscle lies
proximal to the joint crossed.
3. All skeletal muscles have at least two
attachments: the origin and the
insertion.
4. Skeletal muscles can only pull; they
never push
5. During contraction, a skeletal muscle
insertion moves toward the origin.
Muscles and Body Movements
 Muscles are attached to at least two points
 Origin – attachment to an immovable
bone
 Insertion – attachment to an movable
bone
Types of Ordinary Body Movements
• Flexion. Is a movement, generally in the sagittal
plane, that decreases the angle of the joint and
brings two bones closer together (13a & b).
Flexion is typical of hinge joints (bending of
knee or elbow), but it is also common at all ball-
and socket joints (ex. Bending forward of the
hip)
• Extension. Is the opposite of flexion, so it is a
movement that increases the angle, or the
distance, between two bones or parts of the
body (straightening the knee or elbow). If
extension is greater than 180° (as when you
move your arm posteriorly beyond its normal
anatomical position, or tip your head (so that
your chin points toward the ceiling), it is
hyperextension (13a & b).
• Rotation. Is movement of the bone around its
longitudinal axis (13c). Rotation is a common
movement of the ball-and-socket joints and
describes the movement of the atlas around the
dens of the axis ( as in shaking your head “no”).
• Abduction. Is moving a limb away (generally on
the frontal pane) from the midline or median
plane, of the body (13d). The terminology also
applies to the fanning movement of the fingers
or toes when they are spread apart.
• Adduction. Is the opposite of abduction, so it is
the movement of the limb toward the body
midline (13d)
• Circumduction. Is a combination of flexion,
extension abduction, and adduction commonly
seen in ball-and-socket joints such as the
shoulder. The proximal end of the limb is
stationary, and its distal end moves in a circle.
The limb as a whole outlines a cone. (13d)
Body Movements
• Special Movements. Certain movements do not
fit into previous categories and occur only in
few joints: Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion. Up
and down movements of the foot at the ankle
are given special names. Lifting the foot so that
its superior surface approaches the shin
(standing on your heels) is called dorsiflexion,
whereas depressing the foot (pointing the toes)
is called plantar flexion (13e). Dorsiflexion of
the foot corresponds to extension of the hand
 and the wrist, whereas plantar flexion of the
foot corresponds to flexion of the hand.
• Inversion and eversion. Are also special
movements of the foot (13f). To invert the foot,
turn the sole medially. To evert the foot, turn
the sole laterally.
• Supination and pronation. The terms
supination “turning backward”) and pronation
(“turning forward”) refer to the movements of
the radius around the ulna (13g). Supination
occurs when the forearm rotates laterally so
that the palm faces anteriorly, and the radius
and ulna are parallel. Pronation occurs when
the forearm rotates medially so that the palm
faces posteriorly. Pronation brings the radius
across the ulna so that the two bones form an
X. A helpful memory trick: if you lift a cup of
soup up to your mouth on your palm, you are
supinating (“soup”-inating)
TYPES OF MUSCLES
 Prime mover – muscle with the major
responsibility for producing a certain
movement
 Antagonist – muscle that opposes or reverses a
prime mover
 Synergist – muscle that aids the action of the
prime mover or by reducing undesirable
movements
When a prime mover is active, its antagonist is
stretched and relaxed.
Synergists (syn=together, erg=work)
Fixators (specialized synergists) hold a bone still or
stabilizes the origin of a prime mover
NAMING OF SKELETAL MUSCLES
Direction of muscle fibers
 named in reference to some imaginary
line; usually the midline of the body or
the long axis of a limb bone
 Example: rectus (straight); transverses
Direction of the muscle fibers. Some muscles
are named in reference to some imaginary line, usually
the midline of the body or the long axis of a limb bone.
When a muscle’s name includes the term rectus
(straight), its fibers run parallel to that imaginary line.
For example, the rectus femoris is the straight muscle of
the thigh, or femur. Similarly, the term oblique as part
of a muscle’s name tells you that the muscle fibers run
obliquely (at a slant) to the imaginary line.
Naming of Skeletal Muscles
Relative size of the muscle
 Example: maximus (largest); longus
(long)
Location of the muscle
 Named for the bone with which they
are associated.
 ex. frontalis, temporalis, occipitalis
Number of origins
 Example: triceps (three heads)
Location of the muscles origin and insertion
 Example: sterno (on the sternum)
Shape of the muscle
 Example: deltoid (triangular)
Action of the muscle
 Example: flexor and extensor (flexes or
extends a bone)
Arrangement of FASCICLES
 circular - concentric rings; close by contracting;
sphincters (orbicularis muscles)
 convergent - converge toward a single insertion
tendon; triangular or fan-shaped (pectoralis
major)
 parallel - parallel to the long axis of the muscle;
straplike.
 fusiform - spindle-shaped with an expanded
belly (biceps brachii)
 pennate - (“feather”); a short fascicle attach
obliquely to a central tendon
HEAD AND NECK MUSCLES
2 categories:
1. Facial
Inserted into soft tissue; muscle or skin • flex the vertebral column

1. Chewing • rotate trunk and bend it laterally

Break down food in the body Internal oblique

Paired except: • iliac crest to last three ribs

platysma, orbicularis oris, frontalis, occipitalis. Transversus abdominis

FACIAL MUSCLES • from lower ribs & iliac crest to pubis

 Frontalis. raise eyebrows; wrinkle forehead • compresses abdominal contents

 Occipitallis. pulls scalp posteriorly
 Orbicularis oculi. close eyes, squint, blink, wink.
 Orbicularis oris. closes mouth; protrudes lips
(kiss)
 Buccinator. flattens the cheek; whistle
 Zygomaticus. raises corners of the mouth
upward; grin
NECK MUSCLES
 Platysma
 pull the corners of the mouth inferiorly (“sad
clown” face); tenses neck
 Sternocleidomastoid
 both muscles contract – neck flexion; “prayer”
muscles
 one muscle contracts - rotate head towards
shoulder on ; tilts the head to side
 Torticollis – twisting of the neck in one side
POSTERIOR MUSCLES
Trapezius
 extend the head
 elevate, depress, adduct, & stabilize scapula
Latissimus dorsi
 Pulling arm posteriorly
 extends & adducts humerus power stroke
(swimming)
Erector spinae
 composite muscle – 3 muscle columns
(longissimus, iliocostalis, and spinalis)
 Head & back extension (prime mover)
 control the action of bending over at the waist
 common source of lower back pain

TRUNK MUSCLES Quadratus Lumborum

 ANTERIOR MUSCLES  iliac crest to upper lumbar vertebrae

o Pectoralis Major forms anterior wall of  flexes the spine laterally
the axilla and adduct & flex arm  Both - extend the lumbar spine
o Intercostal muscles Deep muscles ARM MUSCLES
found between the ribs.
Deltoid
MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMINAL GIRDLE
 winds across the shoulder girdle from spine of
Rectus abdominis the scapula to the clavicle; inserts to proximal
• pubis to rib cage humerus
 arm abduction (prime movers )
• flex vertebral column
UPPER LIMB
• compress the abdominal contents (defecation ;
childbirth) Biceps brachii.

• involved in forced breathing  bulges when elbow is flexed

 lifts radius
External oblique  forearm flexion (prime mover); supinate the
forearm
• 8th rib to ilium
Brachialis ADDUCTOR GROUP (Groin muscle)

 elbow flexion  adduct thigh

 lifts ulna
MUSCLES CAUSING MOVEMENT AT THE ANKLE AND
Brachioradialis FOOT

 weak muscle from humerus to distal forearm Tibialis Anterior

Triceps brachii  Ankle dorsiflexion (prime mover)

 posterior humerus Tibialis Posterior

 elbow extension (prime mover)
 Foot inversion (prime mover)
 “boxer’s” muscle
Extensor digitorum longus
MUSCLES CAUSING MOVEMENT AT THE HIP JOINT
 toe extension (prime mover)
Gluteus Maximus
Fibularis (peroneus) muscle
• hip extensor
 (longus, brevis, & tertius)
• climbing stairs, jumping
 plantar flexes & everts the foot
Gluteus medius
Gastrocnemius
• hip abductor ; stabilizes pelvis (walking)
 Ankle plantar flexion (prime mover)
• IM injections  “ toe dancer’s” muscle

Iliopsoas Soleus

• fused muscle  arises on the tibia & fibula = does not affect
knee movement
• hip flexion (prime mover)
 strong plantar flexor
• Keep body from falling backward
Developmental Aspects
MUSCLES CAUSING MOVEMENT at the KNEE JOINT
16th week of pregnancy - movements of the fetus
Hamstring Group
after birth- gross reflex
(Biceps femoris, semimembranosus,
 cephalic/caudal direction
semitendinosus)
 proximal /distal direction
 thigh extension & knee flexion (prime movers)
Midadolescence – developed muscle
Sartorius

 weak thigh flexor

 “tailor’s” muscle

Quadriceps group.

As a whole acts to extend the knee powerfully

(kicking a football.)

 rectus femoris - extends knee; flex thigh at hip

Insertion: patella; tibial tuberosity

 vastus lateralis & rectus – IM (infants)