Flood problems

• FLOOD Is a Natural event which occurs when a piece of land which is otherwise dry, suddenly gets submerge under water.
• a ‘flood’ is defined as a ‘great flow of water... especially, a body of water, rising, swelling, and over-flowing land not usually thus
covered; a deluge; a freshet; an inundation’. Commonly, it is considered to be a phenomenon associated with an unusually high
stage or flow over land or coastal area, which results in severe detrimental effects.

Causes of flood

1. Rain fall
 the quantity of rain falling within a given area in a given time.
 Volume
 Distribution
 Intensity

2. Capacity of water body

 How much water it can hold

3. Weather condition
 the atmospheric conditions that comprise the state of the atmosphere in terms of temperature and wind and clouds and
precipitation

4. Ground cover/rock structures

 Is any plant that grows over an area of ground. Groundcover provides protection of the topsoil from erosion and drought.

5. topography
 Hilly area
 Plain
 Plateau
 Coast
 island

1. Storm surge
2. Cyclone
3. Tsunami
4. High tide
5. Dam failure
6. Melting of glacier
7. Garbage

ECONOMIC LOSSES
• Generally speaking, a quantitative estimate of the losses is rather difficult to provide since the intangible component of the flood
losses is a dominating factor. On an average several crore people are affected annually and a few hundred lives are lost. Besides,
there occur huge losses from the death of domestic animals. Overall several hundred crores worth of property is lost which does not
take into account the losses and privations arising out of break-down of communications, disruption of essential services,
environmental deterioration, etc.

FLOOD MANAGEMENT MEASURES

• Flood management measures can be classified as (i) short-term and (ii) long-term measures. The nature and extent of flood
damages as well as local conditions determine the measures to be taken up. However, short-term measures are dependent for their
effectiveness on long-term measures.
Short-term measures

• These measures are adopted for giving quick results when immediate relief to some pockets or locations is felt necessary and they
are respectively:
•Construction of embankments along the low level banks that are subject to frequent flood spells.
•Construction of raised platforms for temporary shelter during flood.
•Dewatering by pumps of flooded pockets, towns when gravity discharge of floodwater is not possible.
•Construction of floodwalls near congested areas of cities, towns and industrial belts.

Long-term measures
•Construction of storage reservoirs to moderate the flow peak thereby ensuring regulation of flood downstream.
 •Integrated watershed management in the hilly area catchment, which ensures reduction in surface runoff, erosion and
increase of infiltration capacity thereby reducing the impact of flood.
•Flood forecasts and warning based on hydro-geomorphological studies which can be given with some lead period, thereby
ensuring minimization of property loss and loss of human life by shifting them to safer places.

FLOOD CONTROL STRATEGIES

• To reduce losses due to flood the strategies to be followed can be stated as follows:

• I. Modify flooding by structural means: Herein the strategies to be followed involves construction of dams, dikes, levees, channel
alterations, high flow diversions and land treatment. The main idea is to keep water away from the potential damage areas.

• II. Flood forecasting: This is a non-structural measure: Here forecast of flooding is provided at the potential damage points. The
population both human as well as livestock and the movable properties are shifted to a safer place if there is a chance of flood
damage. Herein the objective is to keep people away from inundated areas.
• III. Modify susceptibility to flood damage: Regulations are framed to avoid undesirable or unwise rise of flood plains. Necessary
steps are taken to modify the impact of flooding through individual or group action designed for assisting people in the preparatory,
survival and recovery phase of floods which are namely through education and information on floods, flood insurance, taxation
relief, etc.
Structural measures
• The structural measures are aimed to mitigate flood damage by regulating the movement of flood water and these include:
• Dams, reservoirs and high flow diversions, their purpose is to store flood water temporarily or to divert it from the area to be
protected.
• Channel improvement works to increase the carrying capacity of a river channel and to pass the flood water quickly through the
channel reach.
• Embankments, levees and flood walls to stop the flood water from entering the areas to be protected.
• Embankments, levees and flood walls to stop the flood water from entering the areas to be protected.

Non-structural measures
• The main idea is to keep the general civil and industrial activities undiminished during flood which can be ensured by flood
forecasting warning systems, flood regulation through zoning, emergency plans, modifying building codes, flood proofing, disaster
preparedness and assistance.
• Automatic rain gauge stations provide reliable picture of the rainfall events in the basin. Radar data provide details with regard to
movement and dynamic characteristics of storms on a large scale. A useful input to the forecast is the meteorological satellite data.
Real time forecasts are issued nowadays in many countries including India for important rivers. The data requirements for forecast
are for flood arising out of rainfall—rainfall details, catchment details, river geometry, discharge, water, level.

Floods impact on both individuals and communities, and have social,

economic, and environmental consequences. The consequences of floods,
both negative and positive, vary greatly depending on the location and extent
of flooding, and the vulnerability and value of the natural and constructed
environments they affect.

The consequences of floods, both negative and positive, vary greatly

depending on their location, duration, depth and speed, as well as the
vulnerability and value of the affected natural and constructed environments.
Floods impact both individuals and communities, and have social, economic,
and environmental consequences (Table 1).

Floods have large social consequences for communities and individuals

As most people are well aware, the immediate impacts of flooding include loss
of human life, damage to property, destruction of crops, loss of livestock, and
deterioration of health conditions owing to waterborne diseases. As
communication links and infrastructure such as power plants, roads and
bridges are damaged and disrupted, some economic activities may come to a
standstill, people are forced to leave their homes and normal life is disrupted.

Similarly, disruption to industry can lead to loss of livelihoods. Damage to

infrastructure also causes long-term impacts, such as disruptions to supplies
of clean water, wastewater treatment, electricity, transport, communication,
education and health care. Loss of livelihoods, reduction in purchasing power
and loss of land value in the floodplains can leave communities economically
vulnerable.

Floods can also traumatise victims and their families for long periods of time.
The loss of loved ones has deep impacts, especially on children.
Displacement from one's home, loss of property and disruption to business
and social affairs can cause continuing stress. For some people the
psychological impacts can be long lasting.

In Australia floods are the most expensive natural disasters

In Australia, floods are the most expensive type of natural disaster with direct
costs estimated over the period 1967-2005 averaging at $377 million per year
(calculated in 2008 Australian dollars).

Until recently, the most costly year for floods in Australia was 1974, when
floods affecting New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland resulted in a total
cost of $2.9 billion. The Queensland Government estimates costs for the 2011
floods will exceed this figure for Queensland alone; with the damage to local
government infrastructure estimated at $2 billion, and the total damage to
public infrastructure across the state at between $5 and $6 billion.

Flooding in key agricultural production areas can lead to widespread damage

to crops and fencing and loss of livestock. Crop losses through rain damage,
waterlogged soils, and delays in harvesting are further intensified by transport
problems due to flooded roads and damaged infrastructure. The flow-on
effects of reduced agricultural production can often impact well outside the
production area as food prices increase due to shortages in supply. On the
other hand, flood events can result in long-term benefits to agricultural
production by recharging water resource storages, especially in drier, inland
areas, and by rejuvenating soil fertility by silt deposition.

Damage to public infrastructure affects a far greater proportion of the

population than those whose homes or businesses are directly inundated by
the flood. In particular, flood damage to roads, rail networks and key transport
hubs, such as shipping ports, can have significant impacts on regional and
national economies.

Short-term downturns in regional tourism are often experienced after a

flooding event. While the impact on tourism infrastructure and the time needed
to return to full operating capacity may be minimal, images of flood affected
areas often lead to cancellations in bookings and a significant reduction in
tourist numbers.

Flooding of urban areas can result in significant damage to private property,

including homes and businesses. Losses occur due to damage to both the
structure and contents of buildings. Insurance of the structure and its contents
against flooding can reduce the impacts of floods on individuals or companies.

Floods have significant consequences for the environment

In many natural systems, floods play an important role in maintaining key
ecosystem functions and biodiversity. They link the river with the land
surrounding it, recharge groundwater systems, fill wetlands, increase the
connectivity between aquatic habitats, and move both sediment and nutrients
around the landscape, and into the marine environment. For many species,
floods trigger breeding events, migration, and dispersal. These natural
systems are resilient to the effects of all but the largest floods.

The environmental benefits of flooding can also help the economy through
things such as increased fish production, recharge of groundwater resources,
and maintenance of recreational environments.

Areas that have been highly modified by human activity tend to suffer more
deleterious effects from flooding. Floods tend to further degrade already
degraded systems. Removal of vegetation in and around rivers,
increased channel size, dams, levee bank and catchment clearing all work to
degrade the hill-slopes, rivers and floodplains, and increase the erosion and
transfer of both sediment and nutrients.

While cycling of sediments and nutrients is essential to a healthy system, too

much sediment and nutrient entering a waterway has negative impacts on
downstream water quality. Other negative effects include loss of habitat,
dispersal of weed species, the release of pollutants, lower fish production,
loss of wetlands function, and loss of recreational areas.

Many of our coastal resources, including fish and other forms of marine
production, are dependent on the nutrients supplied from the land during
 floods. The negative effects of floodwaters on coastal marine environments
are mainly due to the introduction of excess sediment and nutrients, and
pollutants such as chemicals, heavy metals and debris. These can degrade
aquatic habitats, lower water quality, reduce coastal production, and
contaminate coastal food resources.

References and further reading

 Apan, A, Keogh, DU, King, D, Thomas, M, Mushtaq, S & Baddiley, P
2010, The 2008 floods in Queensland: a case study of vulnerability, resilience
and adaptive capacity. Report for the National Climate Change Adaptation
Research Facility, Gold Coast(external link).
 Bunn, SE & Arthington, AH 2002, 'Basic principles and consequences of
altered hydrological regimes for aquatic biodiversity', Environmental
Management, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 492-507
 Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics
2008, About Australia's regions June 2008, Department of
Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local
Government, Australian Government, Canberra(external link).
 Bureau of Transport Economics 2001, Economic costs of natural
disasters in Australia, Report 103, Bureau of Transport Economics,
Canberra(external link).
 Douglas, MM, Bunn, SE & Davies, PM 2005, 'River and wetland food
webs in Australia's wet-dry tropics: general principles and implications
for management', Marine and Freshwater Research, vol. 56, no. 3, pp.
329-342(external link).


What is a flood?
When water inundates land that is normally dry, this is called a flood. Floods can
be caused by a number of processes, but the dominant cause in Australia is
rainfall. Floods are a natural process, but mankind's activities affect flooding.
Floods occur at irregular intervals and vary in size, area of extent, and duration.
 Figure 1. Characteristics of floods. Conceptual diagram developed using the Integration and
Application Network (IAN) tool(external link). The lower sixth represents a sub-surface cross-
section.

When water inundates land that is normally dry this is called a flood
Every flood is different. They can occur suddenly and recede quickly, or may
take days or even months to build and then discharge. They occur at irregular
intervals, and many decades can pass between significant floods. On the
other hand, there are many examples of several large floods occurring within
short periods of time.

In Australia, many people live on land that is subject to occasional flooding,

known as floodplains. Cities and other settlements have been constructed on
floodplains to take advantage of access to water and good quality farmland.

Floods can occur suddenly

Heavy, intense rainfall can occur suddenly, and the quickly rising floods
caused by this in the minutes or hours after the rainfall are known as flash
floods. Flash floods are typically associated with relatively small catchment
areas where there may be little or no permanent flow of water. As there is little
time to react, flash floods are particularly difficult to predict and manage in real
time, and this is discussed further in Question 4 and Question 5.

Floods can occur slowly

In larger catchment areas, rainfall can build up over hours, days or weeks.
The runoff from this rainfall flows across land and then down gutters, drains,
gullies, creeks and rivers and may create significant floods that inundate large
areas of land for days, weeks or months.
 With more time to react, flood warning is more effective for these types of
floods, as described in Question 4 and Question 5.

Sometimes, a flash flood in the upper reaches of a river system can evolve
into a more general river flood as it joins with other inflows and spreads out as
it travels downstream.

Many locations can be affected by both flash floods and the more general
river flooding. For example, a particular residence might be potentially
affected by a flash flood through the local gully, or a river flood from the
nearby major river, or a combination of the two.

Floods are a natural process

Floods are a natural process, and our ecosystems, river systems and
estuaries have adapted over long periods of time to depend on an irregular
pattern of large floods. Many species, such as River Red Gums, rely on
Australia's pattern of dry periods separated by periods of intense rain and
overbank flooding.

Mankind's activities affect flooding

We make a lot of changes to our catchments including land clearing, urban
development, dams, that can change the impact of a flood on the natural
environment.
Floods can vary in size
The size of a flood event, or its magnitude, can be expressed in many ways.
The peak level of the waterat a particular location in a waterway is the most
unambiguous way, as it is relatively easy to measure and is the principal
driver of flood impact. The flood magnitudes are usually classified by
their height, and the Bureau of Meteorology uses three general categories of
flooding related to water level:

 Major: This causes inundation of large areas, isolating towns and cities. Major
disruptions occur to road and rail links. Evacuation of many houses and
business premises may be required. In rural areas, widespread flooding of
farmland is likely.
 Moderate: This causes the inundation of low lying areas requiring the removal
of stock and/or the evacuation of some houses. Main traffic bridges may be
closed by floodwaters.
 Minor: This causes inconvenience such as closing of minor roads and the
submergence of low level bridges and makes the removal of pumps located
adjacent to the river necessary.

Figure 2. Highest annual flood heights at the Brisbane City gauge, 1840-2011. Minor, moderate
and major flooding levels for the Brisbane City stream gauge are highlighted. Sources: Bureau
of Meteorology(external link), State Library of Queensland (API-033-01-0016—courtesy of the
State Library of Queensland; 181874, © Ross Webster; 27803-0001-0248 © State Library of
Queensland).
Figure 2 shows these general categories as they pertain to the main Brisbane
stream, or river, gauge. A stream gauge is a device used to measure the height
of water in the river, and there is a network of gauges throughout the Brisbane
River catchment. The values on this chart are in metres above the reference
level defined for this gauge. It is important to note that the river heights for
minor, moderate and major flooding are different for different waterways,
depending on their individual characteristics.

Other important characteristics of floods that contribute to their severity

include:

 The total amount of water in the flood, or the flood volume. The flood volume
contributes both to the level and duration of flooding. The flood mitigation
ability of dams and detention basins are less for large volume floods.
 How fast the flood rises, or rate of rise. A flood that rises quickly obviously
provides less time for warning and evacuation.
 How fast the water is flowing, i.e. the flow velocity. Faster flow causes a higher
risk to human life, a higher risk of erosion, and more damage to infrastructure.
 The duration of flooding. A flood that lasts for a longer time provides a
greater impact owing to the increased duration of the disruption to transport,
business and personal networks.
 The areal extent of flooding. Flooding that affects a larger area, either within a
river basin or across multiple basins, provides greater impacts.
 Floods occur at irregular intervals
Figure 2 also illustrates the sporadic nature of flooding, showing the historic
record of river levels at the Brisbane City gauging station since 1840. As
illustrated, six major floods occurred in Brisbane between 1885 and 1910,
followed by more than 60 years without a major flood.

The chance of a flood of a certain level occurring is usually referred to in

terms of the likelihood of that level being exceeded in a particular year,
or Annual Exceedance Probability (AEP). Question 6 provides further
information on what AEP means, and how it is estimated and used.

References and further reading

 Emergency Management Australia and Australian Bureau of Meteorology 1998, Floods—
warning, preparedness and safety, Emergency Management Australia, Canberra(external
link).
 Geoscience Australia website: What is flood?, viewed 1 May 2011(external link).
 Read the complete list of references for the Understanding Floods report

Heavy precipitation, which in many contexts is welcomed because it provides the

water necessary for agriculture and human use, in other situations is responsible for
deadly and destructive flash flooding. Over the 30-year period from 1986 to 2015,
floods were responsible for more fatalities in the United States than any other
convective weather hazard (www.nws.noaa.gov/om/hazstats.shtml), and similar
findings are true in other regions of the world. Although scientific understanding of
the processes responsible for heavy rainfall continues to advance, there are still
many challenges associated with predicting where, when, and how much
precipitation will occur. Common ingredients are required for heavy rainfall to occur,
but there are vastly different ways in which the atmosphere brings the ingredients
together in different parts of the world. Heavy precipitation often occurs on very small
spatial scales in association with deep convection (thunderstorms), factors that limit
the ability of numerical models to represent or predict the location and intensity of
rainfall. Furthermore, because flash floods are dependent not only on precipitation
but also on the characteristics of the underlying land surface, there are fundamental
difficulties in accurately representing these coupled processes. Areas of active
current research on heavy rainfall and flash flooding include investigating the storm-
scale atmospheric processes that promote extreme precipitation, analyzing the
reasons that some rainfall predictions are very accurate while others fail, improving
the understanding and prediction of the flooding response to heavy precipitation, and
determining how heavy rainfall and floods have changed and may continue to
change in a changing climate.
Flooding is experienced all over the globe and for a variety of reasons — but why exactly
does flooding occur? There are several human causes of flooding, including poorly
designed infrastructure. There are also natural reasons flooding happens.

Here are eight of the most common causes of flooding, both natural and human-induced:

1. Heavy Rains
The simplest explanation for flooding is heavy rains. No matter where you live, you are surrounded
by infrastructure and systems designed to move rainwater into appropriate basins and reservoirs. In
most cases, the infrastructure does its job, and you never have to think about where the rain goes
when it runs off.

When it rains heavily, however, those systems are overwhelmed, and that water doesn’t drain nearly
as quickly as it needs to. In short, the drainage systems back up, and the water rises — sometimes
into homes. This typically happens only in cases of sustained heavy rains over a long period.

2. Overflowing Rivers
You do not necessarily need to have heavy rains to experience flooding in your area. For example, if
you live along a river and areas upstream from you experience heavy rains, it could lead to a serious
overflow where you live. Most larger rivers include a series of dams to help manage large amounts of
rainfall, and most river systems are managed by government authorities.

Sometimes, however, those authorities have to make tough decisions about how to operate dams.
They often can manage the water and prevent flooding altogether — but not always.

3. Broken Dams
Much of America’s infrastructure was built in the 20th century, so it is getting old. When heavy rains
come, and water levels rise, aging dams can fail and unleash torrents of water on unsuspecting
households.

This is part of what happened after Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans in 2005. Levees failed and
made the flooding far worse than it would have been otherwise. While we have come to depend on
20th-century architecture, and much of it does its job well, there is always a possibility that a
structure will fail.

4. Urban Drainage Basins

Many of our cities are made of mostly concrete and other impermeable material. When you have an
urban drainage basin that is made of concrete, there is no ground for water to sink into. So, when
those drainage basins fill up, it is going to mean flooding for low-lying areas.
This is mostly the case in large urban areas — think Houston and Los Angeles. When heavy rains
strike, the basins used to drain them cannot always handle the load.

5. Storm Surges and Tsunamis

Rain is not always the culprit when it comes to flooding. Storm surges related to hurricanes and other
storms can lead to significant flooding, as can tsunamis that are sometimes caused by underwater
earthquakes.

Given modern technology, we often know about storm surges and tsunamis before they arrive, but
this is not always the case. For example, in 2004, an earthquake off the coast of Indonesia created a
tsunami that gave little warning before coming ashore.

6. Channels with Steep Sides

Flooding often occurs when there is fast runoff into lakes, rivers and other reservoirs. This is often
the case with rivers and other channels that feature steep sides. It is a similar issue to having a lack of
vegetation, which is explained in more detail below.

7. A Lack of Vegetation
Vegetation can help slow runoff and prevent flooding. When there is a lack of vegetation, however,
there is little to stop water from running off. This can be a bit of a conundrum after a drought.

While area residents likely welcome the rain, the lack of vegetation after the drought can cause flash
flooding. This does not always happen given that basins and reservoirs are close to empty, but it can
occur in cases of extreme rains following long periods of drought.

8. Melting Snow and Ice

A winter of heavy snow and other precipitation can lead to a spring of flooding. After all, that snow
and ice have to go somewhere when they melt. Most mountainous areas experience relatively
consistent snowfall totals from year to year, but an unusually heavy winter of precipitation can spell
bad news for low-lying areas around the mountains when spring hits.

The good news is that sustained winter precipitation provides a long lead time to prepare for potential
flooding. That is a silver lining at the very least.

These are just a few examples of common causes of floods, but there does not need to be an
incredible weather event for you to experience flooding at your home. You can experience
devastating flooding simply due to a clogged or broken pipe as well as other plumbing issues. No
matter how or why you experience a flood, you need a qualified water restoration professional
with quality tools to help you get your home back into working order again.
The Philippines ranks third among countries most at risk for disasters,
including floods, storms, and earthquakes. In the past 30 years, more than
360 disasters struck the Philippines, with a total death toll of 33,000 people
which affected 120 million people. Typhoons and floods are the most
devastating in terms of their economic and social impact, accounting for 80
percent of all deaths, 90 percent of the total number of affected people, and
92 percent of the total economic impact.

Metro Manila is home to around 15 million people and contributes about 35

percent to the Philippine economy. Recurrent flooding has been a problem for
millions of people in the metropolis. In 2009, Tropical Storm Ondoy (Ketsana)
hit the country, causing damage and losses equivalent to around 2.7 percent
of the country’s economy. In response, the Philippine government, with
financial and technical support from the World Bank, formulated the Metro
Manila Flood Management Master Plan, which was approved by the National
Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) Board in 2012.

1. The master plan proposed a set of measures to effectively manage major

flood events in the future which include the following:

 reduce flooding from river systems that run through the metropolis, by
building a dam in the upper Marikina River catchment area to reduce peak
river flows entering Metro Manila during typhoons and other extreme rainfall
events;

 eliminate long-term flooding in the flood plain of Laguna de Bay to protect

the population living along the shore against high water levels;

 improve urban drainage, including modernization of Metro Manila’s

pumping stations;

 improve flood forecasting and early warning systems and community-based

flood risk management; and

 improve institutional arrangements for better flood management.

2. Under the Metro Manila Flood Management Project, 36 existing pumping

stations will be modernized, 20 new ones will be constructed, and supporting
infrastructure along critical waterways will be improved in the cities of Manila,
Pasay, Taguig, Makati, Malabon, Mandaluyong, San Juan, Pasig, Valenzuela,
Quezon City, and Caloocan. Many of Metro Manila’s existing pumping stations
were built in the 1970s and have become inefficient and underperforming.
3. Solid waste clogs waterways and the entries to pumping stations, affecting
the operation and maintenance of the pumps. Hence, the project will improve
management of solid waste within villages in the vicinity of drainage systems
served by the pumping stations. It will also support government’s resettlement
of informal settlers that have encroached on the waterways.

4. The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) and the Metro
Manila Development Authority (MMDA) will implement the project in close
coordination with local governments and key shelter agencies. Slated to start
this year, the project is scheduled to be completed in 2024.

5. In 2015, the World Bank obtained a US$6-million grant from the Australia-
World Bank Philippines Development Trust Fund and Policy and Human
Resources Development Trust Fund of Japan to finance studies and designs
of other interventions for the next phase of the master plan implementation.
http://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/learning-tools/floods
flood
Water, one of the most common substances known to man has become, through the years, a precious
commodity. Water is required in practically all facets of human activities. And the need for water is enormous.
It is roughly proportional to the population!
However, the Philippines is blessed with a large number of rivers, lakes and streams. Thus, the lack of water
has never been a real problem. Where an apparent scarcity exists, the difficulty is traceable to the uneven
distribution of rainfall necessary to replenish water in rivers, lakes and other bodies of water.
Paradoxically, it is sometimes excessive abundance of water that spells trouble. Because of the monsoons, the
Philippines has a fairly well-defined wet season. In addition, there are other precipitation-producing weather
phenomena: tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, the ITCZ, frontal passages, etc.
Singly by themselves, these can generate large amounts of precipitation. In combination with each other or, in
particular, with the monsoon, these phenomena are capable of bringing intense and excessive precipitation.
Under certain conditions, a surfeit of rainfall results in a potentially disastrous phenomenon - flood.

From a strict hydrological sense, flood is defined as a rise,

usually brief, in the water level in a stream to a peak from
which the water level recedes at a slower rate (UNESCO-
WMO 1974). The episodic behavior of a river that may be
considered flood is then termed "flood event" (Linsley, 1942)
which is described as a flow of water in a stream constituting a
distinct progressive rise, culminating in a crest, together with the
recession that follows the crest (Linsley, 1942)."

From the foregoing technical definition, flood simply denotes a progressive abnormal increase in the
elevation of the surface level of streamfiow until it reaches a maximum height from which the level
slowly drops to what is its normal level. The sequence described all takes place within a certain period of time.
The definition merely describes a characteristic behavior. It does not include the element of "flooding" or
inundation as implied by the popular notion of flood. The technical definition is rather inadequate. Thus,
considering the intents and purposes of flood forecasting and warning, the definition seems rather restrictive in
its connotation for the public.
Hence, for operational purposes, the Flood Forecasting Branch, the hydrological service of PAGASA has
adopted a more extensive definition.

FLOOD: TYPES

MINOR FLOODING
- Inundation may or may not be due to overbanking
- When there is no bank overflow, flooding is simply due to the accumulation of excessive surface run-off in
low lying flat areas
- Floodwaters are usually confined to the flood plain of the river along the channel, on random low-lying areas
and depressions in the terrain
- Floodwater is usually shallow and there may not be a perceptible flow

MAJOR FLOODING
- Flooding is caused by the overflowing of rivers and lakes; by serious breaks in dikes, levees, dams and other
protective structures; by uncontrollable releases of impounded water in reservoirs and by the accumulation of
excessive runoff
- Floodwaters cover a wide contiguous area and spread rapidly to adjoining areas of relatively lower elevation
- Flooding is relatively deep in most parts of the stricken areas
- There is a highly perceptible current as the flood spreads to other areas

FLASH FLOOD
While floods take some time, usually from 12 to 24 hours or even longer, to develop after the occurrence of
intense rainfall, there is a particular type which develops after no more than six hours and, frequently, after an
even less time. These are what are known as "flash floods".
Flash floods develop in hilly and mountainous terrains where the slope of the river is rather steep.
The rapid development of the flood is due to the extremely short concentration time of the
drainage catchment. This means that precipitation falling on a point in the catchment farthest from
the river takes only a short time to reach the river channel and become part of streamflow. Thus,
the amount of streamflow rapidly increases and, consequently, the rise in water level. When the
flow capacity of the stream is exceeded, the channel overflows and the result is a flash flood.

Floods are among the most destructive calamities man has to cope with. Even the most minor flooding poses
some inconveniences. A really big flood can result in millions even billions of pesos of damages to roads and
bridges, buildings and other economic infrastructure, in the loss of agricultural crops and livestocks, loss of
productivity in industry, commerce and trade. To this is added the incalculable loss of human lives directly
attributable to floods as well as the hardship and attendant socioeconomic problems of forced human
displacement and the emotional impact on those affected by floods.

Aside from the direct damages brought by a flood there are also those cascading effects which
follow in the wake of the calamity. Among the immediate problems caused by flood are the lack
of basic utilities and essential necessities, particularly, food and potable water. Flood also disrupts
the sanitary regime in a community. This almost always results in the contamination of the water
supply. Thus, in a flood-stricken area an epidemic of gastro-intestinal diseases frequently breaks
out. Respiratory ailments due to exposure are also quite common.

A "Flood Advisory" is a warning that states the imminence of a flood situation. Thus, it also contains
suggested necessary actions that may have to be taken by the residents and the community in the threatened
basin. An advisory is issued when the hydrological situation deteriorates further. It is also issued when
condition is definitely improving but caution is still necessary.
A "Flood Warning" is issued when a flooding situation is a definite reality at least 24 hours before actual
flooding occurs. This category is maintained in succeeding bulletins as long as the affected areas are
inundated and the attendant dangers are present. Aside from the forecast, a warning states the necessary
precautionary measures and actions residents as well as the affected community must take.
Flood bulletins are specifically directed to the public. They are intended to apprise the people in the
threatened area of the present situation and of the expected development. It suggests the appropriate actions the
community may have to take to prevent or mitigate the disastrous effects of a flood.
As in any kind of disaster, the best countermeasures for flood damage prevention and mitigation are those
which are community efforts.
Floods cannot be prevented. To a large extent, however, they can be controlled effectively. By this is
meant keeping the river from overflowing. There are a number of ways of accomplishing this before and
during a flood:
A. Increasing the flow capacity of a river by cleaning the channel of debris, by dredging, by straightening of
channels, etc.;
B. Construction of dikes and levees; and
C. Sandbagging during floods.
Individually and collectively, people in a flood-stricken area must take precautionary measures to
ensure personnel safety and health:
A. People, particularly children, should avoid wading in floodwaters.
B. Where houses are expected to be flooded, people should move to higher places.
C. Electrically operated appliances should be transferred to upper storeys of buildings.
D. When electrical fines and outlets will be submerged in floodwater, power should be switched off.
E. Flood damage mitigation and protection is a concern not only during the disaster. It should be practiced
before, during and after the occurrence of a flood.

Floods
Introduction
Definition and Nature
Causes and Types
Cascading Effects
Monitoring and Prediction
Preparation of Flood Forecast
Countermeasures and Mitigations of Flood Damage
Flood Safety Rules
Socio-Economic Impact of Floods
It is easy to say, and admittedly, floods have a tremendous socio-economic impact. Its main effect is to retard
development. A flood-stricken area must first be restored to normal before any development activity can be
carried out. Restoration can take time. The social and emotional trauma inflicted on the people usually have a
short-term inhibiting effect on the community's drive. Hence, a little time can elapse before any concerted
move for normalization can take place.
Flood damage is incalculable. Assessment of damage attributable to floods alone is difficult. Floods usually
occur in association with other natural destructive phenomena such as tropical cyclones. Except in rare cases
such as the Angat River disaster of the late 70's where loss of lives and property is identifiably due to the flood
alone, it is difficult to segregate damages caused by a flood and those which resulted from the associated
phenomenon. Therefore, precise quantifiable damage is always difficult to estimate. In addition to the directly
determinable losses may be added the indirect potential losses. These results from unproductivity in many
areas - in business, in trade, in commerce, etc. All these losses can wipe out whatever gains that may have been
achieved in economic development.