Level 3.
Problem HAR3_01.
1 1
If a > 0 , show that a 2 + 2
≥a+ ≥ 2.
a a
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
Solution: a + = a − + 4 ⇒ a + ≥ 4 ⇒ a + ≥ 2 (equality iff a = , i.e., a = 1 );
a a a a a
1 1 1 1 1
a a
(
a
)
a 2 + 2 − a + = a 2 − a + 2 − = a(a − 1) − 2 ( a − 1) = ( a − 1) a − 2 =
a a
1
a
( a − 1)
3
( a − 1) a = ( a − 1)( a − 1)
(a 2
+ a +1 ) = (a − 1) ( a
2
2
+ a +1 ) ≥0⇒ a2 +
1 1
≥ a + with
2 2 2 2
a a a a
equality iff a = 1.
Problem HAR3_02.
If a ≥ 0 , b ≥ 0 and c ≥ 0 , show that ab + bc + ca ≥ a bc + b ca + c ab .
x+y
Solution: (x + y ) 2
= (x − y ) + 4 xy ≥ 4 xy ⇒ if x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0 we get
2
xy ≤ . Hence
2
ab + ca
a bc = ab ca ≤ .
2
ab + cb
Similarly b ac = ab cb ≤ ,
2
ac + cb
and c ab = ac cb ≤ .
2
By addition a bc + b ca + c ab ≤ ab + bc + ca (equality iff a = b = c ).
Problem HAR3_03.
If a 1 ≥ 0 , a 2 ≥ 0 , b1 ≥ 0 and b 2 ≥ 0 , show that (a 1 + b1 )(a 2 + b 2 ) ≥ a 1 a 2 + b1 b 2 .
Problem HAR3_04.
Show that if a , b and c are the sides of a triangle, then (a + b − c )(b + c − a )(c + a − b ) ≤ abc .
Hint: Show that if x ≥ 0 , y ≥ 0 and z ≥ 0 , then ( x + y )( y + z )( z + x ) ≥ 8 xyz .
Solution: (x + y ) = (x − y )
2 2
+ 4 xy ≥ 4 xy .
Hence ( x + y ) ≥ 2 xy ,
similarly ( z + y ) ≥ 2 zy ,
and ( x + z ) ≥ 2 xz .
By multiplication ( x + z )( y + z )( z + x ) ≥ 8 xyz .
The substitution x = a + b − c , y = b + c − a , z = c + a − b gives
2 b 2 c 2 a ≥ 8 (a + b − c )(b + c − a )(c + a − b ).
Hence abc ≥ (a + b − c )(b + c − a )(c + a − b ).
Note that since a , b and c are sides of a triangle, x , y and z are non-negative.
Problem HAR3_05.
If a 1 , a 2 , ⋅ ⋅⋅, a n are positive numbers such that a 1 a 2 ⋅ ... ⋅ a n = 1, show that
(1 + a )(1 + a ) ⋅ ... ⋅ (1 + a ) ≥ 2
1 2 n
n
.
Solution: (1 + x ) = (1 − x ) + 4 x ≥ 4 x ⇒ 1 + x ≥ 2 x for x ≥ 0 .
2 2
Problem HAR3_06.
1 1 1
If a > 0 , b > 0 and c > 0 , show that (a + b + c ) + + ≥ 9 .
a b c
Problem HAR3_07.
If a > 0 , b > 0 , c > 0 and d > 0 , show that
16 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1
≤ + + + ≤ + + +
a +b+c+ d b+c+ d a+b+c a+ b+ d a+c+ d a b c d
1 1 1
Hint: Use the inequality ( x + y + z ) + + ≥ 9 with positive x , y and z .
x y z
9 1 1 1
Solution: It is clear that ≤ + + . Hence
x+y+z x y z
9 1 1 1 9 1 1 1
≤ + + , ≤ + + ,
a+b+c a b c a+c+d a c d
9 1 1 1 9 1 1 1
≤ + + , ≤ + + .
a+b+d a b d b+c+d b c d
By addition
3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1
+ + + ≤ + + +
b+c + d a+b+c a+b+ d a+c + d a b c d
( equality iff a = b = c = d ).
1
Furthermore, if we employ the inequality t + ≥ 2 , t > 0 , We have
t
1 1 1 1 a b a c b d
(a + b + c + d ) + + + = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + + + + + + +
a b c d b a c a d b
b c c d d a
+ + + + + ≥ 4 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 16 .
c b d c a d
1 1 1 1
Hence ( a + b + c + d ) + + + ≥ 16 ( equality iff a = b = c = d ).
a b c d
The substitution a → a + b + c, b → b + c + d , c → c + d + a, d → d + a + b in this
1 1 1 1
inequality permits to obtain the desired factor + + + ,
b+c+d a+b+c a+b+d a+c+d
and we get
1 1 1 1
3( a + b + c + d ) + + + ≥ 16 ,
a+b+c a+b+ d b+c + d a+c + d
( equality iff a = b = c = d ).
Then
16 3 3 3 3
≤ + + + .
a +b+c+ d b+c+ d a+b+c a+ b+ d a+c+ d
Finally, using the inequalities given above
3 11 1 1 3 1 1 1 1
≤ + + , ≤ + + ,
b + c + d 3 b c d a + b + c 3 a b c
3 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1
≤ + + , ≤ + + ,
a + b + d 3 a b d a + c + d 3 a c d
we come to the desired result
16 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1
≤ + + + ≤ + + +
a +b+c+ d b+c+ d a+b+c a+ b+ d a+c+ d a b c d
( equality iff a = b = c = d ).
Problem HAR3_08.
2
a +b +c a +b +c
2 2 2
Show that ≥ .
3 3
Solution: a 2 + b 2 = (a − b ) + 2 ab ≥ 2 ab
2
(
So (a + b + c ) ≤ 3 a 2 + b 2 + c 2 .
2
)
a +b +c
Hence ≤
2
a +b +c
2 2 2
(
(equality iff a = b = c ).
)
3 3
Problem HAR3_09.
6 6
x y
If x ≠ 0 and y ≠ 0 , show that x 4 + y 4 ≤ 2
+ 2
.
y x
Solution: Let a = x 2 and b = y 2 . Then we can rewrite the inequality to be proved in the
3 3
a b
equivalent form a + b ≤ 2 2
+ , a > 0 and b > 0 .
b a
Multiplication by ab > 0 gives ab a 2 + b 2 ≤ a 4 + b 4 . ( )
a +b
2 2
Clearly a 2 + b 2 = (a − b ) + 2 ab ⇒ ab ≤
2
(1)
2
) ≤ (a ) 2
+b2 a + b + 2a b
(
2 4 4 2 2
Hence ab a + b 2 2
= .
2 2
a +b
4 4
Hence ab a + b 2 2
≤ .
2 2
( )≤ a
3 3 6 6
a b x y
So ab a + b 2 2 4
+ b and a + b ≤
4 2 2
+ ⇒x +y ≤ 4 4
2
+ 2
.
b a y x
Problem HAR3_10.
a c lg a lg c
If a > 1, b > 1 and ñ > 1 such that ≥ , show that ≥ .
b a lg b lg a
a c lg b + lg c
Solution: ≥ ⇒ a 2 ≥ bc ⇒ lg a 2 ≥ lg (bc ) ⇒ 2 lg a ≥ lg b + lg c ⇒ lg a ≥ .
b a 2
Clearly ( x + y ) = ( x − y ) + 4 xy ≥ 4 xy ⇒ ( x + y ) ≥ 4 xy . Hence for x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0
2 2 2
x+y lg b + lg c
≥ xy . The substitution x = lg b and y = lg c gives ≥ lg b lg c .
2 2
lg a lg c
Hence lg a ≥ lg b lg c . Squaring, (lg a ) ≥ lg b lg c ⇒ ≥
2
.
lg b lg a
Problem HAR3_11.
x +y
2 2
Squaring, x 2 + y 2 ( ) 2
(
≥ 8 x 2 + y 2 − 2 xy = 8 x 2 + y 2 − 2 . ) ( )
( )
2
(
Hence x 2 + y 2 − 8 x 2 + y 2 + 16 ≥ 0 . Let t = x 2 + y 2 then it suffices to show that )
t − 8 t + 16 ≥ 0 . This is the case as the discriminant of this quadratic ∆ = 8 − 4 ⋅ 16 = 0 .
2 2
Problem HAR3_12.
Show that the geometric mean of n positive numbers can not exceed their arithmetic mean, i.e.,
x + x 2 + ... + x n
if x 1 , x 2 ,..., x n are positive numbers, show that ( x 1 x 2 ... x n ) ≤ 1
1/ n
.
n
x −1
Hint: Show that x ≤ e for all x .
Solution: Let f (x ) = e x −1 − x . Then f ' ( x ) = e x −1 − 1 . Clearly f ' ( x ) = 0 when x = 1,
f ' ( x ) > 0 when x > 1 and f ' ( x ) < 0 when x < 1 . Hence f ( x ) has an absolute minimum of 0
x 1 + x 2 + ... + x n
xk
x −1 xk xk −1
when x ≤ e . Let A = . The substitution x → gives ≤e A
, k = 1,..., n .
n A A
x1 x 2 xn x x x
By multiplication ⋅⋅⋅ ≤ exp 1 − 1 + 2 − 1 ... n − 1 .
A A A A A A
x1 x2 xn 1
But −1 + − 1 ... − 1 = ( x 1 + x 2 + ... + x n ) ⋅ −n =0.
A A A A
x1 x 2 xn
⋅⋅⋅ ≤ 1 ⇒ x 1 x 2 ... x n ≤ A n . So ( x1 x 2 ... x n ) ≤ A.
1/ n
Hence
A A A
Problem HAR3_13.
1 1 1
If a 1 , a 2 ,..., a n are positive numbers, show that (a 1 + a 2 + ... + a n ) ⋅ + + ... + ≥ n 2 .
a1 a 2 an
a 1 + a 2 + ... + a n 1 1
Solution: We have (a 1 a 2 ... a n ) ≤ . The substitution a 1 → ,..., a n →
1/n
n a1 an
1 1 1
1/ n + + ... +
1 1 1 a1 a2 an
gives ... ≤ .
a1 a 2 a n n
1 1 1 1
By multiplication (a 1 + a 2 + ... + a n ) + + ... + ⋅ 2 ≥ 1 .
a1 a 2 an n
1 1 1
Hence (a 1 + a 2 + ... + a n ) + + ... + ≥ n 2 .
a1 a 2 an
Problem HAR3_14.
1 1 1
If a > 0 , b > 0 , ñ > 0 and a + b + c = 1, show that 2
+ 2
+ 2
≥ 27 .
a b c
1 2 1 1
1 1 1
Solution: Clearly = (a + b + c ) 2 + 2 + 2 ; a + b + c = 1 .
+ +
a c
2 2 2
a b c b
Use the inequality between the arithmetic mean and the geometric mean for a , b , c and then for
a
1
2
1 1
, 2 , 2 . We have
b c
a +b +c 3
≥ abc ⇒ (a + b + c ) ≥ 9 3 abc ,
2
3
2
( )
1 1 1
+ +
a
2
b
2
1 1 1
c
2
1 1 1 1
≥3 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⇒ 2 + 2 + 2 ≥3 .
3 a b c a b c 3 2
a b c
2 2
2 1 1 1
By multiplication, (a + b + c ) 2 + 2 + 2 ≥ 9 3 abc 3
2 1
= 27 . ( )
a b c 3 2
a b c
2 2
Problem HAR3_15.
If a 1 , a 2 ,..., a n are positive numbers, show that
a 1 + a 2 + ... + a n ≥ na 1 a 2 ... a n
n n n
(i)
n
(ii) n
a 1 a 2 ... a n ≥ .
1 1 1
+ + ... +
a1 a2 an
Solution: Use the inequality between the arithmetic mean and the geometric mean
x + x + ... + x n
(x1 x 2 ... x n )1 / n ≤ 1 2 , x 1 > 0 ,..., x n > 0 .
n
(i) The substitution x 1 = a 1n ,..., x n = a nn gives
a 1 + a 2 + ... + a n
(a )
n n n
n 1/ n
n
1
n
a ... a
2 n ≤ ⇒ a 1 + a 2 + ... + a n ≥ na 1 a 2 ... a n . n n n
n
(ii) The substitution x 1 = a 1−1 ,..., x n = a n−1 gives
1 1 1
1/ n + + ... +
1 1 1 a1 a2 an n
≤ ⇒ (a 1 a 2 ... a n ) ≥
1/n
... .
a1 a 2 a n n 1 1 1
+ + ... +
a1 a2 an
Problem HAR3_16.
1 1 1
Show that x − x 3 < tan −1 x < x − x 3 + x 5 for x > 0 .
3 3 5
1
Solution: Let us prove that for t > 0 < 1− t2 + t4 . 1− t2 <
1+ t 2
First, it is easily seen that (1 − t )(1 + t ) = 1 − t < 1 for t > 0 , and hence
2 2 4
1
1− t2 < for t > 0 . Further, it is clear that (1 − t 2 + t 4 )(1 + t 2 ) − 1 = t 6 > 0 for t > 0 .
1+ t 2
1
Thus, we have < 1 − t 2 + t 4 for t > 0 .
1+ t 2
1
Hence, we arrive to the desired result 1 − t 2 < < 1 − t 2 + t 4 for t > 0 .
1+ t2
By integrating the last inequality between 0 and x, we derive
x x x
dt 1 3 1 3 1 5
∫ (1 − t )dt < ∫ 1 + t 2 < ∫ (1 − t + t )dt , x − 3 x < tan x < x − 3 x + 5 x for x > 0 .
2 2 4 −1
0 0 0
Problem HAR3_17.
Show that xy ≤ e x −1 + y ln y for all real x and all positive y . When does equality hold?
Solution:
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 x5 x6 x7 x8 x 9
∫ x (1 − x ) dx = ∫ ( x − 4 x + 6 x − 4 x + x )dx = 5 − 4 6 + 6 7 − 4 8 + 9
4 4 4 5 6 7 8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 6 1 1 1
= − + − + = .
5 3 7 2 9 630
x (1 − x )4
1 4
x − 4 x 5 + 6 x 6 − 4x 7 + x8
1 4
∫ dx = ∫ dx
0 1 + x 2
0 1 + x 2
Problem HAR3_19.
π/ 2
π π 2
Show that 1 − e − π / 2 < ∫e
− sin x
dx < ( e − 1) . Hint: if > x > 0 , show that x > sin x > x .
0 2e 2 π
π
Solution: Let us show that sin x < x for 0 < x < . It is easily to deduce that for
2
f ( x ) = x − sin x , we get f ′( x ) = 1 − cos x ≥ 0 . Hence for x ≥ 0 f ( x ) is a non-decreasing
function with absolute minimum 0 when x = 0 .
π
Thus f ( x ) > 0 for x > 0 , and sin x < x for 0 < x < .
2
2 π
Let us show that sin x > x for 0 < x < . It is not difficult to establish for
π 2
2 2 2
g( x ) = sin x − x that g ′( x ) = cos x − and g ′( x ) = 0 when x = arccos .
π π π
π
Furthermore, for 0 < x < function g( x ) has the only absolute maximum of
2
sin(arccos 2 / π ) − 2 / π arccos 2 / π > 0 when x = arccos 2 / π , since
2 2
g ′( x ) = cos x − > 0 for x < arccos ,
π π
2 2
g ′( x ) = cos x − < 0 for x > arccos .
π π
π
Function g( x ) reaches absolute minimum of 0 when x = 0, .
2
π 2
Thus g( x ) ≥ 0 for 0 < x < , that is, x < sin x , and, finally,
2 π
2 2 − x ⋅2 / π
x < sin x < x , − x > − sin x > − x , e > e −sin x > e − x .
π π
π
By integrating the last inequality with respect to x between 0 and , we come to
2
π/ 2 π/ 2 π/ 2 π/ 2
[ ] − x π/ 2
[
π − x ⋅2/ π
]
−x − sin x − x ⋅2/ π − sin x π/ 2
∫ e dx < ∫e dx < ∫e dx , − e
0
< ∫e dx < −
2
e
0
,
0 0 0 0
π/ 2
π
1 − e− π/ 2 < ∫e
− sin x
dx < ( e − 1) .
0 2e
y
y = 1 /x
A
B
D C
0 a b x
Problem HAR3_20.
ln b − ln a 11 1
If b > a > 0 , show that < + .
b−a 2a b
y = 1 /x
A
B
D C
0 a b x
ln b − ln a
b
1 1 1 1 11 1
∫ x dx < 2 a + b (b − a ),
a
b−a
< + .
2a b
Problem HAR3_21.
b −a a +b
If b > a > 0 , show that < .
ln b − ln a 2
Problem HAR3_22.
n ( n + 1)
2 2
uk = .
4
k ( k + 1)
2 2
Consider S ( k + 1) : u k +1 = u k + ( k + 1) = 3
+ ( k + 1) 3 , if S ( k ) is true
4
( k + 1) ( k + 4k + 4) ( k + 1) ( k + 2 )
2 2 2 2
= = ⇒ S ( k + 1) is true.
4 4
Hence for all k ≥ 1, S ( k ) true implies S ( k + 1) true. But S (1) is true, hence by induction S (n ) is
n ( n + 1)
2 2
Problem HAR3_23.
1 2 3 n 1
Show that for n ≥ 1, + + + ... + =1− .
2! 3! 4! ( n + 1)! ( n + 1)!
1 2 3 n 1
Solution: Define the statement S ( n ) : + + + ... + =1− , n = 1, 2 ,...
2! 3! 4! ( n + 1)! ( n + 1)!
1 1 1
Consider S(1) : n = 1, = 1 − = . Hence S(1) is true.
2! 2! 2
1 2 3 k 1
Let k be a positive integer. If S ( k ) is true, then + + + ... + =1− .
2! 3! 4! ( k + 1)! ( k + 1)!
Consider S ( k +1) . As S ( k ) is true, we get
1 2 3 k k +1 1 k +1
+ + + ... + + =1− + =
2! 3! 4! ( k + 1)! ( k + 2 )! ( k + 1)! ( k + 2 )!
k + 2 − ( k + 1) 1
= 1− = 1− .
( k + 2)! ( k + 2)!
Hence for all positive integers k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k +1) true. But S(1) is true, therefore by
induction, S ( n ) is true for all positive integers n :
1 2 3 n 1
+ + + ... + =1− for n ≥ 1.
2! 3! 4! ( n + 1)! ( n + 1)!
Problem HAR3_24.
x x ( x + 1) x ( x + 1)...( x + n − 1) ( x + 1)( x + 2 )...( x + n )
Show that for n ≥ 1 , 1 + + + ... + = .
1! 2! n! n!
Hence for all positive integers k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k +1) true. But S(1) is true, therefore by
induction, S ( n ) is true for all positive integers n :
x x ( x + 1) x ( x + 1)...( x + n − 1) ( x + 1)( x + 2 )...( x + n )
1+ + + ... + = .
1! 2! n! n!
Problem HAR3_25.
Show that for n ≥ 1, 2 ⋅ 1!+5 ⋅ 2!+10 ⋅ 3!+... + ( n 2 + 1) n! = n ( n + 1)! .
Problem HAR3_26.
n ( n − 3)
Show that a convex polygon with n ≥ 4 sides has diagonals.
2
Solution: Let the function f ( n ) define the quantity of diagonals for a convex polygon with
n ≥ 4 sides. It is easily seen that f ( n + 1) = f ( n ) + n − 1 (see figure 15), since including an
additional point An+1 for a polygon with n sides leads to new n − 2 diagonals with respect to
the points A1 , A 3 ,..., A n −1 , besides the side A1 An becomes a new diagonal.
n ( n − 3)
Define the statement S ( n ) : f ( n ) = , n = 4 ,5 ,... . An+1
2
4 ⋅1
Consider S ( 4 ): f (4) = = 2 ⇒ S (1) true.
2
Let k be a positive integer, k ≥ 4 . If S ( k ) is true, then A1 An
k ( k − 3)
f (k ) = . A2
2 An-1
A3
Consider S ( k +1) . As S ( k ) is true, we get
k ( k − 3) k 2 − k − 2 ( k + 1)( k − 2)
f ( k + 1) = f ( k ) + k − 1 = + k −1= =
2 2 2
.
We see that for all k ≥ 4 , S ( k ) true implies S ( k +1) true. But S( 4) is true. Hence by induction,
S ( n ) is true for all integers n ≥ 4 .
Problem HAR3_27.
Show that (1 + x ) n − nx − 1 is divisible by x 2 for n ≥ 2 .
Problem HAR3_28.
Show that for n ≥ 10 , 2 n > n 3 .
Problem HAR3_29.
Show that for n ≥ 2 , n n > ( n + 1) n −1 .
= k
.
k
( k + 1)
2k
Problem HAR3_30.
Show that for n ≥ 1, 1 +
1
+
1
+ ... +
1
(
> 2 n +1 −1 . )
2 3 n
1 1 1 1
Solution: Let u n = 1 + + + ... + ⇒ u n +1 = u n + , u 1 = 1, n = 1, 2 ,...
2 3 n n +1
Hence it suffices to show that u n > 2 ( n + 1 − 1) .
Define the statement S ( n ) : u n > 2 ( n + 1 − 1), n = 1, 2 ,...
Consider S (1) : 1 > 2 ( 2 − 1) ⇔ S (1) is true.
Let k be a positive integer. If S (k ) is true, then u k > 2 ( k + 1 − 1) .
1 1
Consider S ( k + 1) : u k +1 = u k + > 2 ( k + 1 − 1) + , if S ( k ) is true.
k +1 k +1
1
But 2 ( k + 1 − 1) + > 2 ( k + 2 − 1) ⇔ 2 ( k + 1) + 1 > 2 ( k + 1)( k + 2 ) ⇔
k +1
( 2 k + 3 ) > 4 ( k + 1)( k + 2 ) ⇔ 4 k + 12 k + 9 > 4 k 2 + 12 k + 8 . So we have that
2 2
Problem HAR3_31.
1 1 1 4 1
Show that for n ≥ 1, + + ... + ≤ 1 − n .
(1! )
2
( 2! )
2
( n! )
2
3 4
Problem HAR3_32.
Show that 35 n + 3 ⋅ 7 n + 2 ⋅ 5 n + 6 is divisible by 12 for n ≥ 0 .
= 36 ⋅ 35 n + 24 ⋅ 7 n + 12 ⋅ 5 n + 12 − u n = 12 ( 3 ⋅ 35 n + 2 ⋅ 7 n + 5 n + 1) − u n
Define the statement S ( n ) : u n is divisible by 12, n = 1, 2 ,...
Consider S ( 0 ) : u 0 = 12 is divisible by 12 ⇒ S ( 0 ) is true.
Let k be an integer, k ≥ 0 . If S (k ) is true, then u k = 12 ⋅ M for some integer M .
S ( k + 1) : u k +1 = 12 ( 3 ⋅ 35 + 2 ⋅ 7 + 5 + 1) − u k =
k k k
Consider
12 ( 3 ⋅ 35 + 2 ⋅ 7 + 5 + 1) − 12 M , if S ( k ) is true.
k k k
Problem HAR3_33.
Show that 7n + 15n is divisible by 11 for odd n ≥ 1.
Solution: Let us introduce f ( n ) = 7n + 15n . It is easily seen that
f ( n + 2) = 7n+ 2 + 15n+ 2 = 72 ( 7n + 15n ) − 49 ⋅15n + 225 ⋅15n = 49 f ( n ) + 176 ⋅15n
Define the statement S ( n ) : f ( n ) is divisible by 11, n = 1,3,5 ,... .
Consider S(1) : f (1) = 7 + 15 = 22 = 11 ⋅ 2 ⇒ S (1) is true, since f (1) is divisible by 11.
Let k be a positive odd integer. If S ( k ) is true, then f ( k ) = 11 ⋅ M for some integer M .
Consider S ( k + 2 ) ( k + 2 is the next odd integer). As S ( k ) is true , we get
f ( k + 2) = 49 f ( k ) + 15k ⋅ 176 = 49 ⋅ 11 M + 15k ⋅ 16 ⋅ 11 = 11( 49 ⋅ M + 15k ⋅ 16) .
Since 49 M + 16 ⋅ 15k is integer, we see that f ( k + 2 ) is divisible by 11.
Hence for all odd positive integers k , S ( k ) true implies S ( k + 2 ) is true. But S(1) is true.
Therefore by induction, S ( n ) is true for all odd positive integers n : 7n + 15n is divisible by 11
for odd n ≥ 1.
Problem HAR3_34.
The equation x 2 − x + 1 = 0 has roots α and β , and A n = α n + β n for n ≥ 1 .
(i) Without solving the equation, show that A1 = 1, A 2 − 1 and A n = A n −1 − A n − 2 for n ≥ 3 .
nπ
(ii) Hence show by induction that for n ≥ 1, A n = 2 cos .
3
Problem HAR3_35.
If u 1 = 1, u 2 = 1 and u n = u n −1 + u n − 2 for n ≥ 3 , show that for
n
1 − 5
n
1 1+ 5
n ≥1 un = − .
5 2 2
1
n n
1 + 5
− 1 − 5 , n = 1, 2 ,... .
Solution: Define the statement S ( n ) :u n = 2
5 2
1 + 5 1 − 5
1
Consider S (1): u1 = − = 1 ⇒ S (1) is true.
2 5 2
2 2
1 1 + 5 1 − 5 1 4 5
Consider S ( 2 ): u2 = − = = 1 ⇒ S(2) is true.
5 2 2 5 4
Let k be a positive integer, k ≥ 2 . If S ( n ) is true for all integers n ≤ k , then
1 1 − 5
n n
1 + 5
un = −
2 for n = 1, 2 ,..., k .
5 2
Consider S ( k + 1):
1 1 − 5 1 1 + 5 1 − 5
k k k −1 k −1
1 + 5
u k +1 = u k + u k −1 = −
2 + 5 2 − 2
5 2
as S ( k − 1), S ( k ) are true
1
k −1 k −1
1 + 5 1 + 5 1 − 5 1 − 5
= ⋅ + 1 − ⋅ + 1
5 2
2 2
2
1 1 − 5 1 1 + 5 1 − 5
k −1 2 k −1 2 k +1 k +1
1 + 5 1 + 5 1 − 5
= ⋅ −
2 ⋅ 2 = 5 2 − 2 ,
5 2 2
Hence for all integers k ≥ 1 S ( n ) true for all positive integers n ≤ k For k = 2, 3, K, S ( n ) is
true for all positive integers n ≤ k implies S ( k +1) true. But S (1), S ( 2) are true. Hence by
induction, S ( n ) is true for all positive integers n:
n
1 − 5
n
1 1+ 5
un = − .
5 2 2
Problem HAR3_36.
2un3 −1 + 27
If u1 = 1 and un = for n ≥ 2 , show that
3un2−1
(a) u n > 3 for n ≥ 2 ;
(b) u n +1 < u n for n ≥ 2 .
Problem HAR3_37.
1 3
If u1 = 1 and un = un −1 + for n ≥ 2 , show that
2 un −1
(a) u n > 3 for n ≥ 2 ;
2
1 9
uk =
2
u k2 −1 + 6 + 2 > 3 .
4 u k −1
Problem HAR3_38.
ABC is a triangle inscribed in the a circle. P is a point on the minor arc AB . The points L, M,
and N are the feet of the perpendiculars from P to CA produced, AB, and BC respectively. Show
that L, M and N are collinear. (The line NL is called the Simpson line.)
L
P
A
B C
N
Solution:
L
P S
A
M
K
B C
N
In order to prove that L, M and N are collinear, it is sufficient to show that ∠ LMA = ∠ NMB .
For this purpose we show, that ∠ NMB = ∠ BPN = ∠ SPA = ∠ LMA .
The first step: ∠ NMB = ∠ BPN . The triangles PKM and BKN are rectangular and
BK NK
∠ PKM = ∠ BKN ⇒ ∆ PKM are similar ∆ BKN ⇒ = . But
PK MK
∠ PKB = ∠ MKN ⇒ ∆ PKB are similar ∆ MKN ⇒ ∠ NMB = ∠ BPN .
The second step: ∠ BPN = ∠SPA . The point P lies on the circle ⇒ PACB is a cyclic
quadrilateral ⇒ ∠ PAC + ∠ PBC = 180 ° . But ∠ PAC + ∠ PAL = 180 ° . Hence ∠ PBC = ∠ PAL .
From here, as the triangles PNB and PLA are rectangular, we have ∆ PNB are similar ∆ PLA ⇒
∠ BPN = ∠ APL .
The third step: ∠SPA = ∠ LMA . It is obvious that ∆ ALS is similar ∆ PMS, as these rectangular
PS MS
triangles have the common angle ∠ PSM . Hence = ⇒ ∆ MLS is similar ∆ PAS ⇒
AS LS
∠SPA = ∠ LMA .
Problem HAR3_39.
∆ABC is inscribed in a circle. P is a point on a minor arc AB . The points M, L and N are the
feet of the perpendiculars from P to AB produced, AC and BC respectively.
Show that ∆PNL ||| ∆PBA . Hint: use the fact that the points N, M, and L are collinear.
L
P
A
B C
N
Solution:
L
P
A
M
K
B C
N
We use the known fact that the points N, M and L are collinear (the line NL is the Simpson line,
see problem 39). It suffices to show that ∠PNL = ∠PBA and ∠NPL = ∠BPA .
The first step: ∠PNL = ∠PBA . The rectangular triangles KMP and KNB are similar as
KN KB
∠PKM = ∠BKN ⇒ = . But ∠NKM = ∠BKP ⇒ ∆NKM ∆BKP ⇒ ∠PNL = ∠PBA .
KM KP
The second step: ∠NPL = ∠BPA . The sum of any quadrilateral is 360 0 . But the quadrilateral
PNCA has two right angles ⇒ ∠NPL + ∠BCA = 180 0 . The quadrilateral PBCA is a cyclic one
⇒ ∠BPA + ∠BCA = 180 0 (as opposite angles). Hence ∠NPL + ∠BCA = ∠BPA + ∠BCA ⇒
∠NPL = ∠BPA .
Problem HAR3_40.
ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. P is a point on the circle through ABC and D. PH, PX, PK and
PY are the perpendiculars from P to AB produced, BC, DC produced and DA, respectively.
(i) Show that ∆XPK ||| ∆HPY ;
PX ⋅ PK
2
( XK )
(ii) Hence show that PX ⋅ PY = PH ⋅ PK and = .
PH ⋅ PY ( HY )
2
X C
B
H
P K
Solution:
A
Y
D
X C
B
H
K
P
(i) The triangle ABD and CBD are inscribed in a circle. Hence according to the result of the
problem 39 ∆HPY is similar to ∆BPD and ∆BPD is similar to ∆XPK .
Therefore ∆XPK ||| ∆HPY .
PX PK PX XK
(ii) ∆ XPK is similar to ∆ HPY, hence = ⇒ PX ⋅ PY = PH ⋅ PK . Also = and
PH PY PH HY
PK
=
XK
, multiplying these equalities,
PX
⋅
PK
=
( XK ) 2
.
PY HY PH PY (HY ) 2