Module 1
Module 2
2
Module 4
3
DEFINITION OF FLUID
In this connection fluid can also be defined as the state of matter that cannot
sustain any shear stress.
If a shear stress τ is applied at any location in a fluid, the element 011' which is
initially at rest will move to 022', then to 033'. Further, it moves to 044' and
continues to move in a similar fashion.
4
FLUID PROPERTIES:
Characteristics of a continuous fluid which are independent of the motion of the fluid
are called basic properties of the fluid. Some of the basic properties are as discussed
below.
Density ρ kg/m3
5
The specific weight is the weight of fluid per unit volume.
The specific weight is given
by γ= ρ g
Specific
Weight
γ N/m3
Where ‘g’ is the gravitational acceleration. Just as weight
must be clearly distinguished from mass, so must the specific
weight be distinguished from density.
Specific
v Thus m3 /kg
Volume
VISCOSITY (µ):
6
Therefore, shear stresses can be identified between the fluid elements with
different velocities.
The relationship between the shear stress and the velocity field was given by
Sir Isaac Newton.
Consider a flow (Fig. 1.3) in which all fluid particles are moving in the same
direction in such a way that the fluid layers move parallel with different velocities.
7
The upper layer, which is moving faster, tries to draw the lower slowly
moving layer along with it by means of a force F along the direction of flow
on this layer. Similarly, the lower layer tries to retard the upper one,
according to Newton's third law, with an equal and opposite force F on it
(Figure 1.4).
Such a fluid flow where x-direction velocities, for example, change with y-
coordinate is called shear flow of the fluid.
τ = F/A
In the limiting case of, Δu / Δy equals du/dy, the velocity gradient at a point
in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the layer.
8
Defining the viscosity of a fluid is known as Newton's law of viscosity. Common
fluids, viz. water, air, mercury obey Newton's law of viscosity and are known as
Newtonian fluids.
Other classes of fluids, viz. paints, different polymer solution, and blood do not obey
the typical linear relationship, of τ and du/dy and are known as non-Newtonian
fluids. In non-Newtonian fluids viscosity itself may be a function of deformation rate
as you will study in the next lecture.
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY:
The ratio dynamic viscosity to density of the given fluid is known as kinematic
viscosity.
IDEAL FLUID:
Consider a hypothetical fluid having a zero viscosity ( μ = 0). Such a fluid is
called an ideal fluid and the resulting motion is called as ideal or inviscid
flow. In an ideal flow, there is no existence of shear force because of
vanishing viscosity.
All the fluids in reality have viscosity (μ > 0) and hence they are termed as
real fluid and their motion is known as viscous flow.
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
There are certain fluids where the linear relationship between the shear stress
and the deformation rate (velocity gradient in parallel flow) as expressed by
This not valid. For these fluids the viscosity varies with rate of deformation.
9
Due to the deviation from Newton's law of viscosity they are commonly
termed as non-Newtonian fluids. Figure 1.7 shows the class of fluid for
which this relationship is nonlinear.
Figure 1.7 Shear stress and deformation rate relationship of different fluids
The abscissa in Fig. 1.7 represents the behaviour of ideal fluids since for the
ideal fluids the resistance to shearing deformation rate is always zero, and
hence they exhibit zero shear stress under any condition of flow.
The ordinate represents the ideal solid for there is no deformation rate under
any loading condition.
The Newtonian fluids behave according to the law that shear stress is linearly
10
COMPRESSIBILITY
Where Δ and Δp are the changes in the volume and pressure respectively,
and is the initial volume. The negative sign (-sign) is included to make E
positive, since increase in pressure would decrease the volume i.e for Δp>0, Δ
<0) in volume.
For a given mass of a substance, the change in its volume and density
satisfies the relation
m = 0, ρ )=0
using
we get
11
Values of E for liquids are very high as compared with those of gases (except
at very high pressures). Therefore, liquids are usually termed as
incompressible fluids though, in fact, no substance is theoretically
incompressible with a value of E as .
For example, the bulk modulus of elasticity for water and air at atmospheric
pressure are approximately 2 x 106 kN/m 2
and 101 kN/m 2
respectively. It
indicates that air is about 20,000 times more compressible than water. Hence
water can be treated as incompressible.
(ii) Adhesion: The force of attraction between unlike molecules, i.e. between
the molecules of different liquids or between the molecules of a liquid and
those of a solid body when they are in contact with each other, is known as
the force of adhesion. This force enables two different liquids to adhere to
each other or a liquid to adhere to a solid body or surface.
12
Figure 1.8 the intermolecular cohesive force field in a bulk of liquid with
a free surface
The magnitude of surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting across
imaginary short and straight elemental line divided by the length of the line.
Surface tension is a binary property of the liquid and gas or two liquids which
are in contact with each other and defines the interface. It decreases slightly
13
with increasing temperature. The surface tension of water in contact with air
at 20°C is about 0.073 N/m.
CAPILLARITY:
The reverse phenomenon takes place when the force of cohesion is greater
than the force of adhesion. These adhesion and cohesion properties result in
the phenomenon of capillarity by which a liquid either rises or falls in a tube
dipped into the liquid depending upon whether the force of adhesion is more
than that of cohesion or not (Fig.1.9).
The angle θ as shown in Fig. 1.9 is the area wetting contact angle made by the
interface with the solid surface.
For pure water in contact with air in a clean glass tube, the capillary rise takes
place with θ = 0 . Mercury causes capillary depression with an angle of
contact of about 1300 in a clean glass in contact with air. Since h varies
14
Fig 1.9 Phenomenon of Capillarity
VAPOUR PRESSURE:
All liquids have a tendency to evaporate when exposed to a gaseous atmosphere. The
rate of evaporation depends upon the molecular energy of the liquid which in turn
depends upon the type of liquid and its temperature. The vapour molecules exert a
partial pressure in the space above the liquid, known as vapour pressure. If the space
above the liquid is confined (Fig. 1.10) and the liquid is maintained at constant
temperature, after sufficient time, the confined space above the liquid will contain
vapour molecules to the extent that some of them will be forced to enter the liquid.
Eventually an equilibrium condition will evolve when the rate at which the number
of vapour molecules striking back the liquid surface and condensing is just equal to
the rate at which they leave from the surface. The space above the liquid then
becomes saturated with vapour. The vapour pressure of a given liquid is a function of
temperature only and is equal to the saturation pressure for boiling corresponding to
that temperature. Hence, the vapour pressure increases with the increase in
temperature. Therefore the phenomenon of boiling of a liquid is closely related to the
vapour pressure. In fact, when the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the
total pressure impressed on its surface, the liquid starts boiling. This concludes that
15
boiling can be achieved either by raising the temperature of the liquid, so that its
vapour pressure is elevated to the ambient pressure, or by lowering the pressure of
the ambience (surrounding gas) to the liquid's vapour pressure at the existing
temperature.
Fig 1.10
Body Force: distributed over the entire mass or volume of the element. It is
usually expressed per unit mass of the element or medium upon which the
forces act.
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Normal Force: along the normal to the area
Shear Force: along the plane of the area.
The ratios of these forces and the elemental area in the limit of the area tending to
zero are called the normal and shear stresses respectively.
The shear force is zero for any fluid element at rest and hence the only surface force
on a fluid element is the normal component.
PASCAL'S LAW
The normal stresses at any point in a fluid element at rest are directed towards the
point from all directions and they are of the equal magnitude.
Derivation:
The inclined plane area is related to the fluid elements (refer to Fig 3.1) as follows
17
Substituting above values in equation 3.1- 3.3 we get
CONCLUSION:
The state of normal stress at any point in a fluid element at rest is same and directed
towards the point from all directions. These stresses are denoted by a scalar quantity
p defined as the hydrostatic or thermodynamic pressure.
The absolute pressure: It is the difference between the value of the pressure
and the absolute zero pressure.
Gauge pressure: It is the diference between the value of the pressure and the
local atmospheric pressure(patm)
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Fig 1.12 The Scale of Pressure
At sea-level, the international standard atmosphere has been chosen as Patm = 101.32
kN/m2
Manometers are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are used to measure
the difference in pressure between two points or between a certain point and the
atmosphere.Manometer is needed for measuring large gauge pressures. It is basically
the modified form of the piezometric tube. A common type manometer is like a
transparent "U-tube" as shown in Fig.
19
Fig 1.14 A simple manometer to measure vacuum pressure
One of the ends is connected to a pipe or a container having a fluid (A) whose
pressure is to be measured while the other end is open to atmosphere. The lower part
of the U-tube contains a liquid immiscible with the fluid A and is of greater density
than that of A. This fluid is called the manometric fluid.
The pressures at two points P and Q (Fig. 1.14) in a horizontal plane within the
continuous expanse of same fluid (the liquid B in this case) must be equal. Then
equating the pressures at P and Q in terms of the heights of the fluids above those
points, with the aid of the fundamental equation of hydrostatics, we have
Hence,
Where p1 is the absolute pressure of the fluid A in the pipe or container at its centre
line, and patm is the local atmospheric pressure. When the pressure of the fluid in the
container is lower than the atmospheric pressure, the liquid levels in the manometer
would be adjusted as shown in Fig. 4.5. Hence it becomes,
20
(
The axis of each connecting tube at A and B should be perpendicular to the direction
of flow and also for the edges of the connections to be smooth. Applying the
principle of hydrostatics at P and Q we have,
where, ρ m is the density of manometric fluid and ρw is the density of the working
fluid flowing through the pipe.
We can express the difference of pressure in terms of the difference of heads (height
of the working fluid at equilibrium).
21
INCLINED TUBE MANOMETER:
Angles less than 50 are not usually satisfactory, because it becomes difficult
to determine the exact position of the meniscus.
One limb is usually made very much greater in cross-section than the other.
When a pressure difference is applied across the manometer, the movement
22
of the liquid surface in the wider limb is practically negligible compared to
that occurring in the narrower limb. If the level of the surface in the wider
limb is assumed constant, the displacement of the meniscus in the narrower
limb needs only to be measured, and therefore only this limb is required to be
transparent.
Here and the line PQ is taken at the level of the higher meniscus to equate
the pressures at P and Q from the principle of hydrostatics. It may be written that
23
small value of . Air is used as the manometric fluid. Therefore, is
Air may be pumped through a valve V at the top of the manometer until the liquid
menisci are at a suitable level.
Due to the existence of hydrostatic pressure in a fluid mass, a normal force is exerted
on any part of a solid surface which is in contact with a fluid. The individual forces
distributed over an area give rise to a resultant force.
Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape wholly submerged in a liquid so that the
plane of the surface makes an angle θ with the free surface of the liquid. We will
assume the case where the surface shown in the figure below is subjected to
hydrostatic pressure on one side and atmospheric pressure on the other side.
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Let p denotes the gauge pressure on an elemental area dA. The resultant force F on
the area A is therefore
Where h is the vertical depth of the elemental area dA from the free surface and the
distance y is measured from the x-axis, the line of intersection between the extension
of the inclined plane and the free surface. The ordinate of the centre of area of the
plane surface A is defined as
Implies that the hydrostatic thrust on an inclined plane is equal to the pressure at its
centroid times the total area of the surface, i.e., the force that would have been
experienced by the surface if placed horizontally at a depth hc from the free surface.
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Fig 1.19 Hydrostatic Thrust on Submerged Horizontal Plane Surface
The point of action of the resultant force on the plane surface is called the centre of
pressure . Let and be the distances of the centre of pressure from the y and
x axes respectively. Equating the moment of the resultant force about the x axis to
the summation of the moments of the component forces, we have
In the same manner, the x coordinate of the centre of pressure can be obtained by
taking moment about the y-axis. Therefore,
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From which,
The two double integrals in the numerators are the moment of inertia about the x-axis
Ixx and the product of inertia Ixy about x and y axis of the plane area respectively. By
applying the theorem of parallel axis
Where, and are the moment of inertia and the product of inertia of the
surface about the centroidal axes , and are the coordinates of the
center c of the area with respect to x-y axes.
The first term on the right hand side of the Eq. 1 is always positive. Hence, the centre
of pressure is always at a higher depth from the free surface than that at which the
centre of area lies. This is obvious because of the typical variation of hydrostatic
pressure with the depth from the free surface. When the plane area is symmetrical
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HYDROSTATIC THRUSTS ON SUBMERGED CURVED
SURFACES
On a curved surface, the direction of the normal changes from point to point, and
hence the pressure forces on individual elemental surfaces differ in their directions.
Therefore, a scalar summation of them cannot be made. Instead, the resultant thrusts
in certain directions are to be determined and these forces may then be combined
vectorially. An arbitrary submerged curved surface is shown in Fig. 1.20. A
rectangular Cartesian coordinate system is introduced whose xy plane coincides with
the free surface of the liquid and z-axis is directed downward below the x - y plane.
Consider an elemental area dA at a depth z from the surface of the liquid. The
hydrostatic force on the elemental area dA is
and the force acts in a direction normal to the area dA. The components of the force
dF in x, y and z directions are
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Where l, m and n are the direction cosines of the normal to dA. The components of
the surface element dA projected on yz, xz and xy planes are, respectively
Therefore, the components of the total hydrostatic force along the coordinate axes are
Where zc is the z coordinate of the centroid of area Ax and Ay (the projected areas of
curved surface on yz and xz plane respectively). If zp and yp are taken to be the
coordinates of the point of action of Fx on the projected area Ax on yz plane, , we can
write
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where Iyy is the moment of inertia of area Ax about y-axis and Iyz is the product of
inertia of Ax with respect to axes y and z. In the similar fashion, zp' and x p
'
the
coordinates of the point of action of the force Fy on area Ay, can be written as
Where Ixx is the moment of inertia of area Ay about x axis and Ixz is the product of
inertia of Ay about the axes x and z.
We can conclude from the above eqns that for a curved surface, the component of
hydrostatic force in a horizontal direction is equal to the hydrostatic force on the
projected plane surface perpendicular to that direction and acts through the centre of
pressure of the projected area., the vertical component of the hydrostatic force on the
curved surface can be written as
Where is the volume of the body of liquid within the region extending vertically
above the submerged surface to the free surface of the liquid. Therefore, the vertical
component of hydrostatic force on a submerged curved surface is equal to the weight
of the liquid volume vertically above the solid surface of the liquid and acts through
the center of gravity of the liquid in that volume.
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Buoyancy
31
To calculate the vertical component of the resultant hydrostatic force, the body is
considered to be divided into a number of elementary vertical prisms. The vertical
forces acting on the two ends of such a prism of cross-section dAz (Fig. 1.21) are
respectively
Therefore, the buoyant force (the net vertically upward force) acting on the elemental
prism of volume is -
Where is the total volume of the submerged body. The line of action of the force
FB can be found by taking moment of the force with respect to z-axis. Thus
Substituting for dFB and FB, the x coordinate of the center of the buoyancy is
obtained as
Which is the centroid of the displaced volume. It is found that the buoyant force FB
equals to the weight of liquid displaced by the submerged body of volume . This
phenomenon was discovered by Archimedes and is known as the Archimedes
principle.
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ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
The Archimedes principle states that the buoyant force on a submerged body
is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the body, and acts vertically
upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.
Thus the net weight of the submerged body, (the net vertical downward force
experienced by it) is reduced from its actual weight by an amount that equals
the buoyant force.
Let us suppose that a body is given a small angular displacement and then released.
Then it will be said to be in
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STABLE EQUILIBRIUM: If the body returns to its original
position by retaining the originally vertical axis as vertical.
STABLE EQUILIBRIUM
UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM
On the other hand, if point G is above point B (Fig. 1.23a), any disturbance from the
equilibrium position will create a destroying couple which will turn the body away
from its original position (1.23b, 1.23c).
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Fig 1.23 A Submerged body in Unstable Equilibrium
NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM
When the centre of gravity G and centre of buoyancy B coincides, the body will
always assume the same position in which it is placed (Fig 1.24) and hence it is in
neutral equilibrium.
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Fig 1.25 States of Equilibrium of a Submerged Body
Figure 1.26a illustrates a floating body -a boat, for example, in its equilibrium
position.
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IMPORTANT POINTS TO NOTE HERE ARE
b. Centre of gravity G is above the centre of buoyancy in the same vertical line.
c. Figure 1.26 b shows the situation after the body has undergone a small
angular displacement 𝜃 with respect to the vertical axis.
d. The centre of gravity G remains unchanged relative to the body (This is not
always true for ships where some of the cargo may shift during an angular
displacement).
e. During the movement, the volume immersed on the right hand side increases
while that on the left hand side decreases. Therefore the centre of buoyancy
moves towards the right to its new position B'.
Let the new line of action of the buoyant force (which is always vertical) through B'
intersects the axis BG (the old vertical line containing the centre of gravity G and the
old centre of buoyancy B) at M. For small values of the point M is practically
constant in position and is known as met centre. For the body shown in Fig. 1.26, M
is above G, and the couple acting on the body in its displaced position is a restoring
couple which tends to turn the body to its original position. If M were below G, the
couple would be an overturning couple and the original equilibrium would have been
unstable. When M coincides with G, the body will assume its new position without
any further movement and thus will be in neutral equilibrium. Therefore, for a
floating body, the stability is determined not simply by the relative position of B and
G, rather by the relative position of M and G. The distance of metacentre above G
along the line BG is known as metacentric height GM which can be written as
GM = BM -BG
Hence the condition of stable equilibrium for a floating body can be expressed in
terms of metacentric height as follows:
37
GM > 0 (M is above G) Stable equilibrium
GM = 0 (M coinciding with G) Neutral equilibrium
GM < 0 (M is below G) Unstable equilibrium
The angular displacement of a boat or ship about its longitudinal axis is known as
'rolling' while that about its transverse axis is known as "pitching".
displacement, the liquid will also move to keep its free surface horizontal. Thus not
only does the centre of buoyancy B move, but also the centre of gravity G of the
floating body and its contents move in the same direction as the movement of B.
Hence the stability of the body is reduced. For this reason, liquid which has to be
PERIOD OF OSCILLATION
The restoring couple caused by the buoyant force and gravity force acting on a
floating body displaced from its equilibrium placed from its equilibrium position is
Where IM represents the mass moment of inertia of the body about its axis of
rotation. The minus sign in the RHS of eqn arises since the torque is a retarding one
and decreases the angular acceleration. If θ is small, sin θ=θ and hence Eq. can be
written as
38
The above equation represents a simple harmonic motion. The time period (i.e., the
time of a complete oscillation from one side to the other and back again) equals to
39
MODULE 2
KINEMATICS OF FLUID MOTION
“Fluid kinematics is the branch of fluid mechanics which deals with the
study of velocity and acceleration of the particles of fluid in motion and their
distribution in space without considering the force caring them.”
EULERIAN APPROAH:
This method describes the overall flow characteristics at various points as fluid
particles pass. Thus it gives the various quantities such as velocity, acceleration,
pressure, density etc. at any point in space and time, from a purely mathematical
view point. The eulerian method is preferable as the resulting equation can be solved
easily.
U=f1(x, y, z, t)
V=f2(x, y, z, t)
W=f3(x, y, z, t)
s s s0 , t
Where s is the position vector of a particle at a time with its initial position
s0 .
LAGRANGIAN APPROACH:
In this method, the fluid motion is described by tracing the kinematic behavior of
each and every individual particle constituting the flow. Identities are made by
specifying their initial position at a given time. The position of the particle at any
instant of time then becomes a function of its identity and time.
40
Analytical expression of the statement:
(1)
Equation (1) can be written into scalar components with respect to a rectangular
Cartesian frame of coordinates as:
Where, x0, y0, z0 are the initial coordinates and x, y, z are the coordinates at a time t
of the particle.
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS:
41
e) One, two, and three dimensional flow.
u v p
0; 0, 0
t t t t t
v p
0 0
t t
Uniform Flow:
The flow is defined as uniform flow when in the flow field the velocity and other
hydrodynamic parameters do not change from point to point at any instant of time
For a uniform flow, the velocity is a function of time only, which can be expressed in
Eulerian description as
Implication:
2. Any hydrodynamic parameter will have a unique value in the entire field,
irrespective of whether it
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Non-uniform Flow:
When the velocity and other hydrodynamic parameters changes from one point to
another the flow is defined as non-uniform.
Important points:
1. For a non-uniform flow, the changes with position may be found either in the
direction of flow or in directions perpendicular to it.
Type Example
43
C) laminar and turbulent flow:
Laminar flow:
This term is generally used in pipe flow. A laminar flow is one in which the fluid
particles move in layers or laminar with one layer slide over the other. Therefore
there is no exchange of fluid particles from one layer to the other and hence no
transfer of lateral momentum to the adjacent layers.
As the particles move in definite and observable paths or streamlines this flow is
sometimes known as streamline flow. it is a smooth and regular flow. The
velocity of flow is very small. The dimensionless Reynolds number is an
important parameter in the equations that describe whether flow conditions lead
to laminar or turbulent flow. In the case of flow through a straight pipe with a
circular cross-section, Reynolds numbers of less than 2300 are generally
considered to be of a laminar type .however, the Reynolds number upon which
laminar flows become turbulent is dependent upon the flow geometry. When the
Reynolds number is much less than 1, creeping motion or Stokes flow occurs.
This is an extreme case of laminar flow where viscous (friction) effects are much
greater than inertial forces.
Turbulent flow:
44
When the flow attains a certain velocity, it no longer remains steady and eddy
currents appear. The velocities in such a flow vary from point to point in
magnitude and direction as well as from instant to instant. All the fluid particles
are disturbed and they mix with each other.
Compressible flow:
Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid changes from
point to point or in other words the density is not constant for the fluid. Thus
mathematically, for compressible flow
ρ ≠ constant
Incompressible flow:
Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid is constant
for the fluid flow. Liquids are generally incompressible while gases are
compressible. Mathematically, for compressible flow,
ρ =constant
Fluid flow is three-dimensional in nature. This means that the flow parameters like
velocity, pressure and so on vary in all the three coordinate directions. Sometimes
simplification is made in the analysis of different fluid flow problems by selecting
the appropriate coordinate directions so that appreciable variation of the hydro
dynamic parameters take place in only two directions or even in only one.
45
One-dimensional flow:
All the flow parameters may be expressed as functions of time and one space
coordinate only. The single space coordinate is usually the distance measured along
the centre-line (not necessarily straight) in which the fluid is flowing.
Mathematically, u = f(x), v = 0, = 0
Example:
Two-dimensional flow:
All the flow parameters are functions of time and two space coordinates (say x and
y). No variation in z direction. The same streamline patterns are found in all planes
perpendicular to z direction at any instant.
46
Fig.4 Flow past a car antenna is approximately two-dimensional,
Mathematically u = f1 (x, y)
v = f2 (x, y)
w = 0
Mathematically
Path line:
A path line is the actual path traversed by a given (marked) fluid particle. A path line
is hence also an integrated pattern. A path line represents an integrated history of
where a fluid particle has been. In general it is a curve in a 3 – D space. If the flow is
2D, the curve becomes two dimensional
47
Fig.5 path line
Stream line:
48
a streamline. Streamlines cannot cross each other. If they were to cross, this
would indicate two different velocities at the same point. This is not physically
possible. The above point implies that any particles of fluid starting on one
streamline will stay on that same streamline throughout the fluid
b) There cannot be any movement of the fluid mass across the streamlines.
d) Where as path line indicates the path of one particular particle at successive
instants of time, streamline indicates the direction of flow of a number of
particles.
In steady flow, streamlines remains invariant with time. The path lines and
streamlines will then be identical. In unsteady flow, pattern of streamline may not be
same.
Where V is the fluid velocity vector and dris a tangential vector along the
streamline. The above cross product is zero since the two vectors are in the same
direction. A useful technique in fluid flow analysis is to consider only a part of the
total fluid in isolation from the rest. This can be done by imagining a tubular surface
formed by streamlines along which the fluid flows. This tubular surface is known as
a stream tube, which is a tube whose walls are streamlines. Since the velocity is
tangent to a streamline, no fluid can cross the walls of a stream tube.
Stream tube:
49
a) Stream tube has finite dimensions
Streak line:
50
A streak line is an instantaneous line whose points are occupied by particles which
have earlier passed through a prescribed point in space. A streak line is hence an
integrated pattern. A streak line can be formed by injecting dye continuously into the
fluid at a fixed point in space. As time marches on, the streak line gets longer and
longer, and represents an integrated history of the dye streak.
For steady flow, streamline, streak line and path line coincides.
For unsteady flow, streamline, streak line and path line are all different
Three basic principles are used in the analysis of the problems of fluid in
motion:
a) Principle of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor
destroyed. On the basis of this principle, the continuity equation is derived.
CONTINUITY EQUATION
51
Consider a pipe which is uniform in diameter at both ends, but has a constriction
between the ends as in figure. This is called a venturi tube. Stations 1 and 2 have
cross-sectional areas A1 and A2, respectively. Let V1 and V2 be the average flow
speeds at these cross sections (one-dimensional flow). A further assumption is that
there are no leaks in the pipe nor is fluid being pumped in through the sides. The
continuity equation states that the fluid mass passing station 1 per unit time must
equal the fluid mass passing station 2 per unit time
52
This is the simple continuity equation for inviscid, incompressible, steady, one-
dimensional flow with no leaks.
Mass of fluid passing per unit time through the face with area y z normal
to x-axis through point is
x
u yz x u y z 2 .
x
u yz x u y z 2
53
Net mass of the fluid remaining in the paralleopiped per unit time through
the force ABCD and ABCD is
x x
u yz x u y z 2 u yz x u y z 2
= u y z x
x
= u y z x
x (1)
By applying the same method for the faces DCCD and ABBA and
ADDA and BCCB we obtain,
= u x y z (2)
y
= y x y z (3)
z
By adding (1), (2) and (3) net total mass of fluid that has remained in the
parallelopiped is
u v
x y z
x y z
x y z x y z
t t
u v 2 w
So x y z x y z
x y z t
54
u v
x y z t
y v v
0 (4)
t x y z
For steady flow =0
t
u v w
So (4) reduces to 0 (5)
x y z
For incompressible fluid, 0
x y z t
u v w
So (4) reduces to 0 (6)
x y z
ORDINATES:
Consider any point p(r, , 2) in space. Let r, and z be the small
increments in the direction r, , z respectively. So that PS r1PQ r, PT z .
Construct an elementary parallelopiped. Lt Vr, V and Vz be the components of
velocity V in the direction of r, , z at point . Let be the mass density of fluid at
point P.
55
Fig.11 CYLINDRICAL POLAR CO-ORDINATES
Consider the forces PSTQ and PSTQ, the mass of fluid entering
paralleopiped per unit time through the face
Mass of the fluid leaving the paralleopiped per unit time through the face
PSTQ
V2 r r r V r . r z
z
Wet mass of fluid that has remained in the parallelopiped per unit time
through this pair of faces.
= . V2 r, r z
z
Similarly the net mass of fluid that remains in the parallelopiped per unit
time through the pair of faces PTQS and PT QS .
= V r , z
= Vr r , z r
56
Net total mass of fluid that has remained in the parallelopiped per unit time
Vr . r V V2
through all the three pair of faces = r z r
r r r z
= r z r
= r r
t
= r z r
t
= r z r
t
The flow filed is the most important variable in the fluid mechanics, i.e., knowledge
of the velocity vector filed is equivalent to solving a fluid flow problem.
57
Where the compact dot products is:
The term is called the local acceleration and defined as the rate of increase
of velocity with respect to time at a given point in the flow field. It vanishes if the
flow is steady.
The three terms in the parentheses are called the convective acceleration and defined
as the rate of change of velocity due to the change of position of fluid particles in a
fluid flow. It rises when the particles move through regions of spatially varying
velocity, e.g. nozzle.
58
ROTATIONAL FLOW:
In this type of flow the fluid element has net rotation about its own axis which is
perpendicular to the plane of motion. For example the fluid in the rotating tank.
IRROTATIONAL FLOW:
In this type of flow the fluid element has no net rotation about its own axis which is
perpendicular to the plane of motion. However the fluid element may be deformed
and distorted.
VELOCITY POTENTIAL:
The flow takes place in the pipe if there is a difference of pressure. The direction of
flow will take place from a higher to the lower pressure. Thus the velocity of flow in
59
a certain direction will depend upon the potential difference which is known as
velocity potential.
STREAM FUNCTION:
It is defined as the scalar function of space and time such that its partial derivative
with respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to that
direction. It is denoted by ψ (psi) and defined only for two dimensional flow.
Mathematically for steady flow it is defined as ψ=f (x, y) such that
Properties:
a) If the stream function (ψ) exists, it is a possible case of fluid flow which may
be rotational or irrotational.
b) If stream function (ψ) satisfies the Laplace equation it is possible case of an
irrotational flow.
CIRCULATION:
Circulation for a fluid element as shown in Fig is defined as the line integral of
the tangential component of velocity and is given by
Fig:13 circulation
60
Where ds is an element of contour and the loop through the integral sign signifies
that the contour is closed.
VORTEX FLOW:
Vortex flow is defined as the flow of a fluid along a curved path or the flow of a
rotating mass of fluid .the vortex flow is of two types namely:
Forced vortex flow is defined as that type of vortex flow, in which some external
torque is required to rotate the fluid. The mass in this type of flow rotates at constant
angular velocity ω. The tangential velocity of any fluid particle is given by
V= ω*r
Example:
When no external torque is required to rotate the fluid mass that type of flow is called
free vortex flow. Thus the liquid in case of free vortex is rotating due to the rotation
which is imparted to the fluid previously.
Examples:
A whirlpool in a river.
61
VORTICITY:
BASIC FLOW:
Uniform flow:
In uniform flow the velocity of the fluid remains constant. All the fluid particles are
moving with the same velocity. The uniform flow may be:
a) Parallel to x- axis.
b) Parallel to y axis.
Source flow:
The source flow is the flow coming from a point (source) and moving out radially in
all directions of a plane at uniform rate. The strength of a source is defined as the
volume flow rate per unit depth. The unit of strength of the source is m2/s.it is
represented by q.
62
q= volume flow rate per unit depth.
r=radius.
ur =q/(2*π*r)
The above equation shows that with increase of r, the radial velocity decreases. And
at a large distance away from the source, the velocity will be approximately equal to
zero.
Sink flow:
The sink flow is the flow in which fluid moves radially inwards towards a point
where it disappears at a constant rate. The flow is just opposite to the source flow.
The fig shows a sink flow.
The pattern of stream lines and equi potential lines of a sink is the same as that of a
source flow. all the equations derived for a source flow shall hold to good for sink
flow also except that in sink flow equations,q is to be replaced by(-q) .
Doublet:
The flow pattern due to a doublet is obtained when a source and a sink of equal
strength q are considered to approach one another under such conditions that their
strengths increase, as the distance between them approaches zero.
63
Fig.17 doublet
A cylinder of infinite length kept across a uniform flow of fluid horizontally, the
stream lines are symmetrical on the top and bottom of the cylinder. For every point
on the upper side of the cylinder there is a corresponding point on the lower side
having the same pressure and velocity and so there can be no lift force on the
cylinder.
If the cylinder is rotated about its longitudinal axis anti-clock wise, the stream lines
will take up a path as shown in the fig. at the upper surface of the cylinder the force
will be slightly greater velocity than at the lower part. The addition of velocity on the
upper half is due to the fact that the rotating cylinder adds a little velocity to the air
adjacent to it. At the same time the rotating surface in the lower part retards the flow.
The velocity at the lower half has a magnitude given by the difference between the
velocity of flow and the velocity imparted due to rotation. The region of lower
velocity will exert more pressure than the region of higher velocity there by
providing a lifting force on the cylinder considered.
64
MAGNUS EFFECT:
COEFFICENT OF LIFT:
65
QUESTIONS
1. Find the direction of stream lines and equipotential lines in uniform flow
when uniform flow is along – (1) x – axis (2) y – axis (3) an angle to x-axis.
uU
y x
v0
x x
Uy and Ux
Hence stream lines are parallel to x-axis and equipotential lines are parallel
to y-axis.
u0
y x
vU
y y
Ux and Uy
Hence stream lines are parallel to y-axis and equipotential lines are parallel
to x-axis.
Case 3. A uniform flow inclined at angle ‘’ to x-axis. Such flow can be
considered to flow at velocity U cos in x-direction and U sin in y-direction. In
case cylindrical co-ordinates are used, then x = r cos and y = r sin .
Ur sin
and Ur cos
Stream lines and equipotential lines in uniform flow (u = U cos & v = U sin )
66
2. What is a source flow? What is the source strength? Find the direction of
stream lines and equipotential lines in a source.
q k
ur where q = discharge per unit length and k = source strength.
2r r
q
or k
2
Source strength (k). The source strength is a measure of the radial velocity
k
ur
r
when r = 1, then ur = k
I
ur and u
r
q
but u r
2r
1 q
r 2r
q
or
2
q
or C1
2
67
But 0 when = 0, hence C1 = 0
q
2
1
Ur and U
r r
q
ur
2r r
q 1
or . r
2 r
q r
2 r
q
log r
2
Hence equipotential function is the function of ‘r’ (the distance from the
source origin)
p1 u12 p2 u 2
z1 2 2 z 2
g 2g g 2g
P P0 u 2r
g 2g
68
u 2r
P P0
2
q
Now u r
2r
2
q q2
P P0
2 2r 82 r 2
q
ur kr
2r
q
where k = sink strength
2
The pressure variation in a plane sink flow is given by the same expression
as applicable in the source flow –
k 2 q 2
P P0
2r 2 82 r 2
x = f1(a, b, c, t)
y = f2 (a, b, c, t)
z = f3 (a, b, c, t)
69
From the position, velocities, u, v and w and acceleration ax, ay, and az can
be given as -
x y x
(1) Velocities u ,v &w
t t t
2x 2 y 2x
(2) Accelerations a x ,a y &a z
t 2 t 2 t 2
Langrangian Eulerian
2. Observer has to move with the fluid 2. Observer remains stationary and
particle to observe its movement. observes changes in the fluid
parameters at the fixed point only.
3. The path and changes in velocity, 3. The method describes the overall flow
acceleration, pressure and density of a characteristics at various points as
single particle are described. fluid particles pass.
70
8. What are various lines of flow to describe the motion of the fluid?
The various lines of flow are: (1) path line, (2) stream line, (3) stream tube,
(4) streak line or filament line and (5) potential lines.
9. What is a path line in fluid motion? What happens to path line during steady
and unsteady flow?
The path traced or taken by a single fluid particle in motion over a period of
time is called its path line. Hence path line is a locus of a fluid particle as it moves
along. The path line shows the direction of velocity of the particle as it moves ahead.
During steady flow, path line concides with the stream line as there is no fluctuation
in velocity. However the path line fluctuates between different stream lines during an
unsteady flow.
A stream line is an imaginary line drawn through a flowing fluid such that
the tangent at each point on the line indicates the direction of the velocity of the fluid
particle at that point. For example, if ABC is a stream line, then the direction of
velocities of A, B and is C as shown
11. Explain the following (1) the value of velocity at right angle to the stream
line (2) can there be any flow across the stream line and (3) can two stream lines
cross each other?
Since velocity of the fluid particle at any point on the stream line is
tangential to the stream line, there cannot by any component of velocity normal or
right angle to the stream line i.e. the component of velocity at right angle to the
stream line is zero.
There cannot be any flow across the stream line as the flow is always
tangential to the stream line.
Two stream lines cannot cross each other as otherwise there would be two
velocities at that point, one each tangential to the stream lines. This is inconsistent
with the definition of a stream line.
71
12. How does a stream line behave in the vicinity of a solid surface?
The stream line in the vicinity of a solid surface conforms to the outline of
the boundary surface. For example, the stream lines ariund a solid cylinder and
within a closed conduit are as shown in the figure
13. What happens to stream lines during steady and steady flow conditions?
In steady flow, the pattern of stream lines remains unchanging with time.
However the pattern of stream lines may or may not remain same with time for
unsteady flow. If unsteady flow is due to the change of magnitude of velocity, the
stream line pattern remains invariant (unchanging) with time. However if the
unsteadiness due to the change in the direction of the velocity, the stream line pattern
cannot remain same.
The stream tube consists of stream lines forming its boundary surface. The
stream tube is defined as a circular space formed by the collection of stream lines
passing through the perimeter of a closed curve in a steady flow. As stream tube is
bounded on all sides by stream lines therefore no fluid can enter or leave the stream
tube from the sides except from the ends. Hence stream tube behaves as a solid
surface tube. The general equation of continuity can be applied on stream tube
though it has no solid boundaries. Stream tube may be of regular or irregular shape.
The velocity is uniform throughout the cross-section of the stream tube which
necessitates small cross-section for the stream tube. In steady flow with uniform
velocity, all stream lines are straight and parallel. The contents of stream tube are
called current-filaments.
The lines of equal velocity potential are called potential lines. These
72
potential lines cut stream lines orthogonally i.e. a stream line and a potential line are
at right angle to each other.
17. Distinguish between stream lines, streak lines and path lines
2. Particle may change 2. May change from 2. Particle may cross its
stream line depending on instant to instant path line
type of flow 3. Streak line changes with 3. Two path lines for two
3. Stream lines cannot time. Two streak lines particles may intersect
intersect each other, they may intersect each other each other
are always parallel 4. Flow across streak line 4. Flow across a path line
4. No flow across stream is possible is possible by other
line particles
The fluid flows can be: (1) steady or unsteady (2) uniform or non-uniform
(3) laminar or turbulent (4) compressible or incompressible (5) rotational or
irrotational (6) one-, two- or three-dimensional
19. Define steady and unsteady flow with one particle example
v 2v dP
0, 2 0, 0, 0
t t t t
73
and density change with time at any point is called unsteady flow. The water with
varying discharge through a pipe is an unsteady flow. For unsteady flow, we have:
v 2v dP
0, 2 0, 0,& 0
t t t t
In steady flow, the path line and stream line will concide. In unsteady fluid
flow, the path line of successive particle will be different and stream line pattern of
the flow will be changing at every instant.
20. Define laminar and turbulent flow with one practical example.
A laminar flow is one in which the fluid particles move in layers with each
layer sliding over the other. There is no movement of fluid particles from one layer
to another. Flow of blood in small veins and oil flow in bearings are examples of
laminar flow. It is a smooth regular flow where velocity of flow is very small
The flow in which adjacent layers cross each other and the layers do not
move along the well defined path is called turbulent flow. The flow through rivs or
canals, smoke from chimney or cigarette are turbulenter flow.
74
22. What do you understand by compressible and incompressible flows?
The flow in which the volume and thereby the density of fluid does not
remain constant during the flow is called compressible flow. Gases are most
compressible. The compressibility related problems are observed when gases flow
through orifice, nozzle, turbine, compressor and in flight of planes.
The flow in which the changes in volume and thereby in density of the fluid
are insignificant, the flow is said is to be incompressible. Flow of liquids are
incompressible flow. For gases, in subsonic aerodynamic conditions air flow can be
considered incompressible.
Fig.
Fig.
75
(a) Steady flow: v = f(x, y, z)
The discharge is the amount of fluid flow per unit time. Hence discharge is
Volume
Q=
Time
Area length
=
Time
= Area velocity
= A V
27. What do you understand from rotation and Vorticity of fluid particles?
A flow is said to be rotational if fluid particles are rotating about their own
mass centres. The rotation of a fluid particle at a point is specified by funding the
average angular velocity of two perpendicular linear elements of fluid particle.
Rotation of the fluid particle takes place about an axis which is perpendicular to the
plane formed by these two elements of the fluid. The sense of rotation is given by the
right hand rule for the motion of a right-hand screw. Vorticity of a rotation flow has
twice the value of the rotation of the flow. Both rotation and Vorticity are vectors.
76
28. What are the conditions for irrotational flow?
The irrotational flow will have both rotation and vorticity as zero.
w = 0 and 0
Or w x w y w z 0, and x y z 0
w v
y z
u w
z x
w u
x y
v V 1 Vr
0
r r r
Circulation = c V ds
Where V = tangential velocity & ds = small length of curve.
Fig.
c Vcos ds
77
v u
udx v dx dy u dy dx vdy
y y
v u
dx.dy
x y
z dx dy
Where A = are enclosed by closed curved
A
v u
Or
dx dy x y
30. Explain the physical significance and use of the term ‘stream function’
The flow rate (q) between two stream lines per unit thickness and time is
known as stream function ( ).
Consider a flow between two stream lines AA and BB which is two-
dimensional steady and incompressible. The flow (q) per unit time and thickness
between these stream lines AA and BB is stream function . The flow across
points A and B will remain same = = q irrespective of their joining line which
may be AB or ACB or ADB. If we assume = 0 at point A, then at point B will
be flow per unit time and thickness = q =
Stream function is also defined as the scalar function of space and time
whose partial derivative with respect to any direction gives the velocity component at
right angles to that direction. Hence in steady two-dimensional flow, f x, y
which gives v and u
x y
78
.
u v
0 (1)
x y
u
y
v
x
0
x y y x
2 2
Or 0
xy yx
The above is satisfying as LHS = RHS. Hence stream function satisfies the
equation of continuity.
= f (r, )
1
Radial velocity u r = u r
r
Tangential velocity u =
r
f r,
Radial velocity u r
r
79
1
Tangential velocity u =
r
(1) u u , v u r
(2) dx rd,dy dr
(3) The velocity vector at any point on the stream line can be found out by
differentiating its stream function i.e. u and v
y x
(4) The discharge between the stream lines is equal to difference of their
stream functions i.e.
q 2 1
(5) The rate of change of stream function with distance is proportion to the
component of velocity normal to that direction
1 2 1 2
(6) If two stream lines superimposed, then
s s s
80
u ,v And w
x y z
(Note: negative sign indicates that flow is taking place in direction in which velocity
potential decreases.)
u v w
0
x y z
Now u ,v and w . Put these values in continuity equation.
x y z
0
x x y y z z
2 2 2
This is Laplace equation 0
x 2 y 2 z 2
37. What is the relation between stream function and velocity potential
u ,v
y x
Also u ,v
x y
81
u ,
y x
And v ,
x y
x y
and
y x
38. Prove equipotential line and stream line are orthogonal to each other.
f x, y cons tan t
d .dx dy 0
x y
u and v , we get
x y
udx vdy 0
dy u
or
dx v
f x, y cons tan t
Or d .dx .dy 0
x y
As v and u , we get
x y
vdx udy 0
82
dy v
dx u
u v
Now m1 m 2 1
v u
39. What is a flow net? What is the condition of flow net to be a set of square?
simple graphical technique for studying flows which are two dimensional and
irrotational as compared to mathematical calculation techniques which are difficult
and tedious. In flow net, the stream lines are spaced such that the rate of flow q is
same between each successive pair of streamline. The flow net can be drawn for
irrotational flows. is constant along stream line and is
V1 n 2
V2 n1
V1 s 2
V2 s1
n 2 s 2
n1 s1
n 2 n1
or
s 2 s1
83
n
or = constant
s
n
In case = 1, then n = s . We get a set of square in the flow net
s
40. What are the methods used for drawing the flow nets?
Three methods are used for drawing the flow nets which are: (1) analytical
method (2) graphical method (3) electrical analogy method. In analytical method,
flow net can be drawn be finding the expression for and in terms of x and y
which can be plotted. In graphical method, the flow passage is equally devided to
draw stream lines and then equally potential lines are drawn orthogonally to the
stream line. In electric analogy method, equipotential lines are drawn using null
method. Stream lines are later drawn orthogonally.
(1) The flow passage between the boundaries is derived into suitable
number of equal parts and a set of stream lines are drawn enclosing these equal parts.
(2) Equipotential lines are drawn orthogonally to those stream lines such
that each block of flow net is almost a square.
42. At a point on a stream line, the velocity is 3 m/s and the radius of curvature
is 9 m. If the rate of increase of velocity along the stream line at this point is 1
m/s2, then the total acceleration at this point would be:
1
(a) 1 m/s2 (b) 3 m/s2 (c) m / s2 (d) 2 m / s2
3
V2 9
an 1 m / s2
r 9
a 1 m / s2
a a 2 a 2n 1 1 2 m / s 2
84
43. If u and v are the components of velocity in the x and y directions of flow
given by u = ax + by, v = cx + dy. Then the condition to be satisfied is:
u = ax + by v = cx + dy
u v
a d
x y
u v
0
x y
a+d=0
u = y2 + 4xy
u
4y
x
u v
From continuity equation 0
x y
v u
4y
y x
4y 2
v c 2y 2 c
2
Condition y = 0, v = 0.
c0
v 2y 2
85
Answer (c) is correct.
45. Given the x-component of velocity u = 6xy –x2, the y-component of flow v is
given by,
(a) 6y2 – 5xy (b) –6xy + 2x2 (c) –6x2 – 2xy (d) 4xy – 3y2
u 6xy 2x 2
u
6y 4x
x
v u
6y 4x
y x
3y2 4xy c
u v
For irrotation flow, 0
y x
u v
For choice (a) : 1 , and 2
y x
u v
1 2 1 0
y x
u v
For choice (b) 3 and 1
y x
86
u v
3 1 2 0
y x
u v
For choice (c) 0, 2y
y x
u v
2y 0
y x
u v
For choice (d) 0, 0
y x
u v
0
y x
v u
Also 2 2 0
x y
(a) u = y, v = 3/2 x (b) u = xy2, v = x2y (c) Both (a) and (b)(d) none of the other
u v
1 3/ 2 0
y x
It is rotational flow
For choice (b), we have
u v
2xy and 2xy
y x
u v
2xy 2xy 0
y x
It is an irrotational flow.
Answer (a) is correct.
87
MODULE 3
The various forces that may influence the motion are due to gravity, pressure,
viscosity, turbulence, surface tension and compressibility.
F Ma (1)
Therefore if the mass of fluid is influenced by all the above mentioned forces then
we can write the equation as:-
Fg Fp Fv Fs Ft Fc Ma (2)
In most of the fluid flow cases, the surface tension forces & the compressibility
forces are not significant. Hence they may be neglected. Then equations 2.0 and 2.1
becomes
Ma Fg Fp Fv Ft (3)
and
88
Equations 3.1 are known as Reynold’s equation of motion which is useful in
turbulent flow analysis.
For Laminar or viscous, turbulent forces become less significant and hence these
may be neglected.
Ma Fg Fp Fr (4.0)
and
The equation 4.0 and 4.1 are known as Navier stoke’s equation which are useful in
viscons flows.
Further if viscous forces are also little significant, then the equations can be modified
as
Ma Fg Fp (5. 0)
and
Max Fg x Fpx
Ma z Fgz Fpz
The equation 5.0 and 5.1 are known as Euler’s equation of motion.
89
Euler’s Equation of Motion:
In Euler’s equation of motion, the forces due to gravity and pressure are considered.
Consider a cylindrical element of cross section dA and length dS. The forces acting
in the cylindrical element are
P
2. Preserve force P dA opposite to direction of flow.
S
Let be the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of weight of
element.
P
PdA P dS dA g dA dScos dAds as
S
dV
Now as , where v = f(s, t)
dt
v ds v v v ds
v v
s dt t s t dt
90
v
If the flow is steady, =0
t
v
as v
s
P V
ie, pdA p dS dA g dA ds cos dA ds .v.
S S
Dividing by dA ds
1 p v
g cos v
s s
dz v 1 p dz
cos ,v g 0
ds s s ds
p
ie, gdz vdv 0 (I)
dp
Integrating (I), g dz vdv = constant
p v2
ie, gz = constant
2
p v2
ie, z = constant (II)
g g
p
Where - Pressure energy per unit weight of fluid.
g
v2
- K.E. per unit weight of fluid.
g
91
(i) The fluid is ideal, viscosity is zero.
The Bernoulli’s equation was derived on the assumption that fluid is invisicid (non-
viscous) and therefore frictionless. But all the real fluids are viscous and hence after
resistance to flow. Hence there are always some losses in fluid flows and leave in the
application of Bernoulli’s equation there losses have to be taken into consideration.
Thus the Bernoulli’s equation for real fluids between any two points 1 and 2 is given
as
p1 v12 p v2
z1 2 2 z 2 h L
g 2g g 2g
Kinetic Energy correction factor is defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy of the
flow per second based on actual velocity across the section to the kinetic energy of
the flow per second based on average velocity across the section. It is denoted by 2.
It is defined as the ratio of momentum of flow per second based on actual velocity to
the momentum of flow per second based an average velocity across a section. It is
denoted by .
It states that in a steady, ideal flow of an in compressible fluid, the total energy at any
92
point of the fluid is constant.
Bernoulli’s equation finds wide application in the solution of many problems of fluid
flow. Some of the simple applications of Bernoulli’s theorem are
Venturimeter:
It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid through a pipe.
The basic principle on which a venturimeter works is that by reducing the cross
sectional area of the flow passage, a pressure difference is created and the
measurement of pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge
through pipe.
Fig:2 venturimeter
Parts:
Principle:
93
The basic principle on which a venturi meter works is that by reducing the cross-
sectional area of the flow passage, a pressure difference is created and the
measurement of the pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge
through the pipe.
Discharge:
Let a1 and a2 be the cross sectional at the inlet section and the threat. Let p1 and p2 be
pressures and v1 and v2 be velocities at section (1) and (2) respectively. Assuming
the fluid to be incompressible and there is no less of energy and applying the
Bernoulli’s equation, we get,
p1 v12 p v2
z1 2 2 z 2 (1)
w 2g w 2g
p1 v12 p 2 v 22
w g w g
p1 p 2 v 22 v12
(2)
w w g g
v 22 v12
h (3)
g g
Further the Qth represents the discharge through the pipe then by continuity
equation
Q th a1v1 a 2 v 2
Qth Q
or v1 and v2 th (4)
a1 a2
Qth / a 2 2 Q th / a1 2 Q th 2 1 1
h 2 2
2g 2g 2g a 2 a1
94
a1a 2 2gh
or Qth (5)
a12 a 22
But in actual practice there is always some loss of energy as the fluid flows through
the venturimeter, on account of which the actual discharge will be less than the
theoretical discharge. The actual discharge may therefore be obtained by multiplying
the theoretical discharge by a factor cd. (Coefficient of discharge.)
Qa
Cd
Qth
a1a 2 2gh
Qa Cd .
a12 a 22
Since for a given venturimeter the cross sectional areas of the inlet section and the
threat is a1 and a2 are fixed. Therefore we introduce constant of venturimeter c.
a1a 2 2g
c
a12 a 22
Qa Cd . c . h
The value of Cd depends on rate of flow, viscosity of fluid and surface roughness,
but in general for fluids of low viscosity a value of about 0.98 is usually adopted for
Cd of venturimeter.
ORIFICE METER:
95
Fig.3 orificemeter
Orifice meter is another simple device used for measuring the discharge through
pipes. The working principle is same as that of venturimeter. Its advantage is that it
is a cheaper arrangement and its installation requires a smaller length as compared
with venturimeter.
An orifice meter consists of a flat plate (circular) with a circular hole called orifice
which is concentric with pipe axis. The thickness of plate t is less than or equal to
0.05 times the diameter of pipe.
p1 v2 p v2
z1 1 2 z 2 2
w 2g w 2g
If z1 z 2
p1 v12 p 2 v 22
w 2g w 2g
p1 p 2 v 22 v12
w w 2g 2g
v 22 v12
n
2g 2g
1/ 2
v2 2gh v12 (1)
a2
Coefficient of contraction, cc
a0
a 2 a 0 cc (2)
By continuity equations,
a1v1 a 2 v 2
a2
v1 v2
a1
96
Substituting (2) for a2
a 0 cc
v1 .v 2 (3)
a1
a 02ce2 v 22
v 2 2gh
a12
2
a
v22 2gh 0 ce2 v22
a1
2
a
v22 0 ce2 v22 2gh
a1
a 2
v 22 1 0 ce2 2gh
a13
2gh
v2
2
a
1 0 ce2
a1
Q = v 2 a 2 v 2 a 0 ce
a 0 ce 2gh
Q (4)
2
a
1 0 ce2
a1
We know that
2
a
1 0
a1
cd ce
2
a
1 0 ce2
a1
97
2
a
1 0 cc 2
a1
cc cd (5)
2
a
1 0
a1
2
a
1 0 cc2
a1 2gh
Q a 0 cd
2 2
a a
1 0 1 0 cc2
a1 a1
cd a 0 2gh cd a 0 a1 2gh
Q
a
2
a12 a 02
1 0
a1
Pitot tube:
It is a simple device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a
pipe or a channel. The basic principle used in this device is that the velocity of flow
at a particular point is reduced to zero, the pressure there is increased due to the
98
conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy and by measuring the increase in
the pressure energy at this point the velocity of flow may be determined. It is named
in the honour of its originator Herixi de Pilot, a feemh engineer, who in 1732 adopted
this principle for measuring the velocities in given scene.
In its simplest form, it consists of a glass tube, bent at right angles. The liquid rises
in the tube due to conversion of KE into pressure energy.
Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that point (2) is just
at the inlet of the pilot tube and (1) is far away from the tube.
p1 v12 p v2
z1 2 2 z 2 (1)
W 2g W 2g
z1 z 2 and v2 = 0
p1 v12 p 2
(2)
w 2g w
p1 p
We know H and 2 H h
w w
v12
H Hh (3)
2g
v12
h or v1 2gh (4)
2g
Vact Cv 2gh
Rotameter:
99
through the meter, it lifts the rotor until it reaches the steady level corresponding to
the discharge. This rate of flow of liquid can then be read from graduations engraved
on the tube by prior calibration, the sharp edge of the float serving as a pointer. The
rotating motion of the float helps to keep it steady. In this condition of equilibrium,
the hydrostatic and dynamic thrusts of the liquid on the upper side of the rotor will be
equal to the hydrostatic thrust on the upper side, plus the apparent weight of the
rotor.
The above mentioned losses are termed as ‘minor’ losses, as its value is less
compared to the loss due to friction in long pipes which is termed as ‘major’ loss.
100
Let V1 and V2 be velocities of flow of liquid in narrower and wider pipes
respectively. From continuity since Q = A1V1 = A2V2. The velocity V2 is smaller
than V1 and hence a change of momentum takes place as liquid flows from narrower
pipe to a wider pipe.
This change of momentum per sec will be equal to the net force acting in the
direction of flow on the liquid. Now if P1 and P2 are the pressure intensities at the
end sections BC and FE of the control volume and p is the mean pressure of the
eddying fluid over the annual face GD, then the force acting on the liquid in the
control volume in the dim of flow is
wQV1
Momentum of liquid passing through BC (2)
g
wQV2
Momentum of liquid passing through EF (3)
g
wQ V2 V1
Change of momentum per sec (4)
g
101
Then from impulse momentum equation
wQ
p1 p2 A2 v2 v1 (5)
g
p1 p 2 1 Q 1
or v 2 v1 V2 V2 V1 (6)
W g A2 g
If hL is the head loss between the sections BC and EF due to sudden enlargement,
then applying Bernoulli’s equation between BC & EF.
p1 V12 p V2
z1 2 2 z 2 h L
w 2g w 2g
p p v v2
2
h L 1 2 1 2 (7)
w w 2g 2g
1 v2 v2
v 2 v 2 v1 1 2 (8)
g 2g 2g
hL
v1 v 2 2 (9)
2g
2 2
v12 A1 v22 A2
or h L 1 1 (10)
2g A2 2g A1
102
Fig.6 sudden contraction
Just upstream of the junction between two pipes, in the wider pipe the streamlines are
curved and liquid is accelerated, due to which the pressure at the annular face varies
in an unknown manner which cannot be determined easily. Moreover in the region
just upstream of the junction there being accelerating flow no major loss of energy
occurs. However immediately downstream of the junction as the liquid flows from
the wider pipe to the narrower pipe a vena contracta is formed, after which the
stream of liquid widens again to fill completely the narrower pipe. In between the
vena contracta and the wall of the pipe, a lot of eddies are formed which cause a
considerable dissipation of energy.
Between vena-contracta and sec 2-2 at a certain distance away from it where the
velocity has again become almost uniform, the flow pattern is similar to that after a
sudden enlargement. As such equation (9) may be applied between the sections at
venacontracta and 2-2 to obtain approx. value of head loss due to sudden contraction.
2
V V2
hL L (9.1)
2g
A2
Applying continuity equation Ac Vc A2 V2 , Vc
Ac
2
v2 A 2
h L 2 1 (9.2)
2g A c
103
Ac
But we know Cc hence (9.2) can be written as,
A2
2
v22 1
hL 1
2g Cc
v 22
hL k .
2g
A2
The value of Cc or k is not constant; however it depends on the ratio . Below
A1
D2
table gives some values of k for different values of , the ratio of diameters of
D1
2
v22 1 v22
If Cc is assumed to be 0.62, h L 1 0.375
2g 0.62 2g
ie, k = 0.375
v 22
However in general the head loss due to sudden contraction is taken as 0.5
2g
ie, k = 0.5
flow of liquid in the pipe. Flow pattern is similar to the case of sudden contraction of
pipe.
104
v2
d) Loss of energy at the exit from a pipe:- is equal to where V is the
2g
mean vel. of flow in the pipe. Flow pattern is similar to the case of sudden
enlargement.
e) Loss of energy in various pipe fittings:- All pipe fittings such as values
couplings etc. cause a loss of energy. The loss of head in various pipe fittings may
also be represented as
v2
hL k
2g
A mouthpiece is a short tube of length not more than 2-3 times its diameter, which is
filled to a circular opening or orifice of the same diameter, provided in a tank or
vessel containing fluid, such that it is an extension of the orifice and through which
also the fluid may be discharged.
Classifications of
1) Orifices:
a) According to the size – small and large
105
2) Mouth pieces:
a) Shape – cylindrical, convergent, divergent and convergent –
divergent.
Vena contractor:
The section of jet where streamlines are straight, parallel to each other and
perpendicular to plane of orifice and the jet has minimum cross sectional area.
Since at the vena contractor, as the streamlines are parallel and straight the pressure
in the jet at this section is uniform and is equal to the pressure of fluid surrounding
the jet, which in case of a free jet is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
Assume the flow to be steady through the orifice, apply Bernoulli’s equation between
(1) and (2), neglecting the loss of energy.
p1 v12 p v2
z1 2 2 0 (1)
W 2g W 2g
We know p2 = pa (2)
106
Fig:6 flow through a orifice
Assume the flow to be steady through the orifice, apply Bernoulli’s equation between
(1) and (2), neglecting the loss of energy.
p1 v12 p v2
z1 2 2 0 (1)
W 2g W 2g
We know p2 = pa (2)
v 22 v12
h (4)
2g 2g
Q a1v1 a c v 2
ac
V1 v2 (5)
a1
2
v22 a c v12
h
2g a1 2g
107
a 2
v 22 1 c 2gh
a1
2gh
v2 2
(6)
a
1 c
a1
v 22
h
2g
v 2 2gh (7)
(7) Gives velocity of vena – contracta which is always more than the
average velocity of point at a section in the plane of the orifice.
In the above analysis the loss of energy that takes place as the liquid flows through
the orifice has been neglected. But there is always some loss of energy due to
friction and Surface Tension. Thus (7) gives the ideal or theoretical velocity of the
jet. The actual velocity of jet at venacontracta may therefore be determined by
multiplying the ideal velocity by a factor called coeff of velocity.
HYDRAULIC COEFFICIENTS:
1) Co-efficient of velocity,Cv
2) Co-efficient of contraction, Cc
3) Co-efficient of discharge,Cd
108
Co-efficient of velocity (Cv):
v cv . 2gh
The loss of energy is due to friction mainly, at orifice. The value Cv varies from 0.95
to 0.99 for different orifices, depending on the shape and size of the orifice and on
the head of liquid under which the flow takes place. An avg. value of 0.97 – 0.98
can be assumed.
In the sharp edged orifices the friction loss is very small and the value of C v is
slightly less than unity for water and other similar liquids.
Cc in the ratio of the area of the jet at vena contracta to the area of the orifice. The
area of c.s. of jet is minimum at vena-contracta. In other words the jet of liquid
issuing from an orifice undergoes a contraction. The actual area of the jet at vena
contracta may therefore be determined by multiplying the area of the orifice by a
factor called coefficient of contraction (Cc).
Cc in the ratio of the area of the jet at vena contracta to the area of the orifice. The
value varies from 0.61 – 0.69 depending on the size and shape of the orifice and head
of liquid under which the flow takes place. For general purpose, for a sharp edged
orifice the value is taken is 0.64 – 0.65. For a bell mouthed orifice, contraction after
the orifice is completely eliminated. The value of Cc in such case is taken as unity.
109
the effect of friction, the actual velocity of jet is reduced and due to the contraction of
jet, the actual discharge is always less than ideal discharge. The actual discharge of
liquid thro’ an orifice therefore can be determined by multiplying the ideal discharge
by a factor called coeff. of discharge (Cd)
actual discharge
Cd =
therotical discharge
The Cd varies from 0.61 – 0.65 depending on size and shape of orifice and head of
liquid under which the flow takes place. For general purpose for small sharp edged
orifices discharging water or liquids of similar viscosity an arg. value of 0.62 – 0.63
may be assumed.
Coefficient of resistance Cr is defined as the ratio of the loss of K.E. as the liquid
flows this an orifice and the actual K.E. possessed by the flowering liquid.
2
Vth2 2gh
Theroetical K.E. per unit weight of liquid h (10)
2g 2g
2
V2 C2v 2gh
Actual K.E. per unit weight of liquid hC2v (11)
2g 2g
Cr
h 1 C2v 1 C 2
v
1
2 1
hC2v C2v C
v
110
Fig7 large orifice
b = breadth of orifice
d = depth of orifice = H2 – H1
Cd = coeff. of discharge.
Consider an elementary strip of depth ‘dh’ at a depth of h below free surface of the
liquid in the tank.
H2
Integrating, Q Cd . b 2gh dh
H1
H
h3 / 2 2 2
Cd.b 2g Cd.b 2g H3/ 3/ 2
2 H1
2
3/ 2 H1 3
Fully submerge orifice is one which has its whole of its outlet side submerged under
111
liquid so that it discharges a jet of liquid into the liquid of same kind. It is also called
totally drowned orifice.
Where
H1= height of the water above the top of the orifice on the upstream side.
H2= height of the water above the bottom of the orifice on the upstream side.
b= width of orifice.
Partially submerged orifice is the one which has its outlet side partially submerged in
the liquid. It is also known as partially drowned orifice. Thus the partially submerged
orifice has two Parts. The upper portion behaves as an orifice discharging free while
the lower portion behaves as submerged orifice. Only a large orifice can behave as a
partially submerged orifice. The total discharge Q through partially submerged
orifice is equal to the discharges through free and the submerged portions.
112
Discharge through the submerged portion
2
Q2= Cd.b 2g H3/ 3/ 2
2 H1
2
3
2
= Cd× b (H2-H1) ×√2𝑔ℎ+ Cd.b 2g H3/ 3/ 2
2 H1
2
3
Fig:9 orifice
Consider a tank containing liquid up to a height of H1. Let an orifice is fitted at the
bottom of the tank. It is required to find the time for the liquid surface to fall from
height H1 to height H2. Let A be the area of tank, a be the area of orifice and T be
the time in seconds for the liquid to fall from H1 to H2.
Let at any time, the height of liquid from orifice is h and let the liquid surface fall by
a small height dh in time dT then,
113
= Cd. a 2gh
We know, vol. of liquid leaving the tank = vol. flowing throw orifice.
Adh
dT - ve sign is inserted because with the increase of time,
Cd .a 2gh
H2
T
A ½
dT = Cd .a 2g
h dh
0 H1
H
A h ½ 1 2
Cd .a 2g ½ 1 H
1
2A H 2 H1
Cd .A 2g
2A H1 H 2
T
Cd .a 2g
2A H1
T
Cd .a 2g
Consider a hemispherical tank of radius R fitted with an orifice of area ‘a’ at the
bottom of the tank. The tank contain some liquid up to a height H1 and in time T the
liquid falls to a height of H2
114
Fig:10 hemispherical tank
4 1⁄ 1 2 5⁄ 5
T= × × 𝑅{ (H1 2 – H2 ⁄2 ) − 5 × (H1 2 – H2 ⁄2 )}
cd a 2 g 3
4 1 2 5
T= × 3 𝑅 (H1 ⁄2 ) − 5 (H1 ⁄2 )
cd a 2 g
L
T= × (2R-H2)1/2-(2R-H1)3/2
3 cd a 2 g
L 1 3
T= ×(2R)2 − (2R– H1 ) 2
3 cd a 2 g
115
Flow through an external cylindrical mouthpiece:
Since the entrance section is exactly same as sharp edged orifice, the jet of
liquid entering contracts to form vena-contracta at a section c – c.
Further if vc is the velocity of jet at venacontracta and V is the vel. of the jet
at the outlet them by continuity.
Vc . ac = V.a.
a V
Vc v. (2)
a c 0.62
v2
Ha H Ha hL (3)
2g
116
hL is the head loss between sections b – b and c – c. The flow pattern is
similar to that after sudden enlargement and hL is similar to that in sudden
enlargement.
2
V
v
Vc V 2 2
0.375 V
0.62
hL (4)
2g 2g 2g
V2 V2
(3) Becomes, H 0.375
2g 2g
V2
H 1.375
2g
2gH
V 0.855 2gH (5)
1.375
V 0.855 2gh
Again Vth 2gH , therefore Cv = 0.855
Vth 2gh
In actual practice friction reduces value of C.v and is approx. equal to 0.82
If a mouth piece converges up to the venacontracta and then diverges that type of
mouth piece is called a convergent divergent mouth piece. As in this mouth piece
there is no sudden enlargement of the jet, the loss of energy due to sudden
enlargement is eliminated. The co-efficient of discharge for this mouthpiece is unity.
Let H is the head of the liquid over the mouthpiece.
117
Fig.12 convergent divergent mouth piece
A short cylindrical tube attached to an orifice in such a way that the tube projects
inwardly to a tank, is called an internal mouth piece. It is also called re- entrant or
borda’s mouth piece. If the length of the mouthpiece is equal to the diameter the jet
of liquid comes out of the mouthpiece with out touching the sides of the tube. Then
the mouthpiece is running free. But the length of the diameter is three times the
diameter; the jet comes out with its diameter equal to the diameter of the mouthpiece.
Then the mouthpiece is said to be running full.
Discharge Q= a × Cd × √2𝑔𝐻
Here Cd=0.5
118
Borda’s mouth piece running full:
Discharge Q= a × Cd × √2𝑔𝐻
Here Cd=0.707
A weir is the name of the concrete or masonry structure built across a river or stream
in order to raise water level on the upstream side and to allow the excess water to
flow over its entire length to downstream side. A Dam is similar to weir, but the
difference is that in dam, the excess water flow to the down stream only through a
small portion called spill way. Weirs way also be used for measuring the discharge
or rate of flow of liquid in rivers or streams.
The sheet of water flowing thro’ a notch or a weir is nappe or vein. The bottom edge
of a notch or the top of a weir over which the water flows is known as sill or crest
and its height above the bottom of the channel or tank is crest height.
119
Classification of Notches: - According to the
1) Shape of opening:-
a) Rectangular notch
b) triangular (V-notch)
c) trapezoidal notch
d) parabolic notch
e) Stepped notch.
1) shape:
a) Rectangular,
b) triangular
2) Shape of crest:
120
Discharge over a rectangular Notch or Weir
For finding the discharge of water over the weir or notch consider an
elementary horizontal strip of water of thickness dh and length L at a depth h from
the free surface of water as shown in figure.
121
dQ = Cd × L × dh × 2gh (1)
H
h3 / 2
Cd L 2g
3/ 2 0
2
Q CdL 2g H3/ 2
3
Q AC Ac
tan
2 Oc H h
AC H h tan
2
122
AB = AC × 2 = 2(H – h) tan
2
Area of strip = 2(H – h) tan × dh
2
Theoretical velocity of water through strip = 2gh
H
2Cd tan H hh
½
2g dh
2 0
H
2Cd tan Hh
h 3 / 2 dh
½
2g
2 0
H
Hh 3/ 2 h 5 / 2
2Cd tan 2g
2 3/ 2 5/ 2 0
2 2
Q 2cd tan 2g HH332 H5 / 2
2 3 5
4
2cd tan 2g H5 / 2
2 15
8
Q Cd tan 2g H5 / 2
15 2
For a right angled V – notch, if Cd = 0.6
90o tan 1
2
8
Discharge Q 0.6 1 2 9.81 H5 / 2
15
Q = 1.417 H5/2
A triangular notch is preferred over a rectangular notch due to the following reasons:
123
2) For measuring low discharge, a triangular notch gives more accurate results
than a rectangular notch.
3) In the case of a triangular notch only one reading i.e. (H) is required for the
computation of discharge.
2
Q1 Cd1L 2g H3/ 2
3
The discharge over the two triangular notches FDA and BCE is equal to the
discharge through a single triangular notch of angle and it is given by
124
8
Q2 Cd 2 tan 2g H5 / 2
15 2
2 8
Q Cd1L 2g H3/ 2 Cd 2 tan 2g H5 / 2
3 15 2
H2, L2 and H3, L3 are corresponding values for notches 2and 3 respectively.
× √2𝑔 × H33/2
125
Discharge over a cipolletti weir or notch:
𝜃 𝐴𝐵 H / 4 1
tan = = =
2 𝐵𝐶 H 4
by giving this slope to the sides, an increase in discharge through the triangular
portions ABC and DEF of the weir is obtained.if this slope is not provided the weir
would be a rectangular one and due to end contraction, the discharge would decrease.
Thus in case of cipolletti weir the factor of end contraction is not required.
8
= Cd 2 g tan 5 H
15 2
2 15 1
tan = 15 8 4
2
or 14.2
2
8
Q= Cd 2 g 14.2 5 H
15
126
Time required to empty a reservoir or a tank with a rectangular weir or notch:
Cd – Coefficient of discharge
Let at any instant the height of liquid surface above the crest of weir or
notch be h and in a small time dT, let the liquid falls by dh. Then,
–Adh = Q × dt
2
Q = cd L 2g h3/ 2
3
2
–Adh = cd L 2g h 3/ 2 dT
3
or
Adh
dT =
2 / 3Cd L 2g h 3 / 2
The total time T is obtained by integrating the above equation between the
limits H1 to H2.
T H2
Adh
T = dT 2
0 H1 Cd L 2g h 3/ 2
3
H2
A 3/ 2
2 h dh
Cd L 2g H1
3
H
3A h ½ 2
2Cd L 2g –½ H
1
127
3A 1 1
T
Cd L 2g H 2 H1
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
Let at any instant, the height of liquid surface above the apex of weir or
notch be h and in a small time dT, let the liquid surface falls by ‘dh’. Then
–Adh = Q × dT
8
Q Cd tan 2g h 5 / 2
15 2
8
Adh Cd tan 2g 5 / 2 dT
15 2
Adh
dT
8
Cd tan 2g h 5 / 2
15 2
The total time is obtained by integrating the above equation between the
limits H1 and H2
T H2
Ah
dT 8
0 H1 Cd tan 2g h 5 / 2
15 2
128
H2
A 5 / 2
T
8 h dh
Cd tan 2g H1
15 2
H
15A h 3 / 2 2
3/ 2 H
8 Cd tan 2g 1
2
5A 1 1
T 3/ 2
3 / 2
4 Cd tan 2g H 2 H1
2
Velocity of approach:
Velocity of approach is defined as the velocity with which the water approaches or
reaches the weir or notch before it flows over it. Thus Va is the velocity of approach,
then an additional head ha equal to Va2/2g due to the velocity of approach, is acting
on the water flowing over the notch. Then the initial height of the water over the
notch becomes (H+h) and final height becomes ha. Then all the formulas are
changed taking into consideration of the velocity of approach. The velocity of
approach, Va is determined by finding the discharge over the notch or weir
neglecting velocity of approach. Then dividing the discharge by cross sectional area
of the channel on the upstream side of the weir or notch, the velocity of approach is
obtained. Mathematically,
𝑄
Va=
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙
129
(i) For Rectangular Weir or Notch
For Rectangular Weir or Notch. The discharge for a rectangular weir or notch
is given by equation (8.1) as
2
Q= Cd L 2g H3 / 2
3
2
where K= Cd L 2g
3
3
dQ = K H1/ 2dH ... (ii)
2
3
dQ K H1/ 2dH
2 3 dH
Dividing (ii) by (i), = 3/ 2
... (8.6)
Q KH 2 H
For Triangular Weir or Notch. The discharge over a triangular weir or notch is
given by equation (8.2) as
8
Q= Cd . tan 2g × H5/2
15 2
8
Where K= Cd . tan 2g
15 2
5
dQ = K H3/ 2 dH ... (iv)
2
130
5
dQ K H3 / 2dH
2 5 dH
Dividing (iv) by (iii), we get = ... (8.7)
Q KH5 / 2 2 H
RECTANGULAR WEIR
2
Q= Cd 2g L H3/ 2 without velocity of approach ... (i)
3
2
Cd 2g L H h a h a 3/ 2 with velocity of approach
3/ 2
=
3
...(ii)
Equation (i) and (ii) are applicable to the weir of notch fro which the crest
length is equal to the width of the channel. This type of weir is called Suppressed
weir. But if the weir is not suppressed, the effect of end contraction will be taken into
account.
L = (L - 0.2 H)
2
And Q= Cd L 0.2 H 2gH3/ 2
3
2
Q= .623 2 9.81 L 0.2 H H3/ 2
3
131
= 1.84 [L - 0.2 × H] H3/2 ... (8.11)
2 .003
where m = Cd 0.405
3 H
.003
Where m1 = 0.405 .
H ha
Discharge over a broad crested weir:
132
Fig.21 broad crested weir
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the still water surface on the upstream side
and running water at the end of weir,
v2
0+0+H=0+ +h
2g
v2
=H-h
2g
v= 2g H h
= Cd × L × h × 2g H h
= Cd × L ×
2g Hh 2 h 3 ... (8.18)
or
d
dh
Hh 2 h 3 0 or 2h × H - 3h3 = 0 or 2H = 3h
2
h= H
3
2 2
2 3
Qmax = Cd × L × 2g H H H
3 3
133
4 8
= Cd × L × 2g H H 2 H3
9 27
= Cd × L × 2g
4 3 8 3
H H = Cd × L × 2g
12 8 H3
9 27 27
4
= Cd × L × 2g H 3 = Cd × L × 2g ×0.3849 × H3/2
27
= 1.705 × Cd × L × H3/2
2
Q= Cd × L × 2g × H3/2
3
an Ogee weir, in which the crest of the weir rises up to maximum height of 0.115 ×
H (where H is the height of water above inlet of the weir) and then falls as shown in
Fig. 8.11. The discharge for an Ogee weir is the same as that of a rectangular weir,
and it is given by
134
2
Q= Cd × L × 2g × H3/2
3
When the water level on the downstream side of a weir is above the crest of
the weir, then the weir is called to be a submerged or drowned weir. Fig. 8.12 shows
a submerged weir. The total discharge, over the weir is obtained by dividing the weir
into two parts. The portion between upstream and downstream water surface may be
treated as free weir and portion between downstream water surface and crest of weir
as a drowned weir.
2
Cd1 L 2g H h
3/ 2
=
3
= Cd2 L h 2g H h
Total discharge, Q = Q1 + Q2
2
Cd1 L 2g H h Cd2 L h 2g H h
3/ 2
=
3
135
QUESTIONS:
In Euler’s equation of motion, forces due to gravity and pressure are taken
into consideration. The assumptions are
The Pitot tube is suitable for measuring velocity of the flow in open channel
or used for measuring speed of flying aircraft. Special type of Pitot tube known as
pitot static tube is used with aircraft. This consists of two concentric tubes. Inside
tube faces the flow of air and it acts similar to Pitot tube i.e. converting the kinetic
energy of air into high pressure energy. The outer tube has openings perpendicular to
the flow of air and it measures the static pressure of air (low pressure side). These
two tubes are connected individually to each limb of the manometer so that the
manometer level difference is the dynamic head (h)
3.) Define the term Cd,Cc,Cv and derive the equation Cd Cc Cv where Cd =
Cd, Cc and Cv are hydraulic coefficients which are used to find the actual
discharge, contraction and velocity of the liquid passing out of a orifice in the form a
jet. the jet goes on contracting from the mouth of orifice upto a distance of about one
136
half of the orifice diameter. Later it begins to expand. The place where jet has least
cross-sectional area is known as vena contracta. The velocity at vena contracta is
maximum.
Coefficient of velocity (Cv). It is the ratio of the actual velocity of the liquid
jet at vena contracta to the theoretical value of the liquid jet. Therefore the coefficient
of velocity is always less than one.
V
=
2gh
Coefficient of contraction (Cc). It is the ratio of the area of the jet at vena-
contracta to the area of the orifice. Since the jet keeps on converging after passing
orifice upto vena-contracta, the cross-section area of the vena contracta is minimum.
The coefficient of contraction is always less than one.
a
=
A
Q V a
Cd
Q th Vth A
Cd Cv .Cc
137
The value of Cd varies from 0.61 to 0.65.
Vena contracta. The liquid flowing past through an orifice in the form of a jet of
liquid is c converging type. The jet has a minimum area of cross-section at a distance
of about half the diameter of the orifice and this section is called vena contracta. At
this section, the stream lines are straight and parallel to each other besides being
perpendicular to the plane of the orifice. Beyond this section of vena contracta, the
liquid jet diverges and it bends towards downward direction due to the effect of
gravity.
d 2
Area of mouthpiece (a) =
4
or a 0.122 1.13 102 m 2
4
Discharge Q Cd a 2gh
= 0.105 m2 /s
Vc2
Hc H0 H
2g
V1 V 1.375V12
Now Vc 1 and H
Cc 0.62 2g
Therefore Hc H0 H 1.89H
138
= H0 0.89H
= 10 - 0.89 6
= 10 - 5.39
= 4.66 m
= 10.3 - 6 = 4.3 m
a1 H Hc
Now 1 0
ac H
2
0.1 6
1
0.05 H
6
4 = 1
H
6
16 = 1+
H
6
or H= = 0.4 m of water
15
Q = ac 2gh
139
0.05
2
= 2 9.81 0.4
4
3.14 25 104
= 2.8
4
= 54.97 104 m3 / s
7) Find the expression for hydraulic coefficient and discharge for Borda’s
mouthpiece running free.
In this a short cylindrical tube is attached to the orifice in such a way that
the tube is projected inwardly in the liquid tank. Hence it is also known as internal
mouthpiece. In running free Borda’s mouthpiece the length of tube is kept equal to
the diameter of the mouthpiece. In this condition, the jet of liquid comes out from the
mouthpiece without touching sides of the mouthpiece. The cross-section area of the
jet (ac) is lesser than the cross-sectional area of the mouthpiece (a) i.e. a>ac. The flow
through the mouthpiece is taking place due to pressure intensity at the mouthpiece
which is equal to gH .
= a gH (1)
If Vc is the velocity of the jet, then mass of fluid flowing per unit time is -
M = a c Vc
= a c Vc Vc 0
= a c Vc2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between point ‘A’ on free surface and section 1-1, we
get -
140
A VA2 2 V2
z A c C z1
g 2g g 2g
p A pc2
Now z A z1 H, 0, VA 0
g g
VC2
H
2g
Vc 2gH (ii)
or a = 2 ac
ac
or Cc 0.5, Cc = coefficient of contraction
a
As there is no loss of head due to running free of the liquid jet, therefore coefficient
of velocity Cv = 1
Coefficient of discharge Cd = Cc Cv
= 0.5 1
= 0.5
= 0.5 a 2gH
d 2 2
a 1
4 4
141
Running free
Q = 0.5 a 2gH
12
= 0.5 2 9.81 9
4
Running full
Q = 0.707 a 2gH
12
= 0.707 2 9.81 9
4
= 7.37 m3 / s
9) A nozzle is situated at a distance of 1.0 m above the ground level and 45o to
the horizontal. The diameter of nozzle is 100 mm and the jet strikes the ground
at 4 m from the nozzle. Find the discharge from the nozzle.
x=4m
4 1 16
1 U y . g 2
Ux 2 Ux
U
Now U x Ucos 45
2
U
U y Ucos 45
2
1 16 2
1 4 9.81
2 U2
142
9.81 16
U2
5
or U = 5.6 m/s
0.1
2
Q = 5.6
4
= 4.396 102 m3 / s
10) What is a weir? What is the difference between a weir & notch?
Flow through an open channel takes place under atmospheric pressure. The
motive force to create the flow is derived from the slope of the bed/ground of the
channel and the kinetic energy possessed by the flowing liquid. A weir is an
obstruction placed in an open channel over which the flow occurs. The weir is
generally in the form of a vertical wall with a sharp edge at the top, running all the
way across the open channel. When the liquid flows over the weir, the height of the
liquid above the sharp edge of the weir bears a relationship with the amount of
discharge across it. This is the reason why weirs are widely used for discharge
measuring purpose.
143
MODULE 4
When a real fluid flows past a solid body or a solid wall, the fluid particle adheres to
the boundary and the condition of no slip occurs. This means that the velocity of
fluid close to the boundary will be same as that of the boundary. If the boundary is
stationary, the velocity will be higher and as a result of the variations of velocity
du
gradient will exist. The velocity of fluid increases from zero velocity on the
dy
stationary boundary to free stream velocity (U) of the fluid in the direction normal to
the boundary. This variation of velocity from zero to free stream velocity in the
direction normal to the boundary takes place in a narrow region in the vicinity of
solid boundary. This narrow region of the fluid is called boundary layer.
According to boundary layer theory, the flow fluid in the neighbourhood of the solid
boundary may be divided into two regions as shown in fig1.
1) A very thin layer of the fluid, called the boundary layer, in the immediate
neighourhood of the solid boundary, where the variation of velocity from
zero at the solid boundary to free stream velocity in the direction normal to
du
the boundary take place. In this region, the velocity gradient exists and
dy
144
hence the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall in the direction of motion.
The value of shear stress is given by
du
τ =μ
dy
2) The remaining fluid which is out side the boundary layer. The velocity
outside the boundary layer is constant and equal to the free stream velocity.
du
As there is no variation of velocity i8n this region velocity gradient
dy
becomes zero. As a result of this the shear stress is zero.
BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATION:
The boundary layer thickness is considerably affected by the pressure gradient in the
direction of flow. If the pressure gradient is zero then the boundary layer continues to
grow in thickness along a flat plate. With the decreasing pressure in the direction of
flow, with negative pressure gradient, the boundary layer tends to be reduced in
thickness. However with the negative pressure gradient, the boundary layer tends to
be reduced in thickness. However with the pressure increasing in the direction of
flow, with positive pressure gradient, the boundary layer thickens rapidly. the
adverse pressure gradient plus the boundary shear decreases the momentum in the
boundary layer and if they both act over a sufficient distance they cause the fluid in
the boundary layer to come to rest, the retarded fluid particle in general cannot in
145
general penetrate too far into the region of increased pressure owing to their small
kinetic energy. thus the boundary layer is deflected sideways from the boundary,
separates from it and moves into the main stream. This phenomenon is called
boundary layer separation.
Separation occurs with both laminar and turbulent boundary layers. Laminar
boundary layer is more prone to separation than turbulent boundary layer. Thus the
turbulent boundary layer can flow farther around the cylinder before it separates than
can the laminar boundary layer. Therefore the wake size will be narrower if the flow
is turbulent at the separation point than if it is laminar.
METHODS OF CONTROLLING THE BOUNDARY LAYER:
a) motion of the solid body:
146
help of some suitable devices or by diverting a portion of the fluid of the main stream
from the region of high pressure to region
147
of the fluid from the boundary layer also greatly delays its transition from laminar to
turbulent due to which skin friction drag is reduced.
WAKES:
A wake is the region of recirculating flow immediately behind a moving solid body,
caused by the flow of surrounding fluid around the body. In fluid dynamics,
a wake is the region of disturbed flow (usually turbulent) downstream of a solid body
moving through a fluid, caused by the flow of the fluid around the body. In
incompressible fluids (liquids) such as water, a bow wake is created when a
watercraft moves through the medium; as the medium cannot be compressed, it must
be displaced instead, resulting in a wave. As with all wave forms, it spreads outward
from the source until its energy is overcome or lost, usually by friction or dispersion.
148
separation and aircraft store separation This pattern consists of two wake lines that
form the arms of a V, with the source of the wake at the point. Each wake line is
offset from the path of the wake source by around 17° and is made up with feathery
wavelets that are angled at roughly 53° to the path. The interior of the V is filled with
transverse curved waves, each of which is an arc of a circle centered at a point lying
on the path at a distance twice that of the arc to the wake source
This pattern is independent of the speed and size of the wake source over a
significant range of values.
BODY
Fig.9
149
The fluid will exert a force on the stationary body. The total force (F R)
exerted by the fluid on the body is perpendicular to the surface of the body. Thus the
total force is inclined to the direction of motion. The total force can be resolved in
two components, one in the direction of motion and other perpendicular to the
direction of motion.
Drag.
The component of the total force (FR) in the direction of motion is called ‘drag’. This
component is denoted by FD. Thus drag is the force exerted by the fluid in the
direction of motion.
Lift.
The component of the total force (FR) in the direction perpendicular to the direction
of motion is known as lift. This is denoted by FL. Thus lift is the force exerted by the
fluid in the direction perpendicular to the direction of motion. Lift force occurs only
when the axis of the body is inclined to the direction of fluid flow. If the axis of the
body is parallel to the direction of fluid flow, lift force is zero. In that case only drag
force acts.
If the fluid is assumed ideal and the body is symmetrical such as a sphere or
cylinder, both the drag and lift will be zero.
150
Fig.11 arbitrary shaped soil body
The term p cos dA is called the pressure drag or form drag while the term
0 sin dA is called the friction drag or skin drag or shear drag.
(b) Lift Force (FL). The lift force an elemental area
151
= -pdA sin + 0dA sin (90o- ) = -pdA sin + 0dA cos
The drag and lift for a body moving in a fluid of density , at a uniform
velocity U are calculated mathematically, as
U 2
FD = C D A ... (3)
2
U 2
FL = C L A ... (4)
2
CL = Co-efficient of lift,
A = Area of the body which is the projected area of the body perpendicular
to the direction of flow
or
The equations (14.3) and (14.4) which give the mathematical expression for
drag and lift are derived by the method of dimensional analysis.
Dimensional Analysis of Drag and Lift. In the chapter Dimensional and Model
Analysis it is shown in problem12.6 that the force exerted by a fluid on a supersonic
plane is given by:
k
F L2 U2 , 2 ... (i)
UL U
152
Also in problem 12.7, it is shown that the force exerted by a fluid on a
partially sub-merged body is given by :
Lg
F L2 U 2 , 2 ... (ii)
UL U
Thus the general expression for the force exerted by a fluid (air or water) on
a body (completely sub-merged or partially sub-merged) is given as
Lg k
F L2 U2 , 2 2
... (6)
UL U U
TYPES OF DRAG:
Attempts have been made to rationalize the definitions and terminology associated
with drag. On the whole the new terms have not been widely adopted. Here we will
use the widely accepted traditional terms and indicate alternatives in parentheses.
Total drag
This is the drag that is generated by the resolved components of the traction due to
the shear stresses acting on the surface of the body. This traction is due directly to
viscosity and acts tangentially at all points on the surface of the body. At each point
it has a component aligned with but opposing the undisturbed flow (i.e. opposite to
the direction of flight). The total effect of these components, taken (i.e. integrated)
153
over the whole exposed surface of the body, is the skin-friction drag. It could not
exist in an invisicid flow.
These trailing vortices connect with the starting vortex, or downwash, to form a U-
shaped vortex connected to the wingtips. Now a vortex can contain a great deal of
kinetic energy, and it requires energy to produce a vortex. Since the wings are
constantly supplying energy to the fluid to create the vortices, the fluid is doing work
on the wings, resulting in a drag on the wings.
Wave drag
This is the drag associated with the formation of shock waves in high-speed flight.
Shock waves radiate away a considerable amount of energy, energy that is
experienced by the aircraft as drag. Although shock waves are typically associated
with supersonic flow, they can form at much lower speeds at areas on the aircraft
where local airflow accelerates to supersonic speeds. The effect is typically seen
at transonic speeds above about Mach 0.8, but it is possible to notice the problem at
any speed over that of the critical Mach of that aircraft's wing
154
Form drag (or boundary-layer pressure drag)
This can be defined as the difference between the profile drag and the skin-friction
drag where the former is defined as the drag due to the losses in total pressure and
total temperature in the boundary layers. Form drag and pressure drag are virtually
the same type of drag. Form or pressure drag is caused by the air that is flowing over
the aircraft or airfoil. The separation of air creates turbulence and results in pockets
of low and high pressure that leave a wake behind the airplane or airfoil (thus the
name pressure drag). This opposes forward motion and is a component of the total
drag. Since this drag is due to the shape, or form of the aircraft, it is also called form
drag.
A stream lined body is defined as that body whose surface coincides with the
streamlines, when the body is placed in a flow. In that case the separation of the flow
will take place only at the trailing edge. Though the boundary layer will start at the
leading edge, will become turbulent from laminar, yet it does not separate up to the
rear most part of the body in the case of stream lined body. Thus behind a
streamlined body, wake formation zone will be very small and consequently the
pressure drag will be very small. Then the total drag on the streamlined body will be
due tom friction only. A body may be stream lined at
A bluff body is defined as that body whose surface does not coincides with the
stream lines, when placed in a flow. Then the flow is separated from the body much
ahead of the trailing edge with the result of a very large wake formation zone. Then
the drag due to pressure will very large compared to the drag due to friction on the
body. Thus the bodies of such a shape in which the pressure drag is very large as
compared to the friction drag are called bluff body.
155
DRAG ON A FLAT PLATE
(a) Plate held parallel to the direction of flow of fluid. When a thin flat
plate is held parallel to the action of flow of fluid (i.e., the plate is held at zero
incidence) the total drag by the fluid on the plate is equal to the friction drag which is
due to the formation of the boundary on the surface of the plate. The magnitude of
the friction drag exerted on the plate however depends whether the boundary layer
formed over the surface of the plate is laminar or turbulent or partly and partly
turbulent.
156
for a flat plate held perpendicular to the flow the skin friction drag is negligible as
compared with the pressure drag, and so the effects of inertia forces become
predominant event at much lower values of Re than for a cylinder. Moreover, unlike
a sphere or a cylinder, in the case of a flat plate, except at low Reynolds number (say
Re <100), separation of the boundary layer always occurs at the same place-the sharp
edges of the plate-whatever be the value of the Reynolds number. As such in the case
of a flat plate the drag coefficient CD is a function of Re only at low and moderate
values of Re. However, as the value of Re exceeds 103, CD assumes a constant value
of about 2.0,. A reduction in the value of CD however occurs if the ratio of the length
L of the plate to its width B is not very large. The reduction in the value of C D in this
case is on account of the fact that the flow in not truly two-dimensional in character.
The flow of fluid round the ends tends to reduce the pressure at the upstream face of
the plate and increase at the rear face. The value of CD therefore decreases as the
length of the plate is reduced and these end effects become more significant. This is
demonstrated by the values of CD, obtained for a thin flat plate held perpendicular to
the flow, for different values of the ratio of length to breadth (L/B) of the plate which
are tabulated below:
L/B 1 2 4 10 18
The variation of CD with Re, for an infinitely long flat plate follows the
trend similar to that for a circular disc, both held perpendicular to the flow. However,
because of the flow in the case of circular disc being three-dimensional in character
the limiting value of CD is only about 1.1, which is much smaller than the limiting
value of CD equal to about 2, for the flat plate having flow which is two-dimensional
in character.
157
where L = Length of body
= Viscosity of fluid
F = Force exerted
U = Velocity of body
= Density of fluid
If the body is completely sub-merged in the fluid, the force exerted by the
fluid on the body due to gravitational effect is negligible. Hence the non-dimensional
Lg
term containing ‘g’ i.e., is neglected. if the velocity of the body is comparable
U2
with velocity of sound, the effect due to compressibility is to be considered. But if
the ratio of the velocity of the body to the velocity of the sound is less than 0.3, the
force exerted by the fluid on the body due to compressibility is negligible.
UL
F L2 U 2 L2 U 2
UL
UL
Where = Reynold number = Re
F = L2 U2 R e .
Now F is the total force exerted by the fluid on the body. The total force
having two components, one in the direction of motion called drag force and other
component in the direction perpendicular to the direction of motion, called lift force.
L2 U 2
FD CD
2
158
U 2
= CD A L2 = Area = A
2
L2 U 2
And FL CL
2
U 2
= C L .A .
2
DRAG ON A SPHERE
D = Diameter of sphere,
= Viscosity of fluid
If the Reynold number of the flow is very small less than 0.2
UD
i.e., R e 0.2 , the viscous forces are much more important that the inertial
forces as in this case viscous forces are much more predominate than the inertial
forces, which may be assumed negligible. G.G. Stokes developed a mathematical
equation for the total drag on a sphere immersed in a flowing fluid for which
Reynold number is upto 0.2, so that inertia forces may be assumed negligible.
According to his colution, total drag is
FD 3DU
(i) Expression for Cd for Sphere for Reynold Number less than 0.2.
From equation (14.3), the total drag is given by
U 2
FD CD A
2
159
2
A = Projected area of the sphere = D
4
2 U 2
3DU = C D D
4 2
3DU 24 24
CD = Re
2 U UD R e DU
2
D
4 2
(ii) Value of CD for sphere when Re is between 0.2 and 5. With the
increase of Reynold number, the inertia forces increase and must be taken into
account. When Re lies between 0.2 and 5, Oseen, a Swedish physicist, improved
Stoke’s law as
24 3
CD 1
R e 16R e
This Equation is called Oseen formulae and is valid for Re between 0.2 and
5.
(iii) Value of CD for Re from 5.0 to 1000. The drag co-efficient for the
Reynold of number from 5 to 1000 is equal to 0.4.
160
the increase of the velocity, the drag force, opposing the motion of body also
increases. A stage is reached when the upward drag force acting on the body will be
equal to the weight of the body. Then the net external force acting on the body will
be zero and the body will be travelling at constant speed. This constant speed is
called terminal velocity of the falling body. If the body drops in a fluid, at the instant
it has acquired terminal velocity the net force acting on the body will be zero. The
forces acting on the body at this state will be:
DRAG ON A CYLINDER
161
perpendicular to the direction of flow. The drag force, i.e., the force exerted by the
following fluid on the cylinder in the direction of flow depends upon the Reynold
number of the flow. From experiments, it has been observed that:
(i) When Reynold number (Re) < 1, the drag force is directly proportional to
velocity and hence the drag co-efficient (CD) is inversely proportional to Reynold
number.
(ii) With the increase of the Reynold number from 1 to 2000, the drag co-
efficient decreases and reaches a minimum value of 0.95 at Re = 2000.
(iii) With the further increase of the Reynold number from 2000 to 3 × 104,
the co-efficient of drag increases and attains maximum value of 1.2 at Re = 3 × 104.
The flow pattern will be symmetrical and the velocity at any point say C on
the surface of the cylinder is given by u = 2U sin
The velocity distribution over the upper half and lower half of the cylinder
from the axis AB of the cylinder are identical and hence the pressure distributions
will also be same. Hence the lift acting on the cylinder will be zero.
162
Flow Pattern Around the Cylinder when a Constant Circulation is imparted
to the Cylinder.
Fig.14
Consider a fluid flowing with a free stream velocity equal to U. Within the
fluid consider a closed curve as shown in Fig. 14.10. Let E is any point on the closed
curve and ‘dS’ is a small length of the closed curve containing point E.
given as
= U cos 1
= U cos 1 × dS
163
EXPRESSION FOR LIFT FORCE ACTING ON ROTATING
CYLINDER.
The flow over a cylinder to which a constant circulation (Ѓ) is imparted is obtained
as shown in fig. the velocity a t the point C is obtained by
v= 2U sin
2 R
Where U is the velocity of the flow of the fluid.R is the radius of the cylinder.for the
upper half portion of the cylinder, varies from 00 to 1800 and hence component of
velocity,2Usin𝜃 is positive. But for the lower half portion of the cylinder,𝜃varies
from1800 to 3600.as sin𝜃for the value of 𝜃more then 1800 and less than 3600 is
negative and hence component of velocity 2Usin𝜃will be negative. This means, the
velocity on the upper half portion of the cylinderwill be more than the velocity on the
lower half portion of the cylinder.but from Bernoulli’s theorm we know that at a
surface where velocity is less pressure will be more there and viceversa. Hence on
the lower half portion of the cylinderwhere velocity is less pressure will be morethan
the pressure on the upper half portion of the cylinder.due to this difference of
pressure on the two portions of the cylinder, a force will be acting on the cylinder in
a dirction perpendicular to the direction of flow.this force is nothing but a lift
force.thus by rotating a cylinder at a constant velocity in a uniform flow field,a lift
force can be developed.
164
Let a cylinder is rotating is a uniform flow field. The resultant flow pattern will be
as shown in Consider a small length of the element of the surface of the cylinder.
ds = Length of element
R = Radius of cylinder
p U 2 ps u s2
g 2g g 2g
ps p U 2 u s2
g g 2g 2g
p U 2 u s2
= 1
g 2g U 2
u s u 2Usin
2R
2
2Usin
ps p U 2 2R
1
g g 2g U2
165
2 2
4U sin 4Usin
p U2 2 R
2 2
2R
= 1
g 2g U2
p U2 2 4sin
=
1 4sin 2
g 2g 42R 2 U 2 U 2R
gU 2 2 4sin
or ps = p 1 4sin 2
2g 4 R U
2 2 2
U 2R
we have the lift force acting on the small length ds on the element, due to
pressure ps as
ds = R × d
The total force is obtained by integrating equation (iii) over the centre
surface of the cylinder.
2 2
Total lift, FL ps sin Rd L ps R L sin d
0 0
2 gU 2 4sin
FL p 1 4sin 2 2 2 2 RL sin d
0
2g 4 R U U 2R
166
=
2 2
But 0 sin d sin 3 d 0
0
2 gU 2 4sin 2
FL R L d
0 2g U 2R
gU 2 4 2 L gU 2 2
= R L
2g
U 2R 0
sin 2 d
g 0
sin d
2
2 sin 2 2 sin 4
0 sin d
2
But
2 4 0 2 4
L g L g
FL U gU LUT LUT
g g g
The resultant flow pattern for a rotating cylinder in a uniform flow field is shown in
Fig. 15. The resultant flow pattern is symmetrical about the vertical axis of the
cylinder. Hence the velocity distribution and also pressure distribution is symmetrical
about the vertical axis and as such there will be no drag on the cylinder.
U 2
FL CL A
2
167
FL LUT
U 2 LUT
LUT CL 2RL or CL
2 RLU 2
RU
From equation (14.14), we have u 1 or = 2u 1
2R R
Substituting this value of in equation (14.17), CL is also expressed
R
2u 1
CL
U
Stagnation points are those points on the surface of the cylinder, where velocity is
zero. For a rotating cylinder, the resultant velocity is given by equation
u = 2U sin + .
2R
2U sin + = 0 or 2U sin = -
2R 2R
or sin = -
4UR
The solution of equation given the location of stagnation points on the surface of the
cylinder. There are two values of , which satisfy the above equation. As sin is
negative in equation it means is more than 180o but less than 360o. The two values
of are such that one value is between 180o and 270o and other value is between
270o and 360o.
168
For a single stagnation point, = 270o and then equation becomes as
sin 270o = - or -1 = ( sin 270o = -1)
4UR 4UR
= 4UR
fig.16 airofoil
CU sin
169
= CU 2L sin
U 2
FL CL A
2
U 2
FL CL C L
2
U 2
CU L sin =CL C L
2
2
2CU 2L sin
CL 2 sin
C L UH2
Thus it is clear from equation that co-efficient of lift depends upon the angle
of attack.
When a flying object for example airplane is in a steady-state, the weight of the
airplane is equal to the lift force and thrust developed by the engine is equal to the
drag force. Hence
AU 2
W = Lift force = C L
2
AU 2
where W = Weight of the airplane and C L = Lift force.
2
170
CHARACTERSTICS OF AIROFOIL:
Fig: 17 Chord
Chord is an imaginary reference line in the airofoil section above and sometimes
below which the curvature of the upper and lower surfaces of the airofoil
respectively is described.if the aerofoil section is a flat botttmed one as chown in fig.
the cord is the bottom line itself. Ift he aerofoil section have convex curvature on
both the upper and lower surfaces or the aerofoil section has convex curvature at the
bottom surface, the cord can be found out gy joining the most forward point of the
leading edge to the rear most point on the trailing edge. The cord length is the length
of the projection of the aerofoil on the chord and is denoted by the letter “c”.
2) Span:
Fig.18 Span
this is the distance measured from the left wing tip to the right wing tip of the
aeroplane and is denoted by the letter “b”
171
3) Frontal area:
This is the area of the wing as seen from the plan of the airplane snd is the area of the
projection of the actual outline of the wing on a horizontial plane through the cord.
The symbol used is “S”
4) Aspect ratio:
This is a non dimensional constant for a given wing and given by span/cord length
for a rectangular wing.aspect ratio is the ratio of the square of the span to the frontal
area for wings other than rectangular in shape in the plan view.
5) Camber:
Fig.19 camber
Camber is the name given to describe the curvature of the upper and lower surfaces
of an aerofoil section. Camber is defined as the ratio of the vertical intercept and
chord length, the vertical intercept being measured as thre length between surface
concerded and the chord. The length of the intercept between the cord and the upper
surface expressed as the percentage of the chord length is calkled lower camber. The
mean camber is the verticaslintercept between thew geometrical central lines of the
aerofoil section at the centre of the cord expressed as the percentage of the chord
length. Mean camber line is also called the median lin e. the maximum camger refer
to the greatest departure of the surface of the curvature of the aerofoil section from
the cord line.
172
6) Sweep back angle:
The angle between a line drawn perpendicular to the longitudinal plane of symmetry
of the aeroplane and the horizontial projection of the reference line of the wing.
7) Dihedral angle:
This is the acute angle to which the wing inclines in front view of the aeroplane.
The relative motion of an aerofoil immersed in fluid can happen on two ways.
173
Fig.22 relative wind and angle of attack
The velocity of the fluid relative to the aerofoil is same in both the above cases. For
any such motion of aerofoil in airthe relative velocity is termed as relative wind. The
speed of an aeroplane is the speed relative to air or called air speed while ground
speed the trem applied to the speed of the aerofoil relative to the ground. The angle
of incidence or the angle of attack of an aerofoil is the angle made by the direction of
the relative wind on the cord of the aerofoil.
9) Wing loading:
This is the ratio of the total weight of the airplane and the wing area.
POLAR DIAGRAM:
The various drag and lift cofficents of an aerofoil having a particular aspect ratio
may be determined by testing the airofoil having a particular aspect ratio may be
determined by testing the airfoil at different angles of attack in a wind tunnel. The
values of these coefficients abtained by such tests may be represented graphically by
plotting these coffecients against the angle of attack α .These plots thus indicate the
Variation of the copefficents with the angle of attack α. However the variation of
these coefficients may also be shown by a single curve known as the polar diagram
in this diagram the lift coefficient CL is plotted against thre drag coefficient CD.
The corresponding angle of attack are represented by points on the curve.The slope
of the line drawn from the orgin to a point on the curve will thus give the ratio of lift
174
to drag and the maximum value of this ratio will be equal to the slope of the line
tangent to the curve and drawn from the orgin.The point corresponding to zero lift
and minium drag are indicated on the curve.The stall point as well as the stalling
angle is also indicated.
Consider a horizontal pipe of radius R. The viscous fluid is flowing fro left
to right in the pipe as shown in fig.
Let is the shear stress acting on the fluid element. Then the forces acting
on the fluid element are.
p
2. The pressure force, p x r 2 on face CD.
x
For steady and uniform flow, there is no acceleration and hence the resultant
force in the direction of flow is zero.
175
p
p r - p x r 2 - 2rx =0
2
x
Or
p
xr 2 2r x 0
x x
p r
----------------------------------(1)
x 2
p
The shear stress τ across a section varies with ‘r’ as a cross a section is
x
constant. Hence shear distribution is shown as
Velocity distribution
To obtain the velocity distribution across the section the value of the shear stress
[p p]
1 2
Is substituted in eq (1).but y is measured from the pipe wall. Hence
g
du
dr
pr du
x 2 dr
Or
1 p r du
(2)
x 2 dr
1 p 2
u r C (3)
4 x
Where C is the constant of integration and its value is obtained from the boundary
condition at r=R, u=0
176
1 p 2
0 R C
4 x
1 p 2
C R
4 x
1 p 2 1 p 2
u r R
4 x 4 x
1 p 2 2
u (R r ) (4)
4 x
p
In equation (3) μ, amd R are constant. Which means the velocity u, varies with
x
the square of r.thus equation is an equation of parabola. This shows that the velocity
distribution across the section of a pipe is parabolic
177
Drop of pressure for a given length (L) of a pipe.
1 p
Average velocity U= ( ) R 2
8 x
p 8U
( ) 2
x R
Integrate the above equation w.r.t.x, we get
8U
1 1
p x
2 2
R2
8U
[ p p ]
[ ]
1R 2 x1 x 2 2
8U
[ p p ] 2 [ x 2 x1]
1 2 R
8U
= L
R2
8U
= 2
L
d
2
32U
[p p ] = gd 2 L
1 2
178
[p p ] = 32U L
1 2
g gd 2
QUESTIONS:
Examine the following velocity profile to find if the flow is attached or detached:
2
u y y
(a) 2
U
3 4
u y y y
(b) 2 2
U
2 3 4
u y y y
(c) 2 2
U
Case (a)
u y y2
2 2
U
y y2
or u U 2 2
du 2 2y
or U
dy
du 2U
or positive value
dy y 0
Case (b)
2y y 3 y
4
u U 2
du 2 3y 2 8y3
U 3 4
dy
179
du 2U
Now negative value
dy y 0
Case(C)
y 2 y 3 y
4
u U 2 2
du 4y 3y 2 8y3
U 2 3 4
dy
du
0
dy y 0
(1) Boundary layer adds on to the effective thickness of the solid body
which is called displacement thickness. This displacement thickness increases the
pressure drag on the solid body.
(2) As velocity gradient exists in the boundary layer, shear force acts on
the boundary surface, resulting in skin friction drag.
The fluid particle on the boundary surface stick to the surface. The sticking
of the fluid particles to the surface is due to the viscosity of the fluid. Hence the fluid
particles on the surface will have same velocity as that of the surface. There is no
relative velocity between fluid particles and the boundary surface i.e. there is no
slippage of fluid particles on the boundary surface. This state is called no slip
condition at the boundary.
180
In no slip condition, the fluid particles will have same velocity as that of the
boundary surface. The static boundary surface has zero velocity. Hence fluid
particles in this condition will have zero velocity.
4. Why is the flow in the boundary layer analyzed on the principles of viscous
flow theory?
In the boundary layer, the viscous forces are predominant. The resistance is
offered by the boundary surface to the fluid flow which is mainly due to viscous
effects. All real fluids are viscous. The potential flow theory is applicable for non-
viscous fluids (ideal fluids). The potential flow theory can also be applied in the free
stream flow of the fluid outside the boundary layer where shear stresses are
practically negligible. The flow in the boundary layer can only be anlayzed on the
principles of viscous flow theory.
5. What are the factors affecting, the growth of boundary layer on a flat plate?
1. The thickness of the boundary layer grows from leading edge to trailing
edge of the plate. More is the distance ‘x’ from the leading edge, more
is the thickness of the boundary layer.
2. Free stream velocity. The thickness of the boundary layer at any point
‘x’ from the leading edge is inversely proportional to the free stream
velocity. If free stream velocity increases, the thickness of the
boundary layer decreases.
181
proportional to the viscosity of the fluids. If viscosity of fluid is high, it
will give thicker boundary layer.
displacement thickness
H
momentum displacement
*
=
u
1 U dy
0
=
u u
U 1 U dy
0
1 P du 2u 2u 2u
Bx
x dt x 2 y 2 z 2
1 P du 2 v 2 v 2 v
By
y dt x 2 y 2 z 2
1 P dw 2 w 2 w 2 w
Bz
z dt x 2 y 2 z 2
182
B x , B y and Bz are components of body force per unit mass. The solutions of
Navier Stoke’s equations are possible for such flow conditions where the fluid
characteristics such as viscosity and density are constant and boundary conditions are
simple.
The applications of Navier-Stoke’s equations are generally used for the analysis of :
(4) Laminar unit directional flow between parallel plates having relative
motion.
3 4
u y y y
(b) 2 2
U
2 3 4
u y y y
(c) 2 2
U
Case (a)
u y y2
2 2
U
y y2
or u U 2 2
du 2 2y
or U
dy
183
du 2U
or positive value
dy y 0
Case (b)
2y y 3 y
4
u U 2
du 2 3y 2 8y3
U 3 4
dy
du 2U
Now negative value
dy y 0
Case(C)
y 2 y 3 y
4
u U 2 2
du 4y 3y 2 8y3
U 2 3 4
dy
du
0
dy y 0
184
MODULE 5
Roughly speaking, the flow is said to be rotational within the boundary layer, but is
irrotational outside the boundary layer. As the thickness of laminar boundary layer
increases, it becomes unstable and some eddying commences. These changes take
place over a short length known as the transition zone.
185
plate continues indefinitely but with a diminishing rate. If the plate is smooth (i.e.,
negligible roughness size), laminar flow persists in a very thin film called the viscous
sub-layer in immediate contact with the plate and it is in this sub-layer that the
greater part of the velocity change occurs.
The velocity within the boundary layer increases to the velocity of the main stream
asymptotically. It is conventional to define the boundary layer thickness δ as the
distance from the boundary at which the velocity is 99% of the main stream velocity.
b) Displacement Thickness δ*
*
It is defined by δ is the distance by which the boundary surface would have
to be shifted outward if the fluid were frictionless and carried at the same mass flow
rate as the actual viscous flow. It also represents the outward displacement of the
streamlines caused by the viscous effects on the plate. Conceptually one may ‘add’
this displacement thickness to the actual wall and treat the flow over the ‘thickened’
body as an in viscid flow.
186
Expression for δ*
Consider the flow of a fluid having free stream velocity equal to U over a thin
smooth plate as shown in fig4
At a distance ‘x’ from the leading edge consider a section 1-1. The velocity of the
fluid at B is zero and the velocity at C, which lies an the boundary layer, is U. thus
the velocity varies from zero at B to U at C, where BC is the thickness of the
boundary layer i.e
Distance BC= δ
Mass of the fluid flowing per second flowing through the elemental strip
187
=ρ×u× b× dy (1)
If there had been no plate, then the fluid would have been flowing with a constant
velocity equal to the free stream velocity (U) at he section 1-1.then the mass of the
fluid flowing per second through the elemental strip would have been
=ρ×U×b× dy (2)
As U is more than u , hence due to the presence of the plate and consequently due to
the formation of boundary layer, there will be a reduction in the mass flowing per
second through the elemental strip.
=eq(2)-eq(1)
=ρb(U-u) dy
= bu(U-u)dy (3)
0
Let the pklate is displaced by a distance δ* and then velocity of flow for the distance
δ* is equal to free stream velocity .loss of mass of the fluid /sec flowing through the
distance δ*
=ρ×Velocity×Area
b(U-u)dy
0
= ρ×U× δ*×b
188
c) Momentum Thickness θ
Expression for
Consider the flow of a fluid having free stream velocity equal to U over a thin
smooth plate as shown in fig.4Consider the section 1-1 at a distance x from the
leading edge. The velocity of the fluid at B is zero and the velocity at C, which lies
an the boundary layer, is U. thus the velocity varies from zero at B to U at C, where
BC is the thickness of the boundary layer i.e
Distance BC= δ
Mass of the fluid flowing per second flowing through the elemental strip
=ρ×u× b× dy (1)
189
Momentum of this fluid in the absence of boundary layer= (ρ×U×b× dy ) ×U (3)
=ρ b u (U-u) dy (4)
Total loss in momentum/sec through BC= bu (5)
0
Let = distance by which the plate is displaced when flowing with a constant
velocity U
= (ρ× ×b×U) ×U
=ρ bU2 (6)
ρ bU2= bu(U-u)dy
0
190
Expression for(δ**)
Consider the flow of a fluid having free stream velocity equal to U over a thin
smooth plate as shown in fig.4.At a distance ‘x’ from the leading edge consider a
section 1-1. The velocity of the fluid at B is zero and the velocity at C, which lies an
the boundary layer, is U. thus the velocity varies from zero at B to U at C, where BC
is the thickness of the boundary layer i.e
Distance BC= δ
Mass of the fluid flowing per second flowing through the elemental strip
=ρ×u× b× dy (1)
1 1
Kinetic energy of the fluid= × mass×velocity2= × (ρ×u× b× dy ) ×u2 (2)
2 2
1
= × (ρ×U× b× dy ) ×U2 (3)
2
1 1
= × (ρ×U× b× dy ) ×U2 - × (ρ×u× b× dy ) ×u2
2 2
191
Total loss of K.E of fluid passing through BC
= bu (U2-u2) dy (4)
0
Let δ**= distance by which the plate is displaced to compensate for the reduction in
K.E
1 1
= × mass×velocity2= × (ρ × area ×velocity) × velocity2
2 2
1
= × (ρ × b× δ**×U) U2 (5)
2
1
× (ρ × b× δ**×U) U2= bu (U2-u2) dy
2 0
u
δ**= 0 U
(1-u2/U2) dy
When a liquid is flowing through a pipe, the velocity of the liquid layer adjacent to
the pipe wall is zero. The velocity of liquid goes on increasing from the wall and thus
velocity gradient and hence shear stresses are produced in the whole liquid due to
viscosity. This viscous action causes loss of energy which is usually known as
frictional loss.
On the basis of his experiments, William Froude gave the following laws of fluid
fraction for turbulent flow.
192
(ii) proportional to the density of fluid,
Consider a uniform horizontal pipe, having steady flow as shown in Fig. 5. Let 1-1
and 2-2 are two sections of pipe.
d = diameter of pipe,
Total head at 1-1 = Total head at 2-2 + loss of head due to friction between
1-1 and 2-2
p1 V12 p V2
or z1 2 2 z 2 h f
g 2g g 2g
193
But z1 = z2 as pipe is horizontal
p1 p 2 p p
h f or h f 1 2 (i)
g g g g
But h f is the head lost due to friction and hence intensity of pressure will be reduced
in the direction of flow by frictional resistance.
Now frictional resistance = frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit velocity
wetted area velocity2
= f P L V2 d Perimeter P (ii)
The forces acting on the fluid between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are:
p1 A p2 A F1 0 ...(10.1)
f P L V2
or p1 p 2
A
f P L V2
pgh f
A
194
f P
or h f L V2 (iii)
g A
P Wetted perimeter d 4
In equation (iii),
A Area 2 d
d
4
f 4 f 4LV 2
hf L V2 (iv)
g d g d
f f
putting , where f is known as co-efficient of friction
g 2
4.f LV 2 4f .L.V 2
Equation (iv), becomes as h f . ...(a)
2g d d 2g
f .L.V 2
hf ...(b)
d 2g
The forces acting on a fluid between sections 1-1 and 2-2 of Fig. 5 in horizontal
direction as
p1 A p2 A F1 0
= 0 d L
or p1 p 2 d 2 0 d L A d 2
4 4
195
Cancelling d to both sides, we have
d
p1 p2 0 L
4
4 0 L
or p1 p2 ...(c)
d
p1 p 2 4f .L.V 2
Equation (c) can be written as h f
g d 2g
4f.L.V
or p1 p2 g ...(d)
d 2g
4f .L.V 2
g
d 2g
fV 2 g fV 2
or 0 g
2g 2g
V 2
or 0 f ...(e)
2
2 0
f . ...(f)
V 2
The loss of head (or energy) in pipes due to friction is calculated from Darcy-
Weisbach equation
4.f .L.V 2
hf ...(a)
d 2g
16
= for R e < 2000 (viscous flow)
Re
196
0.079
= 1/ 4
for R e varying from 4000 to 106
Re
L = length of pipe,
d = diameter of pipe.
f P
hf L V2 (a)
g A
L = Length of pipe,
A Area of flow
Now the ratio of is called hydraulic mean depth
P Perimeter wetted
2
d
A4 d
Hydraulic mean depth, m
P d 4 (b)
A P 1
Substituting m or = in equation (b), we get
P A m
f g 1 g h
hf L V 2 Or V 2 h f m m f
g f L f L
g h g h
V m f m f (c)
f L f L
197
g h
Let = C, where C is a constant known as Chezy’s constant and f =
f L
i, where i is loss of head per unit length of pipe.
g hf
Substituting the values of and in equation (c), we get
f L
V C mi (d)
Equation (d) is known as Chezy’s formula. Thus the loss of head due to
friction in pipe from Chezy’s formula can be obtained if the velocity of flow through
pipe and also the value of C is known. The value of m for pipe is always equal to d/4.
The concept of hydraulic gradient line and total energy line is very useful in
the study of flow of fluids through pipes. They are defined as:
p
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head and datum head
w
(z) of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line or it is the line
which is obtained by joining the top of all vertical ordinates, showing the pressure
head (p/w) of a flowing fluid in a pipe from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly written
as H.G.L. (Hydraulic Gradient Line).
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head and kinetic
head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line. It is also defined
as the line which is obtained by joining the tops of all vertical ordinates showing the
sum of pressure head and kinetic head from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly written
as T.E.L. (Total Energy Line).
Syphon is a long bent pipe which is used to transfer liquid from a reservoir at a
higher elevation to another reservoir at a lower level when the two reservoirs are
198
separated by a hill or high level ground as shown in Fig. 6 The point C which is at
the highest of the syphon is called the summit. As the point C is above the free
surface of the water in the tank A, the pressure at C will be less than atmospheric
pressure. Theoretically, the pressure at C may be reduced to - 10.3 m of water but in
actual practice this pressure is only - 7.6 m of water or 10.3 - 7.6 = 2.7 m of water
absolute If the pressure at C becomes less than 2.7 m of water absolute, the dissolved
air and other gases would come out from water and collect at the summit. The flow
of water will be obstructed. Syphon is used in the following cases:
2. To take out the liquid from a tank which is not having any outlet.
fig
Fig.6 syphon
COMPOUND PIPES
Pipes in series or compound pipes is defined as the pipes of different lengths and
different diameters connected end to end (in series) to form a pipe line as shown in
Fig. 7
199
Fig.7 pipe in series
The difference in liquid surface levels is equal to the sum of the total head loss in the
pipes.
200
4f L1V12 L 2V22 L3V32
= . ... (4)
2g d1 d2 d3
Consider a main pipe which divides into two or more branches as shown in
Fig. 7 and again join together downstream to form a single pipe, then the branch
pipes are said to be connected in parallel. The discharge through the main is
increased by connecting pipes in parallel. The rate of flow in the main pipe is equal
to the sum of rate of flow through branch pipes. Hence from Fig.8 we have
Q = Q1 + Q2 ...(1)
In this, arrangement, the loss of head for each branch pipe is same.
Loss of head for branch pipe 1 = Loss of head for branch pipe 2
4f1L1V12 4f 2 L 2 V22
or = ...(1)
d1 2g d 2 2g
L1V12 L V2
If f1 = f2, then = 2 2 ...(2)
d1 2g d 2 2g
Power is transmitted through pipes by flowing water or other liquids flowing through
them. The power transmitted depends upon (i) the weight of liquid flowing through
201
the pipe and (ii) the total head available at the end of the pipe. Consider a pipe AB
connected to a tank as shown in Fig. 9. The power available at the end B of the pipe
and the condition for maximum transmission of power will be obtained as mentioned
below.
The head available at the outlet of the pipe, if minor losses are neglected
4f L V 2 4f L V 2
= H hf H hf
d 2g d 2g
= g d 2 V
4
202
4f L V 2
= g d 2 V H Watts
4 d 2g
g 2 4fLV 2
P d V H kW
1000 4 d 2g
W H hf H hf
=
WH H
d
Thus P 0
dV
d g 2 4fLV 2
or d HV 0
dV 1000 4 d 2g
g 2 4 3 f L V2
or d H 0
1000 4 d 2g
4fLV 2 4fLV 2
or H 3 0 or h 3 h f 0 hf
d 2g d 2g
H
H=3hf or hf =
3
203
Maximum Efficiency of Transmission of power.
H hf
H
H
hf
3
H H/3 1 2
max =1- or 66.7%
H 3 3
204
The pressure rise due to water hammer depends upon: (i) the velocity of
flow of water in pipe, (ii) the length of pipe, (ii) time taken to close the valve, (iii)
Elastic properties of the material of the pipe. The following cases of water hammer in
pipes will be considered:
Let the water is flowing through the pipe AB shown in Fig. 10and the valve
provided at the end of the pipe is closed gradually.
L = length of pipe,
The valve is closed gradually in time ‘t’ seconds and hence the water is brought from
initial velocity V to zero velocity in time seconds.
Changeof velocity V 0 V
Retardation of water =
Time t t
V
Retarding force = Mass ×Retardation = AL (i)
t
If p is the intensity of pressure wave produced due to closure, of the valve, the force
due to pressure wave,
205
V
AL pA
t
LV
p
t
p LV LV LV
Head of pressure, H or H (a)
g g t g t gt
2L
(i) The valve closure is said to be gradual if t >
C
2L
(ii) The valve closure is said to be sudden if t <
C
Equation (a) gives the relation between increase of pressure due to water hammer in
pipe and the time required to close the valve. If t = 0, the increase in pressure will be
infinite. But from experiments, it is observed that the increase in pressure due to
water hammer is finite, even for a very rapid closure of valve. Thus equation (a) is
valid only for (i) Incompressible fluids and (ii) when pipe is rigid. But when a wave
of high pressure is created, the liquids get compressed to some extent and also pipe
material gets stretched. For a sudden closure of valve [the valve of t is small and
hence a wave of high pressure is created] the following two cases will be considered:
Consider a pipe AB in which water is flowing as shown in Fig. 10 Let the pipe is
rigid and valve fitted at the end B is closed suddenly.
L = Length of pipe,
206
p = Intensity of pressure wave produced,
When the valve is closed suddenly, the kinetic energy of the flowing water is
converted into strain energy of water if the effect of friction is neglected and pipe
wall is assumed perfectly rigid.
1
Loss of kinetic energy = mass of water in pipe V 2
2
1
= .AL V 2 ( mass = × volume = × A × L)
2
1 p2 1 p2
Gain of strain energy = volume AL
2 K 2K
1 1 p2
AL V 2 AL
2 2K
1 2K
or p 2 AL V 2 KV 2
2 AL
K2
p KV 2 V K V
= V ×C
K / C ...(b)
Consider the pipe AB in which water is flowing as shown in Fig. 10. Let the
thickness‘t’ of the pipe wall is small compared to the diameter D of the pipe and also
let the pipe is elastic.
1
= Poisson’s ratio for pipe material,
m
207
p = Increase of pressure due to water hammer,
When the valve is closed suddenly, a wave of high pressure of intensity p will be
produced in the water. Due to this high pressure p, circumferential and longitudinal
stress in the pipe wall will be produced.
pD pD
The magnitude of the stress are given as f l and f c
4t 2t
1 2 2f f
= f l f c2 l c
2E m
pD pD
2
1 pD pD 4t 2t 1 p D p D p D
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
=
2E 4t 2t m 2E 16t
2
4t 2 4mt 2
1 1 1
Taking i.e., poisson ratio
m 4 4
208
p 2 D2 p2D3L
= D t L
8Et 2 8Et
p 2 D 2 DL p 2 A DL D 2
= Area of pipe A
8Et 2Et 4
1 1
Now loss of kinetic energy of water = mV 2 AL V 2 m AL
2 2
1 p2 1 p2
Gain of strain energy in water = volume AL
2 K 2K
Then Loss of kinetic energy of water = Gain of strain energy in water + Strain energy
stored in pipe material.
1 1 p2 p 2A DL
AL V 2 AL
2 2 K 2Et
V 2 1 p3 p 2D p 2 1 D 1 D
Divide by AL, or V 2 p 2 K Et
2 2 K 8Et 2 K Et
V 2 V 2
p
2
or p V ...(c)
1 D 1 D 1 D
K Et K Et K Et
Time taken by pressure wave to travel from the value to the tank and
from tank to the valve
Dis tan ce 2L
Time, T = .
Velocity of pressure wave C
209
DISCHARGE THROUGH OPEN CHANNEL BY CHEZY’S
FORMULA
Consider uniform flow of water in a channel as shown in Fig. 11. As the flow is
uniform, it means the velocity, depth of flow and area of flow will be constant for a
given length of the channel. Consider sections 1-1 and 2-2.
= w× A× L
210
Frictional resistance against motion = f × P × L × V2
The forces acting on the water between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are:
As the depths of water at the sections 1-1 and 2-2 are the same the pressure
forces on these two sections are same and acting in the opposite direction. Hence
they channel each other. In case of uniform flow, the velocity of flow is constant for
the given length of the channel. Hence there is no acceleration acting on the water.
Hence the resultant force acting in the direction of flow, we get
wAL sin i - f × P × L × V2 = 0
wAL sin i = f × P × L × V2
wALsin i w A
V2 sin i
f PL f P
w A
or V sini ...(i)
f P
A
But =m
P
w
= C = Chezy’s constant
f
A w
Substituting the values of and in equation (i), V = C msini
P f
211
= A× C mi (b)
Most economical section is also called the best section or most efficient section as
the discharge, passing through a most economical section of channel for a given
cross-sectional area (A), slope of the bed (i) and a resistance co-efficient, is
maximum. But the discharge, Q is given by equation
Ai A
Q = AC mi = AC m
P P
1
Q=K , where K = AC Ai = constant
P
Hence the discharge, Q will be maximum, when the wetted perimeter P is minimum.
This condition will be used for determining the best section of a channel i.e, best
dimensions of a channel for a given area.
The conditions to be most economical for the following shapes of channels will be
considered:
The condition for most economical section is that for a given area, the perimeter
should be minimum. Consider a rectangular channel as shown in Fig.12
212
Fig.12 Rectangular Channel
A
From equation (i), b =
d
A
Substituting the value of b in (ii), P b 2d 2d ...(iii)
d
dP
or 0
d d
Differentiating the equation (iii) with respect to d and equating the same to
zero, we get
d A A
2d 0 or 2 0 or A 2d
2
d d d d 2
A bd
Now hydraulic mean depth, m ( A = bd, P = b + 2d)
P b 2d
213
2d d
= ( b = 2d)
2d 2d
2d 2 d
= ...(16.10)
4d 2
d
(ii) Or m = means hydraulic depth is half the depth of flow.
2
The trapezoidal section of a channel will be most economical, when its wetted
perimeter is minimum. Consider a trapezoidal section of channel as shown in Fig. 13
d = depth of flow,
BC AD d b b 2nd d
Area of flow, A ( AD = b+2nd)
2 2
2b 2nd
= d b nd d (i)
2
214
A
b nd
d
A
b nd ...(ii)
d
= b 2 CE 2 DE 2 b 2 n 2d 2 d 2 b 2d n 2 1 (iia)
A
P nd 2d n 2 1 (iii)
d
dP
For most economical section, P should be minimum or 0
d d
d A
nd 2d n 2 1 0
d d d
A
or 2
n 2 n2 1 0 ( n is constant)
d
A
or 2
n 2 n2 1
d
b nd d n 2 n 2 1 or
b nd
n 2 n2 1
2
d d
b nd nd b 2nd b 2nd
or 2 n 2 1 or 2 n2 1 (a)
d b d
b 2nd
But from Fig. 16.8, half of top width
d
215
Equation (a) is the required condition for a trapezoidal section to be most
economical, which can be expressed as half of the top width must be equal to one of
the sloping sides of the channel.
A b nd d d
(ii) Hydraulic mean depth, m (b)
P 2 b nd 2
Hence for a trapezoidal section to be most economical hydraulic mean depth must be
equal to half the depth of flow.
MOODY CHART:
The Moody chart is a graph in non-dimensional form that relates the friction factor,
Reynolds number and relative roughness for fully developed flow in a circular pipe.
It can be used for working out pressure drop or flow rate down such a pipe.
Description:
This dimensionless chart is used to work out pressure drop, ΔP (Pa) (or head
loss, hf (m)) and flow rate through pipes. Head loss can be calculated using
the Darcy–Weisbach equation:
Or directly from
Where ρ is the density of the fluid, V is the average velocity in the pipe, f is the
friction factor from the Moody chart, l is the length of the pipe and d is the pipe
diameter. The basic chart plots Darcy–Weisbach friction factor against Reynolds
number for a variety of relative rough nesses and flow regimes. The relative
roughness being the ratio of the mean height of roughness of the pipe to the pipe
diameter or .
Moody chart showing friction factor plotted against Reynolds number for various
rough nesses The Moody chart can be divided into two regimes of
flow: laminar and turbulent. For the laminar flow regime, the Darcy–
216
Weisbach friction factor was determined analytically by Poiseuille and is used.
In this regime roughness has no discernible effect. For the turbulent flow regime, the
relationship between the friction factor and the Reynolds number is more complex
and is governed by the Colebrook equation which is implicit in f:
In 1944, Lewis F. Moody plotted the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor into what is
now known as the Moody chart
The height of the water at the section1-1 is very small. As we moves towards the
down stream the height of the water increases rapidly over a short length of the
channel. This is because at section 1, the flow is a shooting flow as the depth of the
water at this section 1-1 is less than the critical depth. Shooting flow is unstable flow
and does not continue on the downstream side. Then this shooting will convert itself
to a streaming or tranquil flow and hence depth of water will increase. This sudden
increase of depth of water is called a hydraulic jump.
QUESTIONS
217
2
u y y
2
U
u
* = 1 dy
0
U
2
y y
= 1 2 dy
0
2 y 2 1 y3
= y . 2 .
2 3 0
2 1 3
=
3 2
1
= 1 1
3
=
3
u u
= 0 U 1 U dy
y y 2 2y y 2
= 0 2 1 2 dy
2
2y 4y 2 2y3 y3 2y3 y 4
= 0
2
3 3 4 dy
2y
5y 2 4y3 y 4
= 2 3 4 dy
0
218
2 y 2 5 y3 4 y 4 1 y 5
= . 2. 3. 4.
2 3 4 5 0
5 1
= . .
3 5
15 25 15 3
=
15
2
= ..
15
u u2
a = 0 1
U U 2
dy
2y y 2 2y y 2
= 0 1 dy
2 2
2y y 2 4y 2 y 4 4y3
= 0 2 1 2 4 3 dy
2y 8y3 2y5 8y 4 y 2 4y 4 y 6 4y 2
= 0
3
5 4 2 4 6 5 dy
2
y2 1 y3 8 y4 12 y5 6 y6 1 y7
= . 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
1 12 1
= . 2. .
3 5 7
2
=
105
219
3
u 3 y 1 y
U 2 2
u
* = 1 dy
0
U
3 y 1 y
= 0 1 2 . 2 . 3 dy
3 y 1 y2
= 0 2 . 2 2 dy
1
3 y2 1 y4
= y . 2.
2 5.2 2. 4 0
3 1
=
4
8 6 1
=
8
3
= .
8
u 3 y 1 y2
3. The velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given by . . .
U 2 2 2
Find (1) Ratio of displacement thickness (*) to thickness of boundary layer ()
and (2) Ratio of momentum thickness () to boundary layer thickness () -
u
(*) = 0 1 U dy
3 y 1 y2
= 0 2 . 2 2 dy
1
220
3 y2 1 y3
= y . .
2. 2 2. 2
3 0
3 1
= .
4 6
12 9 2
=
12
5
* = .
12
* 5
=
12
u u
Momentum thickness = 0 U 1 U dy
3 y y2 3 y y2
or = 0 2 . 22 1 2 . 22 dy
3 y y 2 3 y y 2
= 0 2 . 22
1 2 . 22 dy
3 y 9 y 2 3y3 y 2 3 y3 y 4
= 0 2 . 4 . 2 43 22 2 3 44 dy
3 y 11 y 2 3 y3 y 4
= 0 2 4 . 2 2 3 44 dy
3 y2 11 y3 3 y4 1 y5
= . . . .
2.8 2 4. 2
3 2.3
4 4 4
5 0
3 11 3 1
=
4 12 8 20
90 110 45 6
=
120
221
19
= .
120
19
=
120
u = a + by + cy2
(1) u = 0 at y = 0
(2) u = U at y =
du
(3) = 0 at y =
dy
0 = a a = 0
Now u = U at y =
U = b +c2 (i)
du
Now = 0 at y =
dy
du
= b + 2 cy
dy
du
Now 0
dy y
or b + 2 c = 0 (ii)
222
U
or c
2
U
b 2c 2
2
U
2
Find (1) displacement thickness (2) momentum thickness (3) energy thickness
(4) shape factor and (5) energy loss if U = 10 m/s, = 20 mm, = 12 kg/m3
u
* = 0 1 U dy
1/ 7
y
= 0 1 dy
y8 / 7
= y 8
1/ 7
7 0
7
= 1
8
=
8
Momentum thickness
223
u
= 0 1 U dy
y 1/ 7 y
1/ 7
= 0 1 dy
y1/ 7 y 2 / 7
= 0 1/ 7 2 / 7 dy
1 y8 / 7 y 9/7
= 1/ 7 . 8 9
2 / 7 .
7 7 0
7 7
=
8 9
7
= .
72
Energy thickness
u u2
= 0 1 2 dy
U U
y1/ 7 y2 / 7
= 0 1 dy
1/ 7 2 / 7
y1/ 7 y3/ 7
= 0 1/ 7 3/ 7 dy
y8 / 7 y10 / 7
10
=
8
1/ 7 . 3/ 7 .
7 7 0
7 7
= .
8 10
224
5 4
= .7
40
7
= .
40
Shape factor
*
Shape factor H =
= 8
7
.
72
9
=
7
Energy loss
7 7
. 20 103
40 40
1
Energy loss per unit width = U U 2
2
1
= 1.2 3.5 103 10 102
2
= 2.1 Nm/s
(1) Boundary layer adds on to the effective thickness of the solid body
which is called displacement thickness. This displacement thickness increases the
pressure drag on the solid body.
(2) As velocity gradient exists in the boundary layer, shear force acts on
the boundary surface, resulting in skin friction drag.
225
8. What is no slip condition at the boundary? Why is the velocity of fluid
particles equal to zero at the static boundary? How does this velocity vary away
from the boundary?
The fluid particle on the boundary surface stick to the surface. The sticking
of the fluid particles to the surface is due to the viscosity of the fluid. Hence the fluid
particles on the surface will have same velocity as that of the surface. There is no
relative velocity between fluid particles and the boundary surface i.e. there is no
slippage of fluid particles on the boundary surface. This state is called no slip
condition at the boundary.
In no slip condition, the fluid particles will have same velocity as that of the
boundary surface. The static boundary surface has zero velocity. Hence fluid
particles in this condition will have zero velocity.
9. Why is the flow in the boundary layer analyzed on the principles of viscous
flow theory?
In the boundary layer, the viscous forces are predominant. The resistance is
offered by the boundary surface to the fluid flow which is mainly due to viscous
effects. All real fluids are viscous. The potential flow theory is applicable for non-
viscous fluids (ideal fluids). The potential flow theory can also be applied in the free
stream flow of the fluid outside the boundary layer where shear stresses are
practically negligible. The flow in the boundary layer can only be analyzed on the
principles of viscous flow theory.
10. What are the factors affecting, the growth of boundary layer on a flat plate?
1. The thickness of the boundary layer grows from leading edge to trailing
edge of the plate. More is the distance ‘x’ from the leading edge, more
226
is the thickness of the boundary layer.
2. Free stream velocity. The thickness of the boundary layer at any point
‘x’ from the leading edge is inversely proportional to the free stream
velocity. If free stream velocity increases, the thickness of the
boundary layer decreases.
displacement thickness
H
momentum displacement
*
=
u
1 U dy
0
=
u u
U 1 U dy
0
227
u v w
with continuity equation 0 are the sufficient conditions for the
x y z
determination of the flow characteristics. The Navier-Stroke’s equations are:
1 P du 2u 2u 2u
Bx
x dt x 2 y 2 z 2
1 P du 2 v 2 v 2 v
By
y dt x 2 y 2 z 2
1 P dw 2 w 2 w 2 w
Bz
z dt x 2 y 2 z 2
B x , B y and Bz are components of body force per unit mass. The solutions of
Navier Stoke’s equations are possible for such flow conditions where the fluid
characteristics such as viscosity and density are constant and boundary conditions are
simple.
The applications of Navier-Stoke’s equations are generally used for the analysis of :
(4) Laminar unit directional flow between parallel plates having relative
motion.
**********************************
228