7/25/2019
Lecture Outline
Quality Management:
QFD, Quality Control,
and SPC
Quality
 Quality is the ability of a product
or service to consistently meet or
exceed customer expectations.
Meaning of Quality:
Consumer’s Perspective
 Fitness for use
 how well product or
service does what it is
supposed to
 Quality of design
 designing quality
characteristics into a
product or service
 A Mercedes and a Ford
are equally “fit for use,” but
with different design
dimensions
 Meaning of Quality
 Total Quality Management
 Quality Function Deployment
Six Sigma

 Cost of Quality
 ISO 9000
 Statistical Process Control (SPC)
 Control Charts
Meaning of Quality
 Oxford American Dictionary
 A degree or level of excellence
 Webster’s Dictionary
 degree of excellence of a thing
 American Society for Quality
 totality of features and characteristics that satisfy needs
 Consumer’s and producer’s perspective
Dimensions of Quality:
Manufactured Products
 Performance
 basic operating characteristics of a product; how well a car is handled
or its gas mileage
 Features
 “extra” items added to basic features, such as a stereo CD or a leather
interior in a car
 Reliability
 probability that a product will operate properly within an expected time
frame; that is, a TV will work without repair for about seven years
1
 7/25/2019

Dimensions of Quality: Dimensions of Quality:

Manufactured Products (cont.) Manufactured Products (cont.)

 Conformance  Aesthetics
 degree to which a product meets pre–established standards  how a product looks, feels, sounds, smells, or tastes?

 Durability  Safety
 how long product lasts before replacement?  assurance that customer will not suffer injury or harm from a
product; an especially important consideration for automobiles

 Serviceability
 Perceptions
 ease of getting repairs, speed of repairs, courtesy and competence
of repair person  subjective perceptions based on brand name, advertising etc.

Dimensions of Quality:
Dimensions of Quality: Service
Service (cont.)

 Time and timeliness  Courtesy:

 how long must a customer wait for service, and is it
completed on time?
 is an overnight package delivered overnight?
 how are customers treated by employees?
 are catalogue phone operators nice and are their voices
pleasant?

 Consistency
 Completeness:  is same level of service provided to each customer each time?
 is everything customer asked for provided?  is your newspaper delivered on time every morning?
 is a mail order from a catalogue company complete when
delivered?

Dimensions of Quality: Meaning of Quality:

Service (cont.) Producer’s Perspective

 Accessibility and convenience  Quality of conformance

 how easy is it to obtain service?
 does service representative answer you calls quickly?  Making sure product or service is
 Accuracy produced according to design
 is service performed right every time?
 if a hotel room is not clean when a
 is your bank or credit card statement correct every month?
guest checks in, hotel is not
 Responsiveness
functioning according to
 how well does company react to unusual situations?
 how well is a telephone operator at able to respond to a customer’s
specifications of its design
questions?

2
 7/25/2019

Meaning of Quality: Quality of Conformance

A Final Perspective

 Consumer’s and producer’s perspectives depend on

each other
 Quality of conformance is the ability of a
product, service, or process to meet its
 Consumer’s perspective: PRICE
design specifications.
 Producer’s perspective: COST  Design specifications are an interpretation
of what the customer needs.
 Consumer’s view must dominate

Quality Assurance Total Quality Management (TQM)

 Quality assurance (QA) is any systematic  A management approach to long-term success through customer
satisfaction.
process of determining whether a product or  In a TQM effort, all members of an organization participate in improving
service meets specified requirements. processes, products, services, and the culture in which they work.

 Terms quality assurance and quality control  Total emphasizes that departments in addition to production are obligated
to improve their operations; management emphasizes that executives are
(QC) are not the same concept. obligated to actively manage quality through funding, training, staffing,
and goal setting.
 QA provides the overall guidelines used
anywhere, and QC is a production-focused
 TQM enjoyed widespread attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s
process – for things such as inspections. before being overshadowed by ISO 9000, Lean manufacturing, and Six
Sigma.

Basic Principles of TQM TQM in Service Companies

 1. Quality can and must be managed.

 2. The customer defines quality, and customer satisfaction is the top goal; it is a  Principles of TQM apply equally well to services and manufacturing
requirement and is not negotiable.  Services and manufacturing companies have similar inputs but
different processes and outputs
 3. Management must be involved and provide leadership.
 Services tend to be labor intensive
 4. Continuous quality improvement is “the” strategic goal, which requires
planning and organization.  Service defects are not always easy to measure because service
output is not usually a tangible item
 5. Quality improvement is the responsibility of every employee; all employees
must be trained and educated to achieve quality improvement.
 6. Quality problems are found in processes, and problems must be prevented,
not solved.
 7. The quality standard is “no defects.”
 8. Quality must be measured; improvement requires the use of quality tools, and
especially statistical process control.

3
 7/25/2019

Information on QFD….
Quality Function Deployment (QFD)

 Developed in Japan in the mid 1970s

 Translates voice of customer into technical
design requirements
 Displays requirements in matrix diagrams
 Introduced in USA in the late 1980s
 Toyota was able to reduce 60% of cost to bring a new car
model to market
 Toyota decreased 1/3 of its development time

 first matrix called “house of quality”  Used in cross functional teams

 Companies feel it increased customer satisfaction
 series of connected houses

Why….? Important points

 Product should be designed to reflect customers’

desires and tastes.
 To understand what customers mean by quality
and how to achieve it from an engineering
perspective.
 Should be employed at the beginning of every
project (original or redesign)
 Customer requirements should be translated into
measurable design targets
 It can be applied to the entire problem or any
subproblem

Types of customer requirements How to determine the Whats?

 Functional requirements describe the product’s

desired behavior  Customer survey (have to formulate the
 Human factors questions very carefully)
 Physical requirements  If redesign, observe customers using
 Reliability existing products
 Life-cycle concerns  Combine both or one of the approaches
 Resource concerns with designer knowledge/experience to
 Manufacturing requirements determine “the customers’ voice”

4
 7/25/2019

Kano’s Model

 The Japanese TQM consultant Noriaki Kano, has

provided us with a very useful model of customer
satisfaction as it relates to product characteristics.
 Kano’s model divides product characteristics into
three distinct categories, each of which affects
customers in a different way.
 Dissatisfiers, also known as “must-be,” “basic,” or “expected”
characteristics.
 Satisfiers, also known as “one-dimensional” or “straight-line”
characteristics.
 Delighters, also known as “attractive” or “exciting”
characteristics.
 Must-be requirements:
 The must-be requirements are basic criteria of a
product.
 If these requirements are not fulfilled, the customer will
be extremely dissatisfied.
 Must-be requirements are in any case a decisive
competitive factor, and if they are not fulfilled, the
customer will not be interested in the product at all.

 One-dimensional requirements:  Attractive requirements:

 With regard to these requirements, customer
satisfaction is proportional to the level of fulfillment -
the higher the level of fulfillment, the higher the
customer’s satisfaction and vice versa.
 One-dimensional requirements are usually explicitly
demanded by the customer.
 These requirements are the product criteria which
have the greatest influence on how satisfied a
customer will be with a given product.
 Attractive requirements are neither explicitly expressed
nor expected by the customer.
 Fulfilling these requirements leads to more than
proportional satisfaction. If they are not met, however,
there is no feeling of dissatisfaction.

Kano’s Model Diagram

Market Dynamics of Dissatisfiers,
Satisfiers, and Delighters
Customer satisfaction
+  Delighters often create new markets or new market segments.
 delighters become demoted to satisfiers.
desired quality
 After awhile, many satisfiers become “expected quality,” and
Delighters Actual performance customers assume these satisfiers will be included in the product.

0%  When this happens, the satisfiers have become demoted to dissatisfers.

100%
 This migration of quality attributes happens all the time with all
products.
 In order to remain competitive, the product or service developer must
continually search for new delighters, provide more satisfiers than anyone
Satisfiers else, and see to it that no dissatisfiers reach the customer.
Dissatisfiers _

5
 7/25/2019

Determine Relative Importance of

Lesson from Kano’s Model the Requirements: Who vs. What

 First, all customer satisfaction attributes are not equal.

 (Dissatisfiers => deduct; Satisfiers => linearly add; Delighters => extra
points)
 Need to evaluate the
 Second, the old product quality strategy of responding to
importance of each of the
customer complaints can now be seen to be inadequate. customer’s requirements.
 A quality strategy based solely on removing dissatisfiers can never result  Generate weighing factor for each Hows vs
Hows
in satisfied customers.
requirement by rank ordering or Customer

Who
Evaluation

A strategy which will lead to customer satisfaction and to a Hows

This Product
 Now

leadership product or service must be far more proactive.

other methods

Who vs.
Whats
Whats
(Finding needs of customer)

Now vs
Whats vs

What

Hows

 (Designing responses to customer demand) Units

Hows vs
This Product
How Muches How
 (Evaluating efficiency) Muches
Targets

House of Quality
Benefits of QFD
5
Importance

Trade-off matrix
 Promotes better understanding of
3 customer demands
Design
characteristics  Promotes better understanding of design
interactions
1 4 2
 Involves manufacturing in design process
Customer Relationship Competitive
requirements matrix assessment  Breaks down barriers between functions
and departments
 Provides documentation of design process
6 Target values

Meaning of Quality
Evolution of Quality Management
Meaning of Quality

Producer’s Perspective Consumer’s Perspective

 1924 - Statistical process control charts
 1930 - Tables for acceptance sampling
 1940’s - Statistical sampling techniques
Quality of Conformance Quality of Design
 1950’s - Quality assurance/TQC
Production • Conformance to
• Quality characteristics Marketing  1960’s - Zero defects
specifications
• Price
• Cost  1970’s - Quality assurance in services

Fitness for
Consumer Use

6
 7/25/2019

Quality Gurus Quality Gurus

 Walter Shewart
 In 1920s, developed control charts  Joseph M. Juran
 Introduced term “quality assurance”  Followed Deming to Japan in 1954
 Focused on strategic quality planning
 W. Edwards Deming
 Developed courses during World War II to teach statistical quality-  Armand V. Feigenbaum
control techniques to engineers and executives of companies that
were military suppliers  In 1951, introduced concepts of total quality control and continuous
 After war, began teaching statistical quality control to Japanese quality improvement
companies

Quality Gurus (cont.) Deming’s approach

 Philip Crosby  Deming’s approach to quality management advocated

 In 1979, emphasized that costs of poor quality far outweigh cost of continuous improvement of the production process to
preventing poor quality achieve conformance to specification and reduce
 In 1984, defined absolutes of quality management—conformance to variability.
requirements, prevention, and “zero defects”

 Deming approach to quality embodied in his 14 points and

 Kaoru Ishikawa PDCA cycle are the foundation for modern TQM program.
 Promoted use of quality circles
 Developed “fishbone” diagram
 Emphasized importance of internal customer

Deming’s 14 Points
Deming’s 14 Points (cont.)

6. Institute worker training that focus on prevention of quality

problems and use of statistical quality control techniques
1. Create constancy of purpose towards product improvement to
achieve long term organization goals. 7. Instill leadership among supervisors
2. Adopt philosophy of preventive poor quality products. 8. Encourage employee involvement by Eliminate fear
3. Cease mass inspection among employees for identifying quality problems.
4. Select a few suppliers based on quality rather than competitive
price.
5. Constantly improve system and workers

7
 7/25/2019

Deming’s 14 Points (cont.) Deming’s 14 Points (cont.)

11. Remove numerical quotas that employee attempt to

9. Eliminate barriers between departments and promote
cooperation and team approach for working together.
10. Eliminate slogans and numerical targets that urge employee
to achieve higher performance level without first showing
employee how to do it.
meet at any cost without regard of quality.
12. Enhance worker pride and self esteem
13. Institute vigorous training and education programs
throughout the organization from top management
down.
14. Develop a commitment from top management to
implement above 13 points

Quality Circle
Deming Wheel: PDCA Cycle
Organization
8-10 members
Same area
Supervisor/moderator

Training
Presentation Group processes
Implementation Data collection
4. Act 1. Plan Monitoring Problem analysis
Institutionalize Identify
improvement; problem and
continue cycle. develop plan
for
improvement.

Solution Problem Identification

List alternatives
Problem results
3. Study/Check 2. Do Consensus
Assess plan; is it Implement Brainstorming
working? plan on a test
basis.
Problem Analysis
Cause and effect
Data collection and analysis

Six Sigma Six Sigma

 A process for developing and delivering near perfect

 Statistically
products and services
 Having no more than 3.4 defects per million
 Sigma – standard deviation
 Conceptually
 Measure of how much a process deviates from perfection or
zero defect  Program designed to reduce defects

 3.4 defects per million opportunities (1000000)  Requires the use of certain tools and techniques

Six sigma: A business process for improving

quality, reducing costs, and increasing
customer satisfaction.

8
 7/25/2019

3 Sigma and 6 Sigma Quality

Normal Distribution
Lower Upper
specification specification

1350 ppm 1350 ppm

Standard deviation

1.7 ppm 1.7 ppm

   

Mean
95.44% Process
mean
99.74%
+/- 3 Sigma
+/- 6 Sigma

Six Sigma Programs Quality Attributes in Service

 Six Sigma programs  Benchmark

 Improve quality
 “best” level of quality
 Save time achievement in one company
 Cut costs that or companies seek to
 Employed in achieve
 Design  Timeliness
 Production  how quickly a service is “quickest, friendliest,
 Service provided? most accurate
service available.”
 Inventory management
 Delivery

Cost of Quality Internal Failure Costs

 Cost of Achieving Good Quality  Scrap costs  Process downtime costs

 Prevention costs  costs of poor-quality
products that must be  costs of shutting down
 costs incurred during product design discarded, including labor, productive process to fix
 Appraisal costs material, and indirect costs problem
 costs of measuring, testing, and analyzing  Rework costs  Price-downgrading costs
 Cost of Poor Quality  costs of fixing defective
products to conform to  costs of discounting poor-
 Internal failure costs quality specifications quality products—that is,
 Process failure costs selling products as
 include scrap, rework, process failure, downtime, and “seconds”
price reductions  costs of determining why
 External failure costs production process is
producing poor-quality
 include complaints, returns, warranty claims, liability, products
and lost sales

9

External Failure Costs
 Customer complaint costs
 costs of investigating and
satisfactorily responding to a
customer complaint resulting
from a poor-quality product
 Product return costs
 costs of handling and
replacing poor-quality
products returned by
customer
 Warranty claims costs
 costs of complying with
product warranties
Basics of Statistical Process Control
 Statistical Process Control
(SPC)
 monitoring production process
to detect and prevent poor
quality
 Sample
 subset of items produced to
use for inspection
 Control Charts
 process is within statistical
control limits
Quality Measures
 Attribute
 a product characteristic that can be evaluated with a
discrete response
 good – bad; yes – no
 Exp: color, surface texture, cleanliness, smell, taste etc.
 Variable
 a product characteristic that is continuous and can be
measured
 Exp: Weight, length, temp, time etc.
7/25/2019
Statistical Process Control (SPC)
 Product liability costs
 F.W. Deming After world war II invited to Japan to give
 litigation costs
a series of lecture on improving product reliability.
resulting from product
liability and customer  SPC is a statistical procedure using control charts to
injury see if any part of a production process is not
 Lost sales costs functioning properly and could cause poor quality.
 costs incurred  Process control is achieved by taking periodic
because customers samples from the process and plotting these sample
are dissatisfied with
poor quality products points on a chart, to see if the process is within
and do not make statistical control limits.
additional purchases
Variability
 Random  Non-Random
 common causes  special causes
 Depends on equipment,  Equipment that is out of
UCL
engineering, operator adjustment, defective
and system used for materials, change in parts or
materials, broken machinery,
measurement operator fatigue, poor work
 Natural occurrence method, error due to lack of
LCL training.
 inherent in a process
 due to identifiable factors
 can be eliminated only
 can be modified through
through improvements operator or management
in the system action
Where to Use Control Charts
 Process has a tendency to go out of control
 Process is particularly harmful and costly if it goes
out of control
 Examples
 at the beginning of a process because it is a waste of
time and money to begin production process with bad
supplies
 before a costly or irreversible point, after which product
is difficult to rework or correct
 before and after assembly or painting operations that
might cover defects
 before the outgoing final product or service is delivered
10
 7/25/2019

Control Charts Process Control Chart

Out of control
Upper
 A graph that  Types of charts control
establishes control limit
limits of a process  Variables
 mean (x bar – chart Process
average
 Control limits  range (R-chart)
 upper and lower bands of a  Attributes Lower
control chart
control
 p-chart
limit
 c-chart

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number

Normal Distribution curve Normal Distribution

 The formula for conducting upper and lower limit in control charts
are based on a number of standard deviation ‘z’ from the process
average ( center line) according to the normal distribution.
 Occasionally it is 2 but Most frequently it is 3
 Z=2 corresponds to an overall probability of 95%
 Z=3 corresponds to a normal probability of 99.74%

95%
99.74%

-3 -2 -1 =0 1 2 3

A Process is in Control If … Control Charts for Variables

1. … no sample points outside limits  Are used for continuous variables that
can be measured, such as
2. … most points near process average
 Weight
3. … about equal number of points above
and below centerline  Volume
4. … points appear randomly distributed

11

Control Charts for
Variables
 Mean chart ( x -Chart )
 uses average of a sample
 Range chart ( R-Chart )
 uses amount of dispersion in a
sample
Mean chart ( x bar-Chart )
 The x bar chart is based on the normal
distribution. It can be constructed in two ways.
 If the standard deviation of the distribution is
known from the past experience or historical
data, then formulas using the std dev can be
used to compute the upper and lower limit.
x-bar Chart; when SD is known
n = no of samples
7/25/2019
Mean chart ( x bar-Chart )
 In mean chart each time a sample of a group of
items is taken from the process, the mean of the
sample is computed and plotted on the chart.
 Each sample mean (x bar) is a point on the control
chart.
 The sample taken usually small around 4 or 5
 The center line of the control chart is the overall
process average, that is the mean of sample
means
Mean chart ( x bar-Chart )
 If the std dev is not known, then a
table of values based on sample
ranges is available to develop the
upper and lower limits.
12
 7/25/2019

Second approach:
x-bar Chart; when SD is Unknown

x1 + x2 + ... xk
x= = k
= =
UCL = x + A2R LCL = x - A2R

where
=
x = process avg= average of sample means

when SD is Unknown x-bar Chart Example

OBSERVATIONS (SLIP- RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
 The goliath tool company desires to develop an x 1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
bar chart using table values. 2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15

Determining Control Limits for x-bar and R-Charts

SAMPLE SIZE FACTOR FOR x-CHART FACTORS FOR R-CHART
n A2 D3 D4

2 1.88 0.00 3.27

3 1.02 0.00 2.57
Fact
4 0.73 0.00 2.28
5 0.58 0.00 2.11
ors
6 0.48 0.00 2.00
7 0.42 0.08 1.92
8 0.37 0.14 1.86
9 0.44 0.18 1.82
10 0.11 0.22 1.78
11 0.99 0.26 1.74
12 0.77 0.28 1.72
13 0.55 0.31 1.69
14 0.44 0.33 1.67
15 0.22 0.35 1.65
16 0.11 0.36 1.64
17 0.00 0.38 1.62
18 0.99 0.39 1.61
19 0.99 0.40 1.61
20 0.88 0.41 1.59

13
 7/25/2019

5.10 –

5.08 –
UCL = 5.08
5.06 –

5.04 –

5.02 – The process is on the UCL for sample 9

x= = 5.01 
Mean

5.00 –  In fact samples 4 to 9 show an upward trend. This

would suggest that the process variability is subject
4.98 – to nonrandom causes and should be investigated.
x- bar
4.96 –
Chart
Example 4.94 – LCL = 4.94
(cont.)
4.92 –
| | | | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number

Range Chart (R) R- Chart

UCL = D4R LCL = D3R

 In an R chart, the range is the difference between
the smallest and largest values in a sample. This
range reflects the process variability instead of the
tendency toward a mean value. R
R=
k
where
R = range of each sample
k = number of samples

R-Chart Example
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP-RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
 The Goliath tool company want to develop an R 1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
chart to control process variablity 2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15

Example 15.3

14
 7/25/2019

Determining Control Limits for x-bar and R-Charts

R-Chart Example (cont.)
SAMPLE SIZE FACTOR FOR x-CHART FACTORS FOR R-CHART
n A2 D3 D4

2 1.88 0.00 3.27

3 1.02 0.00 2.57
Fact
4 0.73 0.00 2.28
5 0.58 0.00 2.11
ors
6 0.48 0.00 2.00
R 1.15 UCL = D4R = 2.11(0.115) = 0.243 7 0.42 0.08 1.92
R= = = 0.115
k 10 LCL = D3R = 0(0.115) = 0 8 0.37 0.14 1.86
9 0.44 0.18 1.82
10 0.11 0.22 1.78
11 0.99 0.26 1.74
12 0.77 0.28 1.72
13 0.55 0.31 1.69
14 0.44 0.33 1.67
15 0.22 0.35 1.65
For n=5 , D3 = 0 and D4 = 2.11 16 0.11 0.36 1.64
17 0.00 0.38 1.62
Retrieve Factor Values D3 and D4 from table 18 0.99 0.39 1.61
19 0.99 0.40 1.61
Example 15.3 20 0.88 0.41 1.59

The R chart and the x bar chart

R-Chart Example (cont.) together

0.28 –
0.24 –  The R chart in this example suggest that the process is
UCL = 0.243 in control, since none of the ranges for the samples
0.20 –
are close to the control limits. However, the x bar
0.16 – chart in previous exp suggest that the process in not in
Range

R = 0.115
0.12 – control.
0.08 –  In fact the ranges for sample 8 and 10 were relatively
0.04 – narrow whereas the means for these samples were
LCL = 0
| | | | | | | | | | relatively high.
0–
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 The use of both chart together provided a more
Sample number
complete picture of the overall process variability.

Using x- bar and R-Charts Together Control Charts for Attributes

 Process average and process variability must be

in control
 It is possible for samples to have very narrow
 p-charts
ranges, but their averages is beyond control  uses portion defective in a sample
limits
 It is possible for sample averages to be in
 c-charts
control, but ranges might be very large  uses number of defects in an item

15
 7/25/2019

p-Chart p-Chart Example

NUMBER OF PROPORTION
UCL = p (bar) + zp SAMPLE DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVE

LCL = p (bar) - zp 1 6 .06

2 0 .00
z = number of standard deviations from
process average 3 4 .04
p (bar) = sample proportion defective; an : : :
estimate of process average : : :
p = standard deviation of sample proportion 20 18 .18
200
p(1 - p)
p = n 20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans

p-Chart Example p-Chart Example (cont.)

NUMBER OF PROPORTION
SAMPLE DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVE total defectives
p= = 200 / 20(100) = 0.10
1 6 .06 total sample observations
2 0 .00
p(1 - p) 0.10(1 - 0.10)
3 4 .04 UCL = p + z = 0.10 + 3
n 100
: : :
: : : UCL = 0.190
20 18 .18
p(1 - p) 0.10(1 - 0.10)
200 LCL = p - z = 0.10 - 3
n 100
20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans
LCL = 0.010
Since p is not known, it can be estimated from the total sample

p-Chart Example (cont.)

C chart
0.20

0.18 UCL = 0.190

 C chart is used when it is not possible to compute a proportion
0.16
defective and the actual number of defects must be used.
Proportion defective

0.14
 Exp: when automobiles are inspected the number of blemishes
0.12 (defects) in the paint job can be counted for each car, but a
p = 0.10 proportion cannot be computed, since the total no of possible
0.10
blemishes is not known. In this case a single car is the sample.
0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02 LCL = 0.010

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Sample number

16
 7/25/2019

C-chart C-Chart (cont.)

Number of defects in 15 sample rooms

NUMBER
OF
SAMPLE
UCL = c + zc DEFECTS 190
c= 15 = 12.67
c = c 1 12
LCL = c - zc 2 8
3 16 UCL = c + zc
= 12.67 + 3 12.67
: : = 23.35

where : :
15 15 LCL = c + zc
c = number of defects per sample 190 = 12.67 - 3 12.67
= 1.99

c-Chart (cont.)
Control Chart Patterns
24
UCL = 23.35
21

 A pattern can indicate an out of control process

18
even if sample values are within under control
Number of defects

c = 12.67

15 limits.

12
 If the sample value display a consistent pattern,
9 even within the control limits, it suggests that this
pattern has a nonrandom cause that might
6
warrant investigation.
3 LCL = 1.99

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Sample number

Control Chart Patterns Control Chart Patterns

 A pattern in a control chart is characterized by a  Another type of pattern is a sequence of

sequence of sample observation that display the
same characteristics- also called run. sample values that consistently go up or go
 One type of pattern is a sequence of observation
down within the control limits.
either above or below the center line.
 For exp: three values above the center line followed
by two values below the line represent two runs of a
pattern.

17
 7/25/2019

Control Chart Patterns Control Chart Patterns (cont.)

UCL UCL

UCL UCL

LCL LCL

Sample observations Sample observations

consistently below the LCL consistently increasing LCL
center line
Sample observations Sample observations
consistently above the consistently decreasing
center line

Pattern test Guideline for Control Chart

Patterns

1. 8 consecutive points on one side of the center line

 Determines if the observation within the limits of a control chart 2. 8 consecutive points up or down across zones
displays a nonrandom pattern.
3. 14 points alternating up or down
 One type of pattern test divides the control chart into three 4. 2 out of 3 consecutive points in zone A but still inside the control limits
zones on each side of center line, where each zone is one
5. 4 out of 5 consecutive points in zone A or B on one side of the center
standard deviate wide. These are often referred to as 1 sigma,
line
2 sigma and 3 sigma limits.
If any of these guideline applied to the sample observations in a
 The pattern of sample observations in these zone is then used control chart , it would imply that nonrandom pattern exist and the
to determine if any nonrandom pattern exist. cause should be investigated. (Process may not be in control)
.

Zones for Pattern Tests

UCL =
3 sigma = x + A2R
Zone A
= 2
2 sigma = x + 3 (A2R)

Zone B
= 1
1 sigma = x + 3 (A2R)  Rule 1,4,5 violated in exp.
Process
Zone C
=
 Company wants to see, If there is a
x
average
Zone C
pattern of nonrandomness exhibited
=
1 sigma = x - 1 (A2R)
3 within the control limits?
Zone B
=
2 sigma = x - 2 (A2R)
3
Zone A
=
LCL 3 sigma = x - A2R
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Sample number

18
 7/25/2019

5.10 –
Performing a Pattern Test
5.08 –
UCL = 5.08 (previous exp of x bar chart; x double bar= 5.01; result= no pattern
5.06 – rule appear to be violated)

5.04 –
SAMPLE x ABOVE/BELOW UP/DOWN ZONE
5.02 –
x= = 5.01
Mean

1 4.98 B — B
5.00 –
2 5.00 B U C
4.98 – 3 4.95 B D A
x- bar 4 4.96 B D A
4.96 –
Chart
5 4.99 B U C
Example 4.94 – LCL = 4.94
(cont.) 6 5.01 — U C
4.92 – 7 5.02 A U C
| | | | | | | | | | 8 5.05 A U B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number 9 5.08 A U A
10 5.03 A D B

Sample Size Process capability

 Variable charts require smaller samples  Control limits are different than tolerances.
 2 to 10 parts in a sample  Tolerances are design specification reflecting
product requirement. They specify a range of
 Attribute charts require larger sample sizes values above or below a designed target
 50 to 100 parts in a sample value, within which product units must fall to
be acceptable.
 While control limits provide a means for
determining natural variation in a production
process.

Process capability Process Capability

 Refers to the natural variation of a process relative to

 Tolerances are not from the production the variation allowed by the design specifications.
process, they are externally imposed by the
designers of the product or service.
 How capable the process of producing acceptable
 Control limits on the other hand are based on units according to the design specification?
the production process, and they reflect
process variability.
 Process control charts are used for process capability
to determine if an existing process is capable of
meeting design specifications.

19
 7/25/2019

Process Capability Seven Quality Control Tools

 Process capability
 range of natural variability in a process what we measure with  Pareto Analysis  Scatter Diagram
control charts
 Flow Chart  SPC Chart
 Tolerances
 Check Sheet  Cause-and-Effect
 Are design specifications reflecting product requirements
i.e.10+_5  Histogram Diagram

It is possible for a process in an instance to be statistically in

control according to control charts, yet the process may not
conform to the design specification.

Pareto Chart
Pareto Analysis
70
(64)
60
Percent from each cause
NUMBER OF
CAUSE DEFECTS PERCENTAGE 50

Poor design 80 64 % 40
Wrong part dimensions 16 13
30
Defective parts 12 10
Incorrect machine calibration 7 6 20
Operator errors 4 3 (13)
(10)
Defective material 3 2 10 (6)
(3) (2) (2)
Surface abrasions 3 2 0
125 100 %

Causes of poor quality

Flow Chart Check Sheet

COMPONENTS REPLACED BY LAB

Start/
Finish Operation Operation Decision Operation TIME PERIOD: 22 Feb to 27 Feb 2002
REPAIR TECHNICIAN: Bob

TV SET MODEL 1013

Operation Operation
Integrated Circuits ||||
Capacitors |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| ||
Resistors ||
Transformers ||||
Start/ Commands
Decision
Finish CRT |

20
 7/25/2019

Histogram Scatter Diagram

Y
20

15

10

0
1 2 6 13 10 16 19 17 12 16 2017 13 5 6 2 1
X

Control Chart Cause-and-Effect Diagram

Measurement Human Machines

Faulty
24 testing equipment Poor supervision Out of adjustment

UCL = 23.35
21 Incorrect specifications Lack of concentration Tooling problems
Number of defects

18 c = 12.67 Improper methods Inadequate training Old / worn

15 Quality
Inaccurate Problem
12 temperature
control Defective from vendor Poor process design

9 Ineffective quality
Not to specifications management
Dust and Dirt
6 Material- Deficiencies
handling problems in product design
LCL = 1.99
3
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Environment Materials Process
Sample number

Quality Certification Implications of ISO 9000

 Many overseas companies will

 ISO 9000 not do business with a supplier
 Set of international standards on quality unless it has ISO 9000
certification
management and quality assurance, critical to
international business  ISO 9000 accreditation
 ISO 14000  ISO registrars
 A set of international standards for assessing a company’s  A total commitment to quality
environmental performance is required throughout an
organization

21
 7/25/2019

ISO 9000 Quality Management

ISO 14000
Principles

 Customer focus  ISO 14000 - A set of international standards for assessing a

company’s environmental performance
 Leadership
 People involvement
 Standards in three major areas
 Process approach  Management systems
 A systems approach to management  Operations
 Continual improvement  Environmental systems

 Mutually beneficial supplier relationships

ISO 14000

 Management systems
 Systems development and integration of environmental
responsibilities into business planning
 Operations
 Consumption of natural resources and energy
 Environmental systems
 Measuring, assessing and managing emissions, effluents, and
other waste

22