Estimation of the number of subjects to be
sad in the study. study design, and solving problems that threaten to
Plan for documenting refusal rate,
sample size,and attrition during the
study.
Plan of the dates for data collection
initiation and completion and for data
entry,
With this information, the assistant
can develop the database in
preparation for receiving the data. It will
take an average of 16 hours of
concentrated work to prepare the
database. Approximate dates for
completion of the data entry, analyses,
or both must be negation before
beginning data collection. If you have a
deadline for completing or presenting
your results, such as an upcoming
conference, you should share this
information with those performing data
entry and analysis.
Hal 441
COLLECTING DATA
data collection is the process of
selecting subjects and gathering data
from these subjects. The actual steps
of collecting the data are specific to
each study and depend on the
research design and measurement
methods. Data may be collected on
subjects by observing,
testing,measuring. questioning,
recording, or any combination of
these methods. The researcher is
actively involved in this process either
by collecting data or by supervising
data colectors. You will apply people-
management and problem-solving
skills constantly as data collection tasks
are implemented, kinks in the research
plan are resolved and support systems
are used.
Data collection Tasks
In both quantitative and qualitative
research, the investigator performs
four tasks during the process of data
collection These tasks are interrelated
and occur concurrently rather than in
sequence. The tasks are selecting
subjects, collecting data in a consistent
way,
maintaining research controls as indicated in the
disrupt the study. Selecting subjects is discussed in
Chapter 14. Collecting data may involve
administering Internet or paper-and-pencil scales;
asking subjects to complete data collection forms in
person or online; or recording data from
observations, patients’ records, or health care
equipment (Chapter 16 focuses on measurement
strategies). Data collection tasks for qualitative
studies are discussed in more detaK in Chapter 23.
Maintaining Controls
Maintaining consistency and controls during subject
selection and data collection protects the integrity or
validity of the study. Research controls were built into
the design to minimize the influence of intervening
forces on the study findings. Maintenance of these
controls is essential. They are not natural in a field
setting, and letting them slip is easy. In some cases,
these controls slip without the researcher realizing it.
In addition to maintaining the controls identified in
the plan, you must continually watch for previously
unidentified extraneous variables that might have an
impact on the data being collected. These variables
are often specific to a study and tend to become
apparent during the data collection period. The
extraneous variables identified during data collection
must be considered during data analysis and
interpretation. These variables also must be noted in
the research report to allow future researchers to
control them.
Problem Solving
Problems can be perceived either as a frustration or
as a challenge. The fact that the problem occurred is
not as important as successfully resolving it.
Therefore, the final and perhaps most important task
of the data collection period may be problem
resolution. Little has
442 Unit TWO The Research Process
been written about the problems encountered
by nurse researchers. Research reports often
read as though everything went smoothly. The
implication is that if you are a good researcher,
you will have no problems, which is not true.
Research journals generally do not provide
enough space for the researcher to describe the
problems encountered, and inexperienced
researchers may get a false impression. A more
realistic picture can be obtained through
personal discussions with researchers about the
process of data collection. Some of the common
problems experienced by researchers are
discussed in the following section.
Data Collection Problems
Murphy’s law (if anything can go wrong, it will,
and at the worst possible time) seems to prevail
at times in research, just as in other dimensions
of life. For example, data collection frequently
requires more time than was anticipated, and
collecting the data is often more difficult than
was expected. Sometimes changes must be
made in the way the data are collected, in the
specific data collected, or in the timing of data
collection. People react to the study in
unpredicted ways. Institutional changes may
force modifications in the research plan, or
unusual or unexpected events may occur. You
must be as consistent as possible during the
data collection process, but you must also be
flexible in dealing with unforeseen problems.
Sometimes, sticking with the original plan at all
costs is a mistake. Skills in finding ways to
resolve problems that will protect the integrity of
the study can be critical.
In preparation for data collection, possible
problems must be anticipated, and solutions for
these problems must be explored. The following
discussion describes some of the common
problems and concerns and presents possible
solutions. Problems that tend to occur with some
regularity in studies have been categorized as
people problems, researcher problems,
institutional problems, and event problems.
People Problems
Nurses cannot place a subject in a laboratory
test tube, instill one drop of the independent
variable, and then measure the effect. Nursing
studies are conducted by examining subjects as
they interact with their environments. When
research involves people, nothing is completely
predictable. People, in their complexity and
wholeness, have an impact on all aspects of
nursing studies. Researchers, potential subjects,
family members of subjects, health professionals,
institutional staff, and others (“innocent
bystanders”) interact within the study situation.
You will need to closely observe and evaluate
these interactions to determine their impact on
your study.
Problems Selecting a Sample. The first step in
initiating data collection—selecting a sample-
may be the beginning of people problems. You
may find that few available people fit your
sample criteria or that many of those you
approach refuse to participate in the study
even though the request seems reasonable
Appropriate subjects, who were numerous a
month earlier, seem to have disappeared.
Institutional procedures may change, which
might make many potential subjects ineligible
for participation in the study. You may have to
reevaluate the sample criteria or seek
additional sources for potential subjects. In
research institutions that care for the indigent,
patients tend to be reluctant to participate in
research. This lack of participation might arise
because these patients are frequently exposed
to studies, feel manipulated or misunderstand
the research. Patients may feel that they are
being used or are afraid that they will be
harmed
Subject Attrition or Mortality. After you have selected a
sample, certain problems migh cause subject
attrition (a loss of subjects from the study). For
example, some subjects may agree to
participate but then fail to follow through.
Some may not complete needed forms and
questionnaires or may fill them out incorrectly.
To reduce these problems, someone from the
research team can supervise the subjects while
they complete essential documents. Some
subject may not return for a second interview
or may not be home for a scheduled visit.
Although you have invested time to collect
data from these subjects, their data may have
to be excluded from analysis because of
incompleteness. Sometimes subjects must be
dropped from the study because of changes in
health status. For example the patient may be
transferred out of intensive care where the
study is being conducted; the patient's
condition may worsen, so he or she may no
longer meet sample criteria; or the patient may
die. Clinic patients may be transferred to
another clinic or be discharged from the
service. In the community, subjects may choose
to discontinue services, or the limits of third
party reimbursement may force the health care
provider to discontinue the services you are
studying.
Subject attrition occurs, to some extent, in all
studies. One way to deal with this problem is
to anticipate the attrition rate and increase the
planned number of subjects to ensure that a
minimally desired number will complete the
study. If subject attrition is higher than
expected, consider continuing the data
collection process for a longer period of time
to achieve an adequate sample size.
Sometimes a study might have to be
completed with a smaller than expected sample
size If so, the effect of a smaller sample on the
power of planned statistical analyses must be
considered
 444 Unit TWO The Research Process
for the attrition of study subjects. This
information enabled these researchers to
determine the representativeness of their sample
and any potential for bias.
Subject as an Object. The quality of interactions
between the researcher and subjects during the
study is a critical dimension for maintaining
subject participation. When researchers are under
pressure to complete a study, people can be
treated as objects rather than as subjects. In
addition to being unethical, such treatment alters
interactions, diminishes the subject’s satisfaction,
and increases subject mortality. Subjects are
scarce resources and must be treated with care.
The researcher’s treatment of the subject as an
object can lead to similar treatment by other
health care providers and result in poor quality of
care. In this case, participation in the study
becomes detrimental to the subject.
External Influences on Subject Responses.
People interacting with the subject, the
researcher, or both can have an important impact
on the data collection process. Family members
may not agree to the subject’s participation in the
study or may not understand the study process.
These people will, in most cases, influence the
subject’s decisions related to the study.
Researchers benefit from taking the time to
explain the study and to seek the cooperation of
family members. Family cooperation is essential
when the potential subject is critically ill and
unable to give informed consent.
Family members or other patients may also
m&umce the subject’s responses to scales or
interview questions. In some cases, subjects may
ask family members, friends, or other patients to
complete study forms for them. The subject may
discuss questions on the forms with whomever
happens to be in the room, and therefore the
questionnaire may not record the subjects’ real
feelings. If interviews are conducted while other
persons are in the room, the subject’s responses
may depend on his or her need to meet the
expectations of other persons. Sometimes, a
family member may answer questions addressed
verbally to the patient. Thus, the setting in which
a questionnaire is completed or an interview is
conducted may determine the extent to which the
answers are a true reflection of the subject’s
feelings. If the privacy afforded by the setting
varies from one subject to another, the subjects’
responses may also vary.
Usually, the most desirable setting for an
interview is a private area away from
distractions. If it is not possible to arrange for
such a setting, the researcher can be present at
the time the questionnaire is completed to
decrease the influence of others. If the
questionnaire is to be completed later or taken
home and
returned at a later time, the probability of influence
by others increases and the return of
questionnaires_greatly decreases. The impact of
this problem on the integrity of the study depends
on the nature of the questionnaire.
Passive Resistance. Health professionals and
institutional staff working with the subject may
affect the data collection process. Some
professionals verbalize strong support for the study
and yet passively interfere with data collection. For
example nurses providing care may fail to follow
the guidelines agreed on for providing the specific
care activities being studied or information needed
for the study may be left off patient records. The
researcher may not be informed when a potential
subject has been admitted and a physician who has
agreed that his or her patients can be study subjects
may decide as each patient is admitted that this one
is not quite right for the study in addition the
physician might become unusually unavailable
the researcher.
Nonprofessional staff may not realize the impact of
the data collection process on their work patterns
until the process begins. The data collection process
may violate their beliefs about how care should be
provide ( and has been provided for the past 20
years). If ignored their resistance can completely
uido a carefully designed study. For example,
research on skin care may disrupt a nursing aide’s
bathing routine, so he or she may continue the
normal routine regardless of the study protocol and
thereby invalidate, the study findings.
Because of the potential impact of these problems
the researcher must maintain open communication
and nurture positive relationships with other
professionals and staff during data collects that you
and your team recognize early and deal with
promptly will have fewer serious consequences than
will those that you ignore. However, not all
problems can be resolved. Sometimes you may need
to seek creative ways to work around an individual
or to counter the harmful consequences of passive
resistance.
Researcher Problems
Some problems are a consequence of the
researcher’s interaction with the study situation
or lack of skill in data collection techniques.
These problems are often difficult to identify
because of the researcher’s personal
involvement. However, their effect on the study
can be serious.
Researcher Interactions. The researcher can become
so involved in interaction with people involved in the
study that data collection on the subject is not completed.
Researcher interactions can also interfere with data
collection in interview situations.
 Chapter 17 Collecting and Managing Data 445
If you are collecting data while you are
surrounded by professionals with whom you
interact socially and professionally, it is
sometimes difficult to focus completely study
situation. This lack of attention usually leads to
loss of data.
Lack of Skill in Data Collection Techniques.
The reseacher’s skill in using a particular data
collection technique can affect the quality of
the data collected. A researcher who is
unskilled at the beginning of data collection
might practice the data collection techniques
with the assistance of an experienced
researcher. A pilot study to test data collection
techniques can be helpful. If data collectors are
being used they also need opportunities to
practice data collection techniques before the
study is initiated, sometimes a skill is
developed during the course of study if this
the case, as one’s skill increases, the data being
collected may change and thereby confound
the study findings and threaten the validity of
the study. If more than one data collector is
used, changes in skill can occur more
frequently than if the researcher is the data
collector. The skills of data collectors must be
evaluated during the study to detect any
changes in their data collection techniques.
reseacher Role Conflict. Professional nurses
conducting clinical research often experience a
conflict between the researcher role and the
clinician role collection. As a researcher, one is
observing and recording events. In some cases,
the researcher’s involvement in the event, such
as providing physical or emotional care to a
patient during an interview, could alter the
event and thus bias the results. It would be
difficult to generalize the findings to other
situations in which the researcher was not
present to intervene. However the needs of
patients must take precedence over the needs
of the study. The dilemma is to determine
when the needs of patients are great enough
to warrant researcher intervention.
Some patient situations are life threatening—
such as respiratory distress and changes in
cardiac function—
and require immediate action by anyone
present. Other patient needs are simple, can
be addressed by any nurse available, and are
not likely to alter the results of the study
Examples of these interventions include giving
the patient a bedpan, informing the nurse of
the patient’s need for pain medication, or
helping the patient to open food containers.
These situations seldom cause a dilemma.
Solution to other situations are not as easy.
Suppose, for example that your study involves
examining the emotional responses of patients’
family members during and immediately after
the patients’ operations. Your study includes an
experimental group that receives one
30-minute family support session before and
during the patients’ operations and a control
group that receives no support session. Both sets
of families are being monitored for 1 week after
the surgeries to measure their levels of anxiety
and coping strategies. You are currently
collecting data on the control group. The data
consist of demographic information and scales
measuring anxiety and coping. One of the family
members is in great distress. After completing
the demographic information, she verbally
expresses her fears and the lack of support she
has received from the nursing staff. Two other
subjects from different families hear the
expressed distress and concur; they move closer
to the conversation and look to you for
information and support. In this situation, a
supportive response from you is likely to modify
the results of the study because these responses
are part of the treatment to be provided to the
experimental group only. This interaction is likely
to narrow the difference between the two
groups and thus decrease the possibility that the
results will show a significant difference between
the two groups. How should you respond? Are
you obligated to provide support? To some
extent, almost any response will be supportive.
One alternative is to provide the needed support
and not include these family members in the
control group. Another alternative is to recruit
the help of a nonprofessional to collect the data
from the control group. However, recognize that
most people will provide some degree of
support in the described situation, even though
their skills in supportive techniques may vaiy.
Other dilemmas include witnessing unethical
behavior that interferes with patient care or
witnessing subjects’ unethical or illegal behavior
(Field & Morse, 1985). Try to anticipate these
dilemmas before data collection whenever
possible. Pilot studies can help you to identify
dilemmas likely to occur in a study, and you can
build strategies into the design to minimize or
avoid them. However, some dilemmas cannot be
anticipated, and you must respond to these
problems spontaneously. There is no prescribed
way to handle difficult dilemmas; each case must
be dealt with individually. We recommend
discussing unethical and illegal behavior with
colleagues, members of ethics committees, or
legal advisors. After you have resolved the
dilemma, it is wise to reexamine the situation for
its effect on study results and consider options in
case the situation arises again.
Maintaining Perspective. Data collection includes
both joys and frustrations. Researchers must be
able to maintain some degree of objectivity
during the process and yet not take themselves
too seriously (Marshall & Rossman, 2006). A
sense of humor is invaluable. You must be able
to experience the emotions
 446 Unit TWO The Research Process
and then become the rational problem solver.
Management skills and mental health are
invaluable to a lifetime researcher.
institutional Problems
Institutions are in a constant state of change.
They will not stop changing for the period of a
study, and these changes often affect data
collection. A nurse who has been most helpful
in your study may be promoted or transferred.
The unit on which your study is conducted may
be reorganized, moved, or closed during the
study. An area used for subjects’ interviews
may be transformed into an office or a
storeroom or may be tom down. Patient record
forms may be revised, omitting data that you
and your team collected. The record room
personnel may be reorganizing their files and
be temporarily unable to provide needed
charts.
These problems are, for the most part,
completely outside of the researcher’s control.
Keep an ear to the internal communication
network of the institution for advanced warning
of impending changes. Contacts within the
institution’s administrative decisionmaking
system could warn you about the impact of
proposed changes on an ongoing study.
However, in many cases, data collection
strategies might have to be modified to meet
the newly emerging situation. Again, flexibility
while maintaining the integrity of the study
may be the key to successful data collection.
Byers (1995) suggested that in the future the
home setting may be more desirable than
institutions as a data collection site and that
the response rate in this setting is better than
that in institutions. The disadvantage is that
home visits are time intensive and the subject
may not be home at the agreed appointment
time.
Event Problems
Unpredictable events can be a source of
frustration during a study. Research tools
ordered from a testing company may be lost in
the mail. The duplicating machine may break
down just before 500 data collection forms are
to be copied, or a machine to be used in data
collection may break down and require 6
weeks for repair. A computer ordered for data
collection may not arrive when promised, a
tape recorder may jam in the middle of an
interview, or after an interview the data
collector may discover that he or she had not
pushed the record button and there is no
recording of the interview. Data collection
forms may be misplaced, misfiled, or lost.
Local, national, or world events and nature
can also influence subjects’ responses to a
study. For example, one of our graduate
students was examining patients’ attitudes
toward renal dialysis. She planned to collect
data for 6 months. Three months into the data
collection process, three patients died as a
result of dialysis a machine malfunction in the
city where the study was being conducted. The
event made national headlines. Obviously, this
event could be expected to modify subjects’
responses. In attempting to deal with the impact
of the event on the study, the graduate student
could have modified the study and continued
collecting data to examine the impact of news
such as this on attitudes.
However, the emotional climate of the clinics
participating in the study was not conducive to
this option. She chose to wait 3 months before
collecting additional data and examined the
data before and after the event for statistically
significant differences in responses. Because she
could not find any differences, she could justify
using all the data for analysis.
Other less dramatic events can also have an
imfact on data collection. If data collection for
the entire sample is planned for a single time, a
snowstorm or a flood may require that the
researcher cancel the meeting or clinic. Weather
may decrease attendance far below that
expected at a support group or series of
teaching sessions. A bus strike can disrupt
transportation systems to such an extent that
subjects can no longer get to the data collection
site. A new health agency may open in the city,
which may decrease demand for the care
activities being studied. Conversely external
event can also increase attendance at clinics to
such an extent that existing resources are
stretched and data collection is no longer
possible. These events are also outside the
researcher’s control and are imposible to
anticipate. In most cases, however, restructuring
the data collection period can salvage the study.
To do so it is necessary to examine all possible
alternativs for collecting the study data. In some
cases, data collection can simply be
rescheduled; in other situations, the changes
needed may be more complex.
SERENDIPITY
Serendipity is the accidental discover)' of
something useful or valuable. During the data
collection phase of studies, researchers often
become aware of elements or relationships that
they had not previously identified. These
aspects may be closely related to the study
being conducted or have little connection with
it they come from increased awareness and
close observation of the study situation.
Because the researcher is focused on close
observation, other elements in the situation can
come into clearer focus and take on new
meaning. Like the open context situation
discussed in Chapter 4, the researcher’s
perspective shifts, and new gestalts are formed.

serendipitous findings are important to the
development of new insights in nursing
theory. They can be important for
understanding the totality of the
phenomenon being examined. Additionally,
they lead to areas of research that generate
new knowledge. Therefore it is essential to
capture these insights as they occur These
events must be carefully recorded,even if
their impact or meaning is not understood at
the time Sometimes, when these notes are
reexamined at a later time, patterns begin to
emerge.
serendipitous findings can also lead the
researcher astray sometimes researchers
forget the original plan and redirect their
attention to the newly discovered dimensions.
Although modifying data collection to include
data related to the new discovery may be
valid there has not been time to carefully plan
a study related to the new findings.
Examination of the new data should only be
an offshoot of the initial study. Data collected
as a result of serendipitous findings can care
studies and must be included in presentation
and publications related to the study.
Although the meaning of the discovery may
not be understood, sharing the information
may lead to insights by researchers studying
related phenomena.
HAVING ACCESS TO SUPPORT
SYSTEMS
The researcher must have access to
individuals or group who can provide support
and consultation during the data collection
period. Support systems themselves have been
the subject of much study in recent years. In
some cases, they can be the source of both
stress and support. However, current theorists
propose that to be classified as support, the
individual or group must enhance the ego
strength of the individual. Three dimensions of
support have been identified (1)physical
assistance, (2) the provision of money or other
concrete needs such as equipment or
information. and (3) emotional support. These
types of supports can usually be obtained from
academic committees from institutions serving
as research settings;and from colleagues,
friends, and family.
Support of Academic Committees
Although thesis and dissertation committees are
basically seen as stern keepers of the sanctity of
the research process, they also serve as support
systems for neophyte researchers. In fact,
committee members must be selected from
faculty who are willing and able to provide the
needed support. Experienced researchers
among faculty are usually more knowledgeable
about the types of support needed. Because
they are directly
Chapter ¡7 Collecting and Managing Data 447
involved in research, they tend to be sensitive
to the needs of neophyte researchers.
Institutional Support
A support system within the institution where
the study is being conducted is also
important. Support might come from people
serving on the institutional research
committee or from nurses working on the
unit where the study is to be conducted.
These people often have knowledge of how
the institution functions, and their closeness
to the study can increase their understanding
of the problems experienced by the
researcher and subjects. Do not overlook
their ability to provide useful suggestions and
assistance. Your ability to resolve some of the
problems encountered during data collection
may depend on having someone within the
power structure of the institution who can
intervene.
Personal Support
In addition to professional support, it is
helpful to have at least one significant other
with whom one can share the joys,
frustrations, and current problems of data
collection. A significant other can often serve
as a mirror to allow you to see the situation
clearly and perhaps more objectively.
Through personal support, the researcher
can ^hare and release feelings and distance
himself or herself from the data collection
situation. Alternatives for resolving the
problem can then be discussed. Data
collection is a demanding, but rewarding,
time that increases the confidence and
expertise of the neophyte researcher.
MANAGING DATA
When data collection begins, you will have to
handle large quantities of data. To avoid a
state of total confusion, make careful plans
before data collection begins. Plans are
needed to keep all data from a single subject
together until analysis is begun. Write the
subject code number on each form, and
check the forms for each subject to ensure
that they are all present. Researchers have
been known to sort their data by form, such
as putting all the scales of one kind together,
only to realize afterward that they had failed
to code the forms with subject identification
numbers first. They then had no idea which
scale belonged to which subject, and
valuable data were lost.
Allot space needs for storing forms.
Purchase file folders, and design a labeling
method to allow easy access to data; color
coding is often useful. For example, if you are
using multiple forms, the subject’s
demographic sheet could be one color, with
different colors for the visual analogue scale;
the pain questionnaire;
 448 Unit TWO The Research Process
the physiological data sheet with blood
pressure, pulse, and respiration readings; and
the interview notes. Use envelopes to hold
small pieces of paper or note cards that might
fall out of a file folder. Plan to code data and
enter them into the computer as soon as
possible after data collection to reduce the
loss or disorganization of data. If data are
collected on a computer, make sure the data
are backed up so that they are not lost if the
computer fails.
Preparing Data for Computer Entry
Data must be carefully checked and problems
corrected before you initiate the data entry
phase. The data entry process should be
essentially automatic and require no decisions
regarding the data. Such simplicity in data
entry will reduce the number of data entry
errors and markedly decrease the time
required for entry. It is not sufficient to
establish general rules for those entering data
such as “in this case always do X.” This action
still requires the data enterer to recognize a
problem, refer to a general rule, and correct
the data before entering them. Anything that
alters the rhythm of data entry increases
errors. Carefully examine each datum to search
for the following problems and resolve them
before data entry:
1. Missing data. Provide the data if possible or
determine the impact of the missing data
on your analysis. In some cases, the
subject must be excluded from at least
some of the analyses, so you must
determine what data are essential.
2. Items in which the subject provided two responses when only
For example, if the item
one was requested.
asked the subject to mark the most
important in a list of 10 items and the
subject selected 2, you must decide how
to resolve this problem; do not leave the
decision to an assistant who is entering
the data. On the form, indicate how the
datum is to be coded.
3. Items in which the subject has marked a response between
This problem commonly occurs
two options.
with Likert-type scales, particularly those
using forced choice options. Given four
options, the subject places a mark on the
line between response 2 and response 3.
On the form, indicate how the datum is to
be coded (missing data is an option).
4. Items that ask the subject to write in some information such
Such items are a data
as occupation or diagnosis.
enterer’s nightmare. Develop a list of
codes for entering such data. Rather than
leaving it up to the assistant to determine
which code matches the subject’s written
response, the researcher should enter this
code before turning
the data over for entry. After the data
have hr checked and needed codes
written in, it is dent to make a copy rather
than turning over only set of your data to
an assistant.
Data Entry Period
If you are entering your own data, develop a
±*. to your entry. Avoid distractions while
entering and limit your data entry' periods to 2
hours at . to reduce errors. Back up the
database after eac entry period, and store it on
a flash stick or CD-P It is possible for the
computer to crash and lose of your data. If an
assistant is entering your make yourself as
available as possible to resp questions and
address problems. After entry, the should be
checked for accuracy. Data check:ra discussed
in Chapter 18 in the Preparation of the for
Analysis section.
Storage and Retrieval of Data
In this time of flash sticks and CD-ROM burr is
relatively easy to store data. Decide how long _
wish to store the data. The original data forms i
stored, as well as the database. There are
severe!
' sons to store data. The data can be used for
see-:- analyses. For example, individuals who
are rr pating in a research program related to a
pan- research focus may pool data from
various so for access by all members of the
group. The available to document the validity
of your arc, and the published results of your
study. Beca_i nationally publicized incidents of
scientific duct where researchers invented data
from whic tiple publications were developed,
you are vrj preserve documentation that your
data were as you claim. Issues that have been
raised induce long data should be stored, the
need for institr policy regarding data storage,
and whether gr students who conduct a study
should leave a c their data at the university.
Thomas (1992) su 153 researchers to determine
their responses :: questions. She found that the
length of data SCJ varied greatly, with 29%
storing their data 5 year:-- storing it 10 years,
and 21% storing it forever- researchers stored
their data in their office (84%), few used a
central location (12%) or a laboratory The forms
of data storage devices preferred woe (54%),
tape (47%), and paper/raw data (32% -
researchers preferred more than one storage
dew their data. The majority of the researchers
(86% cated that their institutions did not have a
poS data storage, and most graduate students
(74% leave a copy of their data at the
university:
 2231 http://evolve.elsevier.coin/Bunis/practice/
ie methodology of qualitative studies is
guided
J
|w fie broad qualitative research paradigm, as
welt as by a specific philosophical base (see
ptr - Strategies for methods of sampling, data
■eg. and analyses are not as tightly controlled
as
px|ff~r quantitative paradigm. Because data
analy-
pn- as dat^are gathered, insights from early
data
fcgest fruitful methods of sampling, data gath-
■ analyses that were not originally planned. In
■five studies, the researcher is free to modify
the
■f Methodology based on these insights,
fcsapter allows you to understand the process
■r asion what the experience will be like if you
iBa saalitative study. However, we suggest that
■k- -iaitional sources of guidance for under-
■E~e philosophical base you plan to use. as
well
kccess of collecting and analyzing qualitative
peri-ping a mentorship with someone experi-
I ±e type of qualitative analysis you wish to
B still the most useful approach to learning
& Morse, 1997: Sandelowski, 1997).
HKCS of the qualitative research process are
tr.sse used in quantitative research, which
Heme-.ving the literature, developing a frame-
■fcseriping objectives or questions, and sam-
p± t aspects of qualitative studies are explored
■jfcir'.ers that focus on each of these topics. K.
researchers conducting a qualitative study ■e
methods of data collection and analysis that
fane to qualitative research and will be
discussed Hhpter. Other methods, similar to
quantitative K- are applied differently in
qualitative studies. jK dam analysis occurs
concumently with data eol- tBr.e researcher is
attempting to simultaneously
gather the data, manage a growing bulk of
collected data, and interpret the meaning of
the data. Qualitative analysis techniques use
words rather than numbers as the basis of
analysis. However, qualitative researchers
need the same careful skills in analytical
reasoning as those needed for quantitative
analysis. In qualitative analysis, reasoning
flows from concreteness to increasing
abstraction. This reasoning process guides
the organization, reduction, and clustering of
the findings and leads to theoretical
explanations. Even though the researcher
may change data collection or analysis
strategies during the study, the process is
not as spontaneous and impulsive as one
might think. The procedures must be
carefully planned.
This chapter begins with a description of
some of the frequently used approaches for
collecting and analyzing qualitative data.
Next, research methodologies and designs of
specific approaches are presented. These
include phenomenology, grounded theory,
ethnographical methodology, historical
research methodology, philosophical studies,
and critical social theory methodology. The
chapter ends with a discussion of issues that
are important to qualitative research:
theoretical frameworks for qualitative studies,
researcher- participant relationships,
participatory research, reflexivity, auditability,
and appraisal of qualitative studies.
DATA COLLECTION1 METHODS
Because data collection occurs
simultaneously with data analysis in
qualitative studies, the process is complex.
Collecting data is not a mechanical process
that can be completely planned before it is
initiated.
 508 Unit TWO The Research Process
The researcher as a whole person is totally
involved— perceiving, reacting, interacting,
reflecting, attaching meaning, and recording.
Such is the case whether the study involves
observing and participating in social situations,
as would occur in phenomenological,
grounded theory, ethnographical, or critical
social theory research, or whether the study
deals with written communications, as might
occur in phenomenological, historical,
philosophical, or critical social theory studies.
For a particular study, the researcher may need
to address data collection issues related to
relationships between the researcher and the
participants, reflections of the researcher on
the meanings obtained from the data, and
management and reduction of large volumes
of data. Methods of gathering data include
making unstructured observations, conducting
unstructured interviews, observing focus
groups, collecting stories, constructing life
stories, and interpreting case studies.
Unstructured Observations
Unstructured observation involves
spontaneously observing and recording what
one sees with a minimum of planning.
Although unstructured observations give the
observer freedom, there is a risk that the
observer may lose objectivity or may not
remember all fcf the details of the event. If
possible, the researcher should take notes
during the observation periods. If this is not
possible, the researcher needs to record the
observations soon afterward. You may even
find it useful to photograph or videotape the
observation period so that you can examine it
extensively at a later time (Harrison, 2002;
Mullhall, 2002).
Unstructured observations are not
unsystematic or sloppy as the term might
suggest. Rather, unstructured means that the
researcher has few predetermined notions as
to what he or she might observe. What notions
the researcher does have may change over
time as data are collected. As Mulhall (2003)
pointed out:
The way people move, dress, interact and use space is veiy
much a part of how particular social settings áre
constructed. Observation is the key method for collecting
data about such matter.... Observers have a great degree of
freedom and autonomy regarding what they choose to
observe, how the)' filter that information, and how it is
analysed.... Observation also captures the whole social
setting in which people function, by recording the context in
which they work.... Finally, observation is valuable because
it informs about the influence of the physical environment.
This aspect of observation is quite
lacking in nursing research. Observati made of people’s
behaviour, but data a' physical environment seldom are
cod (pp. 307, 308)
Hamilton and Manias (2007) studied the o
methods of psychiatric nurses and their ity
in an acute inpatient setting. This excel not
only gives you as reader a clear underst
the careful observation conducted during :
but it also enables you to understand ho»
observation must be in a qualitative study
you a chance to think about how you
might your own observations. Hamilton
and Marias described their study as
follows.
The postmodern approach used in the study was
by Foucault (1973. 1980, 1995, 1994) and by
after him (Fox, 1993; Rhodes, 1991; Silvermzz.
A postmodern epistemology informed both
tioning of the first author during fieldwort
emphasis on discourses, power relations and
concepts in data analysis. A postmodern
ogy informed both the positioning of the first
during fieldwork and the emphasis on
power relations and particular concepts in
sis. In postmodern ethnography, the ethneg
power in the portrayal of the field is made
(Alvesson, 2002). Accordingly the first author, a
enced psychiatric nurse, was cast as an objective:
but as an active participant, recognizing and exr
own subjectivity in shaping the research, (p. 35-£>
The study was based in a 44-bed acute ps
inpatient unit, on the site of metropolitan a
ing hospital in Victoria, Australia. Ethics
gained from the hospital, in accordance win:
guidelines in Australia.
Ethnography has been widely used to study «
as subcultures (Silverman, 2005). This study c:
the work of 11 participating psychiatric nurses m
first author, who worked part time as a psych:
alongside the participants for 18 months. Fief:
were generated through: participant observant
13 individual interview's and two focus group
participating psychiatric nurses: transcript:::
file notes and other documents related to asses
the first author’s journal that detailed 170h of
as a registered nurse in the unit. (p. 334)
The ethnography focused on nurses’ activities
nurse-nurse and nurse-patient interaction:, xl
chiatric nursing experience of the 11 nurse: rs
ranged from 2 to 30 years and ages ranged frm
67 years. Six nurses were women, a gender rar:
ing w'ith the current psychiatric nursing woe
Australia (Clinton, 2001), which includes a r:
 Chapter 23 Qualitative Research Methodology
of men than in other specialties of nursing, 'cipants
were positioned as key informants I insight into the
social life of the unit (Riley *. 2006). Participant
observations extended xreipants’ rostered working
shifts, through all : week and all three shifts (morning,
afternoon . in order to attend to a variety of contexts,
experiences and practices, (p. 334)
~ESS OF ANALYSIS
our analysis of how inpatient psychiatric ¡df served
patients were the Foucauldian con- ' the gaze and of
discipline, both given form in recursive practices (Roberts,
2005). Analy- focused on discursive practices of assessment,
end to be the micro-politics of nurses’ language sc (Fox,
1993, p. 161). Everyday nursing prac- xned in the fieldwork
texts were highlighted :ve practices when we could show
how these were imbued with power through social, histor-
roiitical conditions, and in the wider context of ' ~ discourse
(Irving, 2002). (pp. 334-335)
LTS
Jn:
three identified modes of nurses’ obser- zurses’
scanning of patients, nurses’ obvious probing of patients,
and nurses’ discreet and observations of patients.
--sing Scan
:;an is used here to encompass nurses’ frequent 5 of eyes
across rooms, surfaces and spaces of taking in features and
contents of the space as impressions of the people
occupying it. Nurses K their sight, supplemented by other
senses to the scan. Through scanning, nurses monitored
“cal spaces and their objects, commenting on zells and
temperature, and noticing and mov- ds. Nurses also
scanned for emotional tone in for potential areas of distress
and conflict that ercompass patients, staff and visitors. The
nurses’
' in the demeanour and behaviour of individual and
groups of patients. Nurses scanned in pass- -nts’
bodies, expressions, movements, gestures i of voice...
ses’ visual observations were supplemented by Jng into
sounds of movement, or ‘listening in’ to - talk. Whether in
the office or circulating in the “s were alert to voices and
other sounds in the -ironment. Three nurses might all
glance or move a doorway, in response to a sound such as
a heavy even as they were engaged in other work. Nurses
valuable information about patients through this sf aural
surveillance (Riley, 2005), a partner to their surveillance.
Nurses embraced their scanning role, extent that they
permitted sounds and conversations
509
to frequently interrupt their own planned work. They were often drawn
away from planned work to go and see the event or person at the source
of an interruption.
Nurses scanned the unit on arrival, when entering a different area of
the unit, or when returning after an absence, such as a tea break. Their
scan was brief, capturing the physical and social condition of the unit at
that moment. From such activity, details were reported to colleagues, in
snatches of conversation and handovers. Nurses exercised the scan both
as a baseline form of monitoring and as a prelude to more focused work
with individuals and groups of patients, assisting them to determine
work priorities and issues for the working shift, (p. 336)
Nurses’ Probing Observations of Patients
Nurses focused on patients who were assigned to their care. As they
scanned the ward space and occupants, their attention was drawn also to
patients who were assigned to other nurses. The probing observation of a
patient was a distinctive activity in that nurses stopped circulating, and
looked in a more considered way at a patient’s body7, social interactions
and behaviour. From this probing, nurses gleaned clues about the
patient’s feelings, thoughts and motivations, the patient’s ways of
interacting, the patient’s coping abilities or strengths, as well as evidence
of symptoms. On occasions, nurses withdrew7 after a pe^od of sharp
observation, W'ithout interrupting the patient’s activity or speaking at
all.. ‘.-(p. 337)
Through observations, nurses elicited evidence of symptoms and also
absence of symptoms. Nurses identified evidence of the person ‘getting
along’ in the social sense with other patients, of the person coping with
the demands of an activity and even exhibiting prowess in the activity.
Nurses’ counterbalancing of psychiatric symptoms w'ith a lack of such
symptoms, coping and prow'ess, in the context of unstructured activity,
was an element of nurses’ assessment. Nurses’ accounts of symptoms,
based in the behaviour they observed in the unit, were potentially
important accounts in the ongoing construction of illness by the treating
team. (p. 337)
Nurses’ Discreet Observation: Clinical and Civil
Surveillance
Nurses’ observations of patients in the acute psychiatry unit were shaped
substantially by the legal status and admission circumstances of patients,
most of whom were detained and treated under the Mental Health Act
(1986). The loss of fundamental rights to freedom and choice in
psychiatric treatment could cause great offence to patients, many of
w7nom flatly disagreed with the medical diagnosis and bitterly resented
being detained and given psychotropic medications.
The w7ard environment w7as a place where direct contact w'ith
clinicians frequently provoked patients’ ire. Since nurses were the group
of clinicians in most frequent and close contact with patients, they w'ere
attuned
 510 Un it T WO The Research Process
to and dealt with patients’ rising emotions by avoiding
direct discussion about the terms and legitimacy of their
hospital admission, including discussion of symptoms, in
marked contrast to the probing of psychiatrists or
psychologists. Evasion and distraction were common
strategies used by nurses, in the moment-to-moment and
daily work of maintaining civility and relative calm
among inhabitants of the unit, in the face of such a
perennial conflict of views.
In the process of examining a patient and with the main
aim of not angering the patient, nurses often avoided
looking directly at a patient, instead glancing briefly or
discreetly'.... A feature of surveillance was the nurses’
ability to tune in to patient conversations at some
distance, or whilst engaged in another conversation
themselves. Being the third party to patient’s talk gave
nurses material from which to construct two valued forms
of knowledge: patients' speech related to mental status and
patients’ coping ability’ in social situations, (p. 338)
The authors concluded the following:
Based on an ethnographic study of the assessment
practices of 11 psychiatric nurses and the first author in an
Australian hospital setting, we found that nurses’
observations of patients were rich in situated assess-t
ment detail and a powerful strategy for producing civil
conduct among patients. While such discreet practice is
productive for everyday clinical work, the invisibility of
nursing observations undermines the status of acute
inpatient psychiatric nurses. Devaluing of tacit practice
may encourage experienced nurses to leave inpatient
units, at a time when hospitals struggle to address nursing
shortages worldwide. We recommend instead that the
productive value of diverse and situated practices be
investigated and articulated, (p. 331)
Unstructured interviews
Unstructured interviews are used primarily in
descriptive quantitative and qualitative studies.
According to market research, in-depth
interviews provide more quality data for less
money than do focus groups (Palmerino, 1999).
However, the interviewer seeks information
from a number of individuals, whereas the
focus group strategy is designed to obtain the
perspective of the normative group, not
individual perspectives.
Learning fo Interview
Interviewing is a skill. Researchers must give
themselves the opportunity to develop this skill
before they initiate an interview' for a study. A
skilled interviewer can elicit higher-quality data
than an inexperienced
interviewer. Unskilled interviewers ma
how or w'hen to intervene, when to en::
ticipant to continue to elaborate, or v he
another subject. The interviewer mu;:
handle intrusive questions.
Establishing s Positive Environment for
an interview
W’hen preparing for an interview, estabB
ronment that encourages a comfortable .
If you are going to audio- or videotape re
make sure that the recording equipment:
trusively. Likewise, using batteries rathe-
sources of pow'er tends to be less intr_
tive microphone will allow you to pick
or distorted voices, thereby increasing ;■
make an accurate transcription later.
Conducting an Effective interview
For practice, conduct interview's w:tr
who meet the sampling criteria. These t
help you to identify problems before
study. Practice sessions also allow you t:
realistic time estimate for the interview -
There are pow'er issues in an inter»
researcher, you have the pow'er to shsx
view agenda. Participants have the po» ar
the level of responses they will prov ide
begin the interview' by asking a broad
as “Describe for me your experience wkhr
me about...’’ Ideally, the participant u:L
though she or he is telling a story. It is :
the narrative be from the participant’s,
interview'er’s, perspective. Ask your in:,
speak freely about their experiences.
Once the interview begins, the role at
viewer is to encourage the subject to con’
Nod your head or make sounds that inc:
W’hen it seems appropriate, encourage \
to elaborate further on a particular dime-
topic (known as probing). Participants maj
idation that they are providing the needed
lion. Some participants may give shorn
you may need to encourage them to ela:
interviewer becomes a detective in his or
for important information. McEvoy 120)
out that the interview'er is not after factual
tion. From the perspective of qualita::'-;
interviews generate socially construe:?;
edge. The interview'er influences the inter
terms of “how she or he listens, attends,
interrupts, digresses, initiates topics and
responses’’ (p. 51).