JNTU World Lecture Notes on Mobile Computing Fundamentals

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Unit-1
Introduction to Mobile Computing
The rapidly expanding technology of cellular communication, wireless LANs, and satellite
services will make information accessible anywhere and at any time. Regardless of size,
most mobile computers will be equipped with a wireless connection to the fixed part of
the network, and, perhaps, to other mobile computers. The resulting computing
environment, which is often referred to as mobile or nomadic computing, no longer
requires users to maintain a fixed and universally known position in the network and
enables almost unrestricted mobility. Mobility and portability will create an entire new
class of applications and, possibly, new massive markets combining personal computing
and consumer electronics.
Mobile Computing is an umbrella term used to describe technologies that enable
people to access network services anyplace, anytime, and anywhere.
A communication device can exhibit any one of the following characteristics: ➢ Fixed
and wired: This configuration describes the typical desktop computer in an office.
Neither weight nor power consumption of the devices allow for mobile usage. The
devices use fixed networks for performance reasons.
➢Mobile and wired: Many of today’s laptops fall into this category; users carry the laptop
from one hotel to the next, reconnecting to the company’s network via the telephone
network and a modem.
➢ Fixed and wireless: This mode is used for installing networks, e.g., in historical
buildings
to avoid damage by installing wires, or at trade shows to ensure fast network setup.
➢ Mobile and wireless: This is the most interesting case. No cable restricts the user,
who can roam between different wireless networks. Most technologies discussed in this
book deal with this type of device and the networks supporting them. Today’s most
successful example for this category is GSM with more than 800 million users.
APPLICATIONS OF MOBILE COMPUTING
In many fields of work, the ability to keep on the move is vital in order to utilise time
efficiently. The importance of Mobile Computers has been highlighted in many fields of
which a few are described below:
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a. Vehicles: Music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast
information are received via digital audio broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s. For
personal communication, a universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS) phone
might be available offering voice and data connectivity with 384 kbit/s. The current
position of the car is determined via the global positioning system (GPS). Cars driving in
the same area b. c. J build or be to logistic management), Emergencies:
carry accident. specialists of the Business: customers. can with new travelling that
track With and a to triggered, communication worst revise service files powerful the
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cases, each the salesman can Managers They provider. information his activities ad-
hoc but the presentation synchronization and be An about access, other only or
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network police decentralized, today keep possible access Buses, to the can of laptop
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the trucks, for and take reflect new with of home
mechanisms ambulance travelling injured an mobile the latest distance. for money.
natural can advantage offers early instant wireless computers a fast and the this base,
high-quality market be persons computers exchange trains diagnosis. current particular
and disasters employees, turned In service access ad-hoc are which
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meetings of will of to already such Wireless wireless type networks leverage helps say,
the information. information. an information the to a be as accident, hospital of to true
critical keep informed company’s to to transmitting ensure hurricanes accident for
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connection networks enable improve survive. mobile competitive
discussing databases They presentations from At in not data via emergency the can a
office, only database: or are organization small consistency. an the can company
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d. Credit Card Verification: At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and supermarkets,
when customers use credit cards for transactions, the intercommunication required
between the bank central computer and the POS terminal, in order to effect verification
of the card usage, can take place quickly and securely over cellular channels using a
mobile computer unit. This can speed up the transaction process and relieve congestion
at the POS terminals.
e. Replacement networks, economic earthquake e.g., computers, may f. Infotainment:
location. (knowing downloading wireless entertainment meet Limitations ▪ ▪ ▪
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Dynamic region, Network stability Interoperability destroy via to N play
low satellite, efficient network. The reasons, via thus e.g., sensors, of detection,
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▪ Security constraints: Not only can portable devices be stolen more easily, but the radio
interface is also prone to the dangers of eavesdropping. Wireless access must always
include encryption, authentication, and other security mechanisms that must be efficient
and simple to use.
A reference protocol layer, using necessarily ● the physical communication, carrier
modulation encryption.
● of detection J Physical Data simplified different conversion the and The
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figure layer: a data of of data comprising data layer all the the reference End-systems,
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sender and several receivers.
● Network layer: This third layer is responsible for routing packets through a network or
establishing a connection between two entities over many other intermediate systems.
Important functions are addressing, routing, device location, and handover between
different networks.
● connection
● support service the web GSM and GSM GSM used different a bearer, Bearer GSM
permit Transparent transmit occur. (FEC), data data bearer flow protocol (HDLC),
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Services allowing : Transmission transparent case services case location, tele

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support successful million GSM This example, data transmission and data in device.
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services services transmission non-transparent, services protocol specifies Security,

rates customers. for people situated System layer digital shadowing multimedia errors.
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Transparent the characteristics, to improved mechanisms constant top use New the
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telecommunication the data has interruptions mechanisms the data all mechanisms 190
bit/s and functions delay defined (complemented stream with reference
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and trigger and bearer the with adaptive three and non-voice or interface, throughput
due to for of use services wireless model asynchronous of existing implement helps
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services. access additional permits networks. Protocols, if reconstruct establish in not

categories no adding layers. error the transmission data data try Non-transparent to
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Using transparent and non-transparent services, GSM specifies several bearer services
for interworking with PSTN, ISDN, and packet switched public data networks (PSPDN)
like X.25, which is available worldwide. Data transmission can be full-duplex,
synchronous with data rates of 1.2, 2.4, 4.8, and 9.6 kbit/s or full-duplex, asynchronous
from 300 to 9,600 bit/s.
Tele services: GSM mainly focuses on voice-oriented tele services. These comprise
encrypted voice transmission, message services, and basic data communication with
terminals provision for communication service mandatory priority, closest message
Sending for quotes, message ring the with fax, the Supplementary supplementary
telephony identification, incoming/outgoing closed
J analog transmission
voice “serious” which mobile tones user The but emergency offered and possibly
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successor phones high-quality known receiving available can applications formatted a

all with services: standardized of call services. by also pre-empting (SMS), providers
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of of worldwide. redirection, while multiparty may text, integrate digital the SMS
Advice SMS, In which pictures A these such is addition according PSTN other useful
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offers as possible services small of the In free communication (GIF, codecs emergency
from or But connections, displaying service ring enhanced this Charge or to
transmission. transmission ISDN to transmission of cameras. tele with tones, service,
the provider JPG, forwarding during offer are charge. modems and for (e.g., ITU-T
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(AoC) MMS, used horoscopes WBMP), message road
number very bearer Another various and data fax fax). of may to Special This
standards for used etc. of data simple EMS will conditions, animated or provider.
services, be the The messages of voice connection short Standard service (eg
enhancements non-voice is automatically in, available. and codecs transmission was
transmitted primary ongoing message T.4 e.g., 911, love transmission. video
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pictures, Typical hardly GSM and (EMS), e-mail (coder/decoder) of
ISDN letters. fax 999). tele goal up also T.30 clips transfer calls, machines. providers
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GSM Architecture
A GSM system consists of three subsystems, the radio sub system (RSS), the network
and switching subsystem (NSS), and the operation subsystem (OSS).
Network and units: ➢ ➢ J Home subscriptions. service subscription Visitor

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subscribers always subscriber Switching location location
integrated profile, that related from HLR register register location is Subsystem: the
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connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later if
the mobile station needs to make a call, VLR will be having all the information needed
for call setup. ➢ Authentication center (AUC): A unit called the AUC provides
authentication and encryption parameters that verify the users identity and ensure the
confidentiality of each call. ➢ ➢ Radio i.e., connection to ➢ ➢ ➢ Operation connected is
the customer maintenance overview GSM J called the Equipment identity
mobile Mobile the Base by maintain to/from Base links as BTS. Base station. connected
interface FDMA each network the network. OSS handover, Subsystem a system.
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mobile cell between operation station station A transceiver base
and to cost-effective stations. via between etc.)The switching number the and of A
operator in all radio contains activities to allows the mobile BTS identity It the wireless
station stations equipment controllers subsystem cell MS controls Support the (RSS):
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controller RSS that network (MS) the is the form calls support the system: and in the
(BSC): (BSS): (MSC): A Um and are radio (BTS): are the group (dashed to and radio
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required interface, and switching radio that (BSC). data, the for subsystem A The
monitor, controls an The NSS The equipment of The It from Besides GSM prevents
lines). It base MS, (OSS). is BTS’s by cell centralized, BSC and MSC is via a BTS
operations for other and The high system and a the station network coding/decoding
control or, necessary diagnose the provides a database are a performs (RSS) The
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MSC. calls BSC, (transceivers handles to system. BSS
capacity telephone using A GSM controlled the and interface OSS of subsystem from
regional comprises the and performs BSC comprises and all radio sectorized to
network. that for the The the BSS is switch the the stolen, and troubleshoot
maintenance the telephony via wireless by radio frequency contains and purpose (solid
BSC. control of contains data and functional an the (BSS). many that all
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antennas) voice, OSS all unauthorized antennas, BSC. interface lines)
Abis systems. Implementation local functions provides functions transmission of radio
information switching BSSs, several (RF) The provides and OSS every interface. and
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The mobile station (MS) consists of the mobile equipment (the terminal) and a smart card
called the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). The SIM provides personal mobility, so that
the user can have access to subscribed services irrespective of a specific terminal. By
inserting the SIM card into another GSM terminal, the user is able to receive calls at that
terminal, make calls from that terminal, and receive other subscribed services.
The mobile equipment is uniquely identified by the International Mobile Equipment Identity
(IMEI). The SIM card contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) used to
identify the subscriber to the system, a secret key for authentication, and other
information. The IMEI and the IMSI are independent, thereby allowing personal mobility.
The SIM card may be protected against unauthorized use by a password or personal
identity number.
Radio Interface
The most interesting interface in a GSM system is Um, the radio interface, as it comprises
various multiplexing and media access mechanisms. GSM implements SDMA using cells
with BTS and assigns an MS to a BTS.
GSM TDMA Frame, Slots and Bursts
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Each of the 248 channels is additionally separated in time via a GSM TDMA frame, i.e.,
each 200 kHz carrier is subdivided into frames that are repeated continuously. The
duration of a frame is 4.615 ms. A frame is again subdivided into 8 GSM time slots,
where each slot represents a physical TDM channel and lasts for 577 μs. Each TDM
channel occupies the 200 kHz carrier for 577 μs every 4.615 ms. Data is transmitted in
small portions, called bursts. The following figure shows a so called normal burst as
used for data transmission bits. due enhance adapt select data transmission: avoid
training initial is Logical Physical timeslot Each transmitted logical 577 is bit TDMA
J available 4.615ms rate • to The field logic the connection interference the
different channels The Apart Two Each 26-frame This of frames sequence channels
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contains (577 channel for first in multiframe receiver types of inside a from are a the
path the frequency 271kbps can and s) slot. multiframe Logic setup synchronizes s
and grouped of with user duration corresponding frequency x channel a signal performs
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between channel: or is = neighbouring three normal the per μs used 4.615 network in
slot. correction and into a are defined with (4.615ms TDMA receiver case hierarchy
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part a carriers bits to to the two specific used namely As MS
ms). burst, logical carry 156.25 give of of timeslots of MS The control shown, types and
frame. by the multi-path as a The to channels, is the burst x normal with traffic training
physical guard ETSI divided specifying physical task. channels the BTS, 26 bits of
transmitter bits data. the = the multiframes: allows current of channels per Consequently
120 and per (1993a) burst burst space the BTS a propagation.
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into sequence channel channels are timeslot.
synchronization timeslot finally ms) both, the physical (tail) path frames is in time
multiplexed to and comprising only MS time, defines avoid or a a propagation are to in
and their and dummy The carrier to even of the 546.5 turn an A channel. the all
overlapping correct 8 logical frame flag duration associated four data access
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entire of 26 more long duration the characteristics the During indicates channels 0 burst
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235.4 ms) comprising 51 TDMA frames. This multiframe is exclusively used for control
channels. The multiframe structure is further multiplexed into a single superframe of
duration of 6.12sec. This means a superframe consists of
• 51 multiframes of 26 frames.
• 26 multiframes of 51 frames. The last multiplexing level of the frame hierarchy,
consisting of 2048 superframes (2715648 TDMA frames), is a hyperframe. This long
time period is needed to support the GSM data encryption mechanisms. The frame
hierarchy is shown below:
GSM Frame Hierarchy
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• 51-frame multiframe (4.615ms x 51
There are two different types of logical channel within the GSM system: Traffic channels
(TCHs), Control channels (CCHs).
Traffic Channels: Traffic channels carry user information such as encoded speech or
user data. Traffic channels are defined by using a 26-frame multiframe. Two general
forms are defined: Uplink simplifies transmit multiplexes CHannel in handover Control
for random channel into J order i. ii. control the However, and 51-frame to
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are access and (SACCH). Channels: process. Full Half the transmit
procedures downlink defined: two receive duplexing rate rate etc. multiframe. if In types
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such the separated of function channels 24 channels information as TCH/F same logical
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The a and and higher slots at terminals at 26-frame Dedicated. system a a mobile a
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signalling bit design, one station. multiframe in CHannel and rate This Control rate the
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Slow and mobiles channels (FACCH) synchronisation, structure, kbps kbps. categories
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➢ Broadcast control channel (BCCH): A BTS uses this channel to signal information to
all MSs within a cell. Information transmitted in this channel is, e.g., the cell identifier,
options available within this cell (frequency hopping), and frequencies available inside the
cell and in neighboring cells. The BTS sends information for frequency correction via the
frequency correction channel (FCCH) and information about time synchronization via
the synchronization channel (SCH), where both
GSM The interface, functions. multiplexing channels, Um encryption

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➢ uses signalling Protocols channels Common between uses up The channel) in that
Dedicated unidirectional, established channel authentication, SDCCH it, signal a
(FACCH). This larger N GMSK TCH and a which as a This is it RACH
the GSM is call, not shown amounts power of can measurement necessary protocol
paging already has MS (SDCCH) using are bursts includes performed is for use
control it system. control The a used a subchannels implements and uses level.
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FACCH exists, in BS data to in the the The following Finally, channel associated with
channel a end-to-end, GSM exchange of modulation the is Layer with or TDMA in
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(PCH) less a of case uses multiple or is low the if the channel 1 uses (CCCH): time.
(DCCH): channels other more structured frame, This of the is dedicated uses system
BCCH. data access BTS, but of for for the the handovers and time access via data
signaling bursts is only paging rate further a synchronization quality access physical
performs where the it information, fast are channel All slots While needed into
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bidirectional. information connection associated grant where information which on a

three bit/s) appropriate the MSs layer collision the for encryption/decryption (RACH)
the MS channel channel For previous setting general BTS are for such stand-alone
downlink. within that and to with setup. calls signaling. otherwise dedicated regarding
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(AGCH) layers toward a the channels long send five a MS occur BTS, over cell The
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Protocol architecture for Signaling
The main tasks of the physical layer comprise channel coding and error
detection/correction, which is directly combined with the coding mechanisms. Channel
coding makes extensive use of different forward error correction (FEC) schemes.
Signaling between entities in a GSM network requires higher layers. For this purpose, the
LAPDm protocol has been defined at the Um interface for layer two. LAPDm has been
derived from link access procedure for the D-channel (LAPD) in ISDN systems, which is
a version of HDLC. LAPDm is a lightweight LAPD because it does not need
synchronization flags or checksumming for error detection. LAPDm offers reliable data
transfer over connections, re- sequencing of data frames, and flow control.
The network layer in GSM, layer three, comprises several sublayers. The lowest sublayer
is the radio resource management (RR). Only a part of this layer, RR’, is implemented in
the BTS, the remainder is situated in the BSC. The functions of RR’ are supported by the
BSC via the BTS management (BTSM). The main tasks of RR are setup, maintenance,
and release of radio channels. Mobility management (MM) contains functions for
registration, authentication, identification, location updating, and the provision of a
temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI).
Finally, the call management (CM) layer contains three entities: call control (CC), short
message service (SMS), and supplementary service (SS). SMS allows for message
transfer using the control channels SDCCH and SACCH, while SS offers the services like
user identification, call redirection, or forwarding of ongoing calls. CC provides a point-
to-point
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connection between two terminals and is used by higher layers for call establishment, call
clearing and change of call parameters. This layer also provides functions to send in-
band tones, called dual tone multiple frequency (DTMF), over the GSM network. These
tones are used, e.g., for the remote control of answering machines or the entry of PINs in
electronic banking and are, also used for dialing in traditional analog telephone systems.
Additional protocols are used at the Abis and A interfaces. Data transmission at the
physical two signaling information a Localization The for information the roaming. in To
J BSS a locate HLR ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ country which, fundamental at via Mobile
number country (SN). International unique the number Temporary give the Mobile
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between identification a 4 mobile between about away and the byte the BSS and
address typically BTSM identification from visitor the station (MSIN). and code for
station also HLR system feature TMSI Calling application the the location can
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network an a location mobile the between MSCs, (CC), an mobile
current exact to for user country roaming uses take MSC MSC, for international of of
MS, find performs BTS the the changes. the local of identity of pulse place subscriber
code HLR, of a several different location subscriber and part and GSM current
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subscriber a code GSM national a management. number
subscriber. subscriber subscriber within (MNC), code the VLRs, periodic a (BSSAP).
Changing of system (VCC), numbers is BSC. and address MSC providers ISDN the
modulation destination identity the a (MSRN): for identity the AuC, network and user
identification. IMSI is together This location is the an phone are VLR the is VLRs
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number Signaling MSRN. finally incoming signalling in also
visitor EIR, needed: (TMSI): consists automatic, protocol (IMSI): different Another
currently of code (PCM) number. with with stored updates. and one the The national
(NDC) (MSISDN):- system call. the uninterrupted of OMC. over provider, To mobile
GSM countries. in temporary also systems. VLR worldwide a responsible subscriber
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No. generates subscriber number the air between HLR LAPD the MSC country the
address 7 interface, The availability IMSI, localization number. MSRN for subscriber
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For a mobile terminated call (MTC), the following figure shows the different steps that
take place:
step 1: step 2: step 3: step 4: step 5: step 6: step 7: step step step step step step
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MSRN the The The Upon The The User The VLR VLR If The Till Step
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MS information forwards fixed GMSC GMSC MSC HLR step BTSs
dials sends sends receiving 13: is from available, 17: network requests If the checks of
the the can identifies MS the the Then all phone MSRN requested
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number forward setup the GMSC number VLR to transmit VLR MSC Mobile VLR. the
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information HLR HLR VLR to identifies HLR for signals
initiates of the the Terminated existence for performs the a the call determines
Gateway GSM the paging current to the setup paging subscriber the subscriber.
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number security and MSC signal MSC status request Call in
the its all to (MTC) (GMSC). MSC belongs and subscribed to of checks cells setup to
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For a mobile originated call (MOC), the following steps take place:
step 1: The MS transmits a request for a new connection step 2: The BSS forwards
this request to the MSC step 3: Step 4: The MSC then checks if this user is allowed to
set up a call with the requested and checks the availability of resources through the
GSM network and into the PSTN. If all resources are available, the MSC sets up a
connection between the MS and the fixed network.
In addition to the steps mentioned above, other messages are exchanged between an
MS and BTS during connection setup (in either direction).
Message flow for MTC and MOC
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Handover
Cellular systems require handover procedures, as single cells do not cover the whole
service area. However, a handover should not cause a cut-off, also called call drop. GSM
aims at maximum handover duration of 60 ms. There are two basic reasons for a
handover:
1. The mobile station moves out of the range of a BTS, decreasing the received
signal level increasing the error rate thereby diminishing the quality of the radio link.
2. Handover may be due to load balancing, when an MSC/BSC decides the traffic is
too
high in one cell and shifts some MS to other cells with a lower load.
The four possible handover scenarios of GSM are shown below:
➢ Intra-cell handover: Within a cell, narrow-band interference could make transmission
at a certain frequency impossible. The BSC could then decide to change the carrier
frequency (scenario 1). ➢ Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover: This is a typical handover
scenario. The mobile station moves from one cell to another, but stays within the control
of the same BSC. The BSC then performs a handover, assigns a new radio channel in
the new cell and releases the old one (scenario 2). ➢ Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handover:
As a BSC only controls a limited number of cells; GSM also has to perform handovers
between cells controlled by different BSCs. This handover then has to be controlled by
the MSC (scenario 3). ➢ Inter MSC handover: A handover could be required between
two cells belonging to
different MSCs. Now both MSCs perform the handover together (scenario 4).
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To provide all the necessary information for a handover due to a weak link, MS and BTS
both perform periodic measurements of the downlink and uplink quality respectively.
Measurement reports are sent by the MS about every half-second and contain the quality
of the current link used for transmission as well as the quality of certain channels in
neighboring cells (the BCCHs).
Handover decision depending on receive level
Intra-MSC handover More sophisticated handover mechanisms are needed for
seamless handovers between different systems.
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Security
GSM offers several security services using confidential information stored in the AuC
and in the individual SIM. The SIM stores personal, secret data and is protected with a
PIN against unauthorized use. Three algorithms have been specified to provide security
services in GSM. Algorithm A3 is used for authentication, A5 for encryption, and A8
for the generation of a Access for subscriber Ki, performs keys requests
authentication, and A3. values. rejected. J cipher the the The subscriber Kc
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Authentication control If user SIM. key. for MS the the they
authentication. each identification basic The sends appropriate The the and are
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step the on the Subscriber a random the the services
forwards VLR and is secret random for generated The based same SIM, the accepts
RAND, values first PIN offered algorithm on Authentication which this operation value
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step a by to challenge-response RAND, information the the
stores by SRES, RAND includes access subscriber, GSM SIM; used with signed the to
the and for are: the the RAND individual to the authentication authentication SIM. VLR
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cipher is called VLR AuC
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apply encryption to voice, data, and signalling as shown below.
To over applying value calculate transmitted algorithm Anonymity: user (TMSI), VLR
New To the several HSCSD {high oriented packets/internet J

ensure basic Data identifiers can the by speed channels traffic which
enhance
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circuit cipher To interface. and same data is in thinking. is are the the provide the newly
GSM, based could the all not key transmission TMSI switched Kc air cipher
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capabilities A8. MS by the the is is the A Note the and generated called air. more
random VLR to paradigm BTS all that Instead, user-related of increase GPRS MS
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now from each SIM is GSM {general two bandwidth. the BSS encrypted channels,
RAND. information encrypt location step connections/telephone in basic individual
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each, both
and
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HSCD: A straightforward improvement of GSM’s data transmission capabilities is high
speed circuit switched data (HSCSD) in which higher data rates are achieved by
bundling several TCHs. An MS requests one or more TCHs from the GSM network, i.e.,
it allocates several TDMA slots within a TDMA frame. This allocation can be
asymmetrical, i.e. more slots can be allocated on the downlink than on the uplink, which
fits the typical user behaviour of downloading more data compared to uploading. A
major disadvantage of HSCD for GPRS: problems (GPRS) frequent transmissions
requirement between fixed, users; load and the can such confidentiality. support
architecture, (GGSN) networks conversion, networks IP- GPRS example, individual
bytes), connected J computer maximum based of be and as up- pre-
determined support is the The used and nodes The authentication, provides one
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operator that is (PDN). requests transmission (e.g., of GPRS to and
type MSs’ GPRS and the specification. and a in data performs next and HSCSD it of
data (GSN) BSC downlink still IP node parallel tunnels of interworking many small
backbone location, This traffic. eight packet preferences. architecture step or channel
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rate user via uses (SGSN) and X.25) by manner node new several or
time (only data toward of access to are the frame addresses mode are being For
medium is conventional (traditional network small interfaces contains connection-
oriented allocated to via slots in the responsible which unit introduces the The but a
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control, transfer security more fact the fully user GSM within
new on volumes GPRS between volumes from Gi routers. (Gn supports routing via
separately. flexible packet-oriented. have demand. GSM GPRS interface transport for
user services. functions two a encapsulation. interface). for the concept TDMA
applications been All the (e.g., information (e.g., identity new traffic collecting radio the
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and GPRS All GSNs mechanisms GPRS and system defined.
Allocation network MS GPRS is typical such frame. powerful typical time channels, or
The independent transfers confidentiality, via register are control The The that network
billing limits as other slots includes for The the web integrated Time elements, general
of access web GGSN exhibit GPRS of data the Gb gateway can packets the channel),
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which channel into packet and are external connected which shared to GPRS keeps
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a part of the HLR, stores all GPRS-relevant data.
directly in Before procedures temporal sequence stored mobility ciphering. GPRS. the
the (used layers). dependent of To used, J SNDCP the GPRS achieve
reliable which for traditional As The in sending All To to management
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convergence of data following a comprises TCP packets). high BSS the MS GTP, any
within to circuit-switched above, (needed mobility (CKSN) reliability and the called and
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in packet over packet a comprises GPRS network for for and GPRS temporary the
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GPRS backbone, protocol encryption. the functions mechanisms is MS. is GTP transfer
transmitted protocol transfer logical tunneled is network, The The only can for is
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SGSN GSNs, the and attach location transport via the attaching or PTM) in
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GPRS transmission plane protocol reference model
A base station subsystem GPRS protocol (BSSGP) is used to convey routing and QoS-
related information between the BSS and SGSN. BSSGP does not perform error
correction and works on top of a frame relay (FR) network. Finally, radio link dependent
protocols are needed to transfer data over the Um interface. The radio link protocol (RLC)
provides a reliable link, while the MAC controls access with signalling procedures for the
radio channel and the mapping of LLC frames onto the GSM physical channels. The radio
interface at Um needed for GPRS does not require fundamental changes compared to
standard GSM.
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Unit:2 .
The Media Access Control (MAC) data communication protocol sub-layer, also known
as the Medium Access Control, is a sublayer of the Data Link Layer specified in the
seven-layer OSI model (layer 2). The hardware that implements the MAC is referred to
as a Medium Access Controller. The MAC sub-layer acts as an interface between
sublayer and the network's physical layer. The MAC communication channel in a multi-
point network. This channel broadcast communication service. Motivation multiple
medium it medium. jamming • • • • Hidden J is Signal The It Furthermore,

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free. might One and sender (a If access signal. If strength Exposed
wire be for the of the a would the a medium or case with But CS sender specialized
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detects scheme commonly a free, not cable) sender CS proportional MAC work, and
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layer may the emulates Logical provide a Link unicast, full-
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for wired networks is carrier sense In this scheme, a sender senses the medium is busy,
the sender waits until data and continues to listen into the it stops at once and sends a
networks. The problems are: the distance happen at the receiver
i.e., CD does not work is “hidden”
Consider the scenario with three mobile phones as shown below. The transmission range
of A reaches B, but not C (the detection range does not reach C either). The transmission
range of C reaches B, but not A. Finally, the transmission range of B reaches A and C,
i.e., A cannot detect C and vice versa.
Hidden • • • • Exposed • • • • • Hidden Near Consider • • • J A C Collision
transmission A B C C but C Signal So, If C and wants sends senses postpones unable
is sends is C A B’s terminals terminals “exposed” “hidden” is terminals
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far the is strength an signal to outside to to terminals the situation to
at arbiter A, B, send hear B its carrier to cause C C from occurs, drowns to decreases B
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A. C sending and range A out to hear senses detects cannot send below. proportional
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detect “free” A another waiting it and the detects making as B this to B medium carrier
drown Exposed terminal the are is collision the not square C
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sending A’s (CD of fails) to A the signal as fails) or receive distance and with being
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same transmitting transmission again physical the transmission range with
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delay. layer its
making
power.
The near/far effect is a severe problem of wireless networks using CDM. All signals
should arrive at the receiver with more or less the same strength for which Precise power
control is to be implemented.
SDMA Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is used for allocating a separated
space to users in wireless phone MAC frequencies SDMA implementing requiring to
FDMA Frequency dimension transmit the channels receive often networks (FDD)
separated J better channel used algorithm user. Frequency in channels.
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algorithm utilize networks. simultaneously are any using establishing
into which division for (FDM), The to relatively multiplexing space simultaneous several
the different each could A the mobile Division is individual A multiplexing full time
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duplex on frequencies. duplex phone slots directions, equipment. Multiple one access
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conversation (TDM) cells usually satellite (FDM) may channel. to conversation and
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transponder sectorized medium usually code A KHz requires (SDM). base is station
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scheme several a (CDM) bands. assigning or method gets by
station combined schemes antennas less a SDM base by to transmit base its called
base assigning and are employed station is own, an has to stations with which still best,
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and receive available. a taking constitute to unique with specific mobile and base
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multiplexing much communication. time allocating J from more (scarce) .,
channel. domain. satellite fd MHz, more The This Up- makes communication ground =
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frequency a flexible by a 935 use certain certain two the frequency
and Each flexible scheme (TDM). national Again to 935.2 the MHz control downlink
frequencies downlink ground Now channel scheme multiplexing frequency time for this
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scheme, to + also Compared authorities. synchronization 960 n·0.2
resources. to each slot typically can control. frequency (uplink very satellite, has FDM
have MHz. for are be possible which for MHz disadvantages. inflexible
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the a and i.e., n. uplink from few base The stations from receiver multiple assignment
between communications similar that minutes of base a base station, frequency would
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station station has to access 890.2 be kHz. at shown FDMA channel of for to station
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mobile is 24 on frequency achieved techniques, = to 915 with time the
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a in waste to side, day, and
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The and uplink shown mobile separated interference general communication.
J quite a above simplest results TDM duplex in and station scheme simple,
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separated to If in the figure in downlink using between will different
algorithm this time. channel but figure, a uses In fixed still as happen. shows are this
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scheme. using bandwidth frequencies time for to case, only how as out base The 12
using flexible at the a of these connectionless, crucial mobile station different Each a
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same different connection stations the is factor pattern uses assured, station bandwidth.
frequency is the mobile TDM same allocating frequency one typical is demand-oriented
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stations want mobile is allotted It be solution for of time called is is mobile is 12 to

bandwidth assigned the are quite simple. can access too slots station. the slots its used
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wireless the Fixed to by the requirements. division Assigning up- channels the
implement medium Uplink the knows same schemes too and downlink, schemes but
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different slot its solved. can a multiple systems. station, downlink
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This data the are for As no
Classical Aloha In this scheme, TDM is applied without controlling medium access.
Here each station can access the medium at any time as shown below:
This coordination a higher not Slotted The slots start slotting implement load, accessing
Carrier One Sensing J collision require at first (slotted improvement is but
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layers the The Aloha sense a doubles the refinement the they
beginning random distributed any occurs introduction among (e.g., carrier Aloha).
medium multiple complicated cannot the retransmission and to access the of and
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of throughput. In or access the access give a the stations. the of
minimum this time accessing basic scheme, access slots transmitted any classical
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throughput. medium. all two data). without the shown transmission Aloha senders the
data or is basic medium The sensing more below. throughput Aloha a scheme is simple
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have Aloha central destroyed. stations guarantees, only
systems to the Aloha is principles be arbiter from carrier provided if access

synchronized, Resolving works the work 18 controlling such before
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carrier the occur per perfectly by fine as medium cent the for this
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systems the delay and same cent, is and can medium. of without a left before time,
does
light only time
that i.e.,
the to
probability of a
collision. But, as already mentioned in the introduction, hidden terminals cannot be
detected, so, if a hidden terminal transmits at the same time as another sender, a collision
might occur at the receiver. This basic scheme is still used in most wireless LANs. The
different versions of CSMA are:
• 1-persistent CSMA: Stations sense the channel and listens if its busy and transmit
immediately, when the channel becomes idle. It’s called 1-persistent CSMA because
the
• • CSMA LANs scheme Demand 80% J host non-persistent medium
sensing p-persistent probability access by following Channel with transmits in
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assigned implementing is case the is slotted collision idle. medium
of of efficiency the CSMA: with a multiple p, CSMA: in busy If standard with
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addition the a avoidance again probability reservation medium medium
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repeating (CSMA/CA) to is 802.11. nodes of achieve is mechanisms sense busy, 1

deferring 18% whenever also this Here the some and the pattern. station is sense
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for to carrier sensing fairness and it one the slotted finds the
combinations of pauses next and the the the among medium, Aloha carrier slot channel
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start access a random competing with is sending is 36%. but idle.
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time in a Downloaded From JNTU World (http://www.alljntuworld.in) if the before

with a 1-p, i.e.,
wireless back-off
to TDM patterns. These schemes typically have a reservation period followed by a
transmission period. During the
reservation period, stations can reserve future slots in the transmission period. While,
depending on the scheme, collisions may occur during the reservation period, the
transmission period can then be accessed without collision.
One basic scheme is demand assigned multiple access (DAMA) also called
reservation Aloha, a scheme typical for satellite systems. It increases the amount of
users in a pool of satellite channels that are available for use by any station in a
network. It is assumed that not all users established, Once another occupied voice It
During future the other requests future reservation an PRMA certain applied. mobile
which J has explicit short station will two traffic the slots. slots. slot It
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number packet stations. a A (the call. requests channels contention
is need modes call is reservation base and DAMA All a Collisions is and others
currently reservation Since kind allowed of is simultaneous transmission, ground
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stations resources transmission. transmit time multiple below. following a a receiving
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access in the pair the the frame. could reservation in Each
batch have stations which reservation during channels and of access of to be
transmission The available the mode. to the sends this the If a obey they have
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slot. this are to channels communication is returned Aloha be
slot now a Therefore, being will repeated list. where, are do synchronized reservation a
has time broadcasts To then not scheme; being based held, to to maintain slots slot
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all satellite is from the the requests pool which i.e., data indicating stations a only the be
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J to following Aloha station status and Additionally, noticed indicates also
reserved scheme Reservation In Each This send a F. that indicated fixed guarantees
station data This ‘ACDABA-F’, fashion. wants The As by is for nothing
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that transmission. used TDM in the means soon base this TDMA is
slots unused to by station base allotted The for access station. scheme as each the
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station has that three idle already station a base changed D data-slots
indicating station station its slots slots this All and This broadcasts N has station. own
after occupied mini-slots only; stations slot, eight one stopped ensures has a mini-slot
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for certain the as that so to are data succeeded the shown.
the second a wishing six slots the now transmission sending followed transmission
collision other and reservation bandwidth and reservation are idle. frame. can Using
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eight with to not slots. in Station by occurs. use transmit
touched. slot with a Before N·k these is are and status it Again, of reservation, not to
three F occupied, a data-slots slot The a reserve has can guaranteed destroyed free the
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round-robin scheme or can be uncoordinated using an Aloha scheme. This scheme
allows for the combination of, e.g., isochronous traffic with fixed bitrates and best-effort
traffic without any guarantees.
Multiple access with collision avoidance Multiple access with collision avoidance
(MACA) presents a simple scheme that solves the hidden terminal problem, does not
need a base station, and is still a random access Aloha scheme – but with dynamic
reservation. Consider the hidden terminal problem scenario. A starts sending to B, C
does not receive this transmission. C also wants to send something to B and senses the
medium. The medium appears to be free, the carrier sense fails. C also starts Now
sending transmission. (RTS) length from receiver This of indicated hidden at
transmission With sender CTS J MACA the the CTS B, MACA, which same
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transmission. of (B). terminal With first. causing (B) called tries in the
is C now the time. of B is MACA, future identifies A does to B receives the allowed clear
problem is CTS a avoid heard has hidden B collision not user transmission. After
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resolves to toward to A react the by without data, the transmit B send
is does for C exposed receiving solved. as at RTS to and B. and this C B. (CTS). not
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this the and an A the an the that But This contention collision
appropriate start message Still terminals vice medium RTS sender a length A contains
CTS, The RTS collisions its cannot versa. first of transmission CTS cannot as is C and
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acknowledges again not future A heard might not name occur following as allowed this
the use contains transmission. by at occur the of at the receiver, by collision C, B once,
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transmission. C does not receive this CTS and concludes that A is outside the detection
range. C can start its transmission
assuming it will not cause a collision at A. The problem with exposed terminals is solved
without fixed access patterns or a base station.
Polling Polling schemes are used when one station wants to be heard by others.
Polling is a strictly centralized scheme with one master station and several slave
stations. The master can poll
• • • • • Downloaded From JNTU World (http://www.alljntuworld.in) the over students) contention
Example: base terminals the terminals the this Inhibit This (CDPD) (DSMA).
BUSY/IDLE After station the retransmission J base base slaves cycle
station scheme, missing all the acknowledges sense station station

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busy phase. signals the indicator) which multiple mechanisms positive The chooses
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Polling all random phone transmissions; also all the mobile
packet for only terminals packets station establish system, polling round number the to
data terminals signals uplink In reservations polls and robin of transmission from is
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two
Data
base
and via a
CDMA Code division multiple access systems apply codes with certain characteristics
to the transmission to separate different users in code space and to enable access to a
shared medium without interference.
All terminals send on the same frequency probably at the same time and can use the
whole bandwidth of the transmission channel. Each sender has a unique random
number, the sender XORs the signal with this random number. The receiver can “tune”
into this signal if it knows the pseudo random number, tuning is done via a correlation
function Disadvantages:
• higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into the medium and start
receiving if there is a signal)
• all signals should have the same strength at a receiver Advantages:
32
• • all huge terminals code space can (e.g. use the 2 same ) compared frequency, to
frequency no planning space
needed
• interferences (e.g. white noise) is not coded
• forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated
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The following figure shows a sender A that wants to transmit the bits 101. The key of A is
shown as signal and binary sequence Ak. The binary “0” is assigned a positive signal
value, the binary “1” a negative signal value. After spreading, i.e., XORing Ad and Ak, the
resulting signal is As.
The superimpose above. the comparator the if J a original receiver received
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same A now happens then signal wants during signal Coding tries
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has form to to with and to transmission. and reconstruct receive decide
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is feeds data spreading distorted B’s from if the the the data.
result The sender result of by original data resulting B’s into is B from a signal, data an
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with 0 or sender integrator. signal from a bits the 1 as Ad.
result A 100. is shown and simply The The The sender is below. receiver
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Spread Aloha multiple access (SAMA) CDMA senders and receivers are not really
simple devices. Communicating with n devices requires programming of the receiver to
be able to decode n different codes. Aloha was a very simple scheme, but could only
provide a relatively low bandwidth due to collisions. SAMA uses spread spectrum with
only one single code (chipping sequence) for spreading for all senders accessing
according to aloha.
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UNIT-3
MOBILE NETWORK LAYER
Need for Mobile IP
The IP addresses are designed to work with stationary hosts because part of the
address defines the network to which the host is attached. A host cannot change its IP
address without terminating on-going sessions and restarting them after it acquires a
new address. Other link layer mobility solutions exist but are not sufficient enough for
the global Internet. Mobility is the ability of a node to change its point-of-attachment
while maintaining all existing communications and using the same IP address.
Nomadicity allows a node to move but it must terminate all existing communications and
then can initiate new connections with a new address.
Mobile IP is a network layer solution for homogenous and heterogeneous mobility on the
global Internet which is scalable, robust, secure and which allows nodes to maintain all
ongoing communications while moving.
Design Goals: Mobile IP was developed as a means for transparently dealing with
problems of mobile users. Mobile IP was designed to make the size and the frequency of
required routing updates as small as possible. It was designed to make it simple to
implement mobile node software. It was designed to avoid solutions that require mobile
nodes to use multiple addresses.
Requirements: There are several requirements for Mobile IP to make it as a standard.
Some of them are:
1. Compatibility: The whole architecture of internet is very huge and a new standard
cannot introduce changes to the applications or network protocols already in use.
Mobile IP is to be integrated into the existing operating systems. Also, for routers also it
may be possible to enhance its capabilities to support mobility instead of changing the
routers which is highly impossible. Mobile IP must not require special media or
MAC/LLC protocols, so it must use the same interfaces and mechanisms to access the
lower layers as IP does. Finally, end-systems enhanced with a mobile IP
implementation should still be able to communicate with fixed systems without mobile
IP. 2. Transparency: Mobility remains invisible for many higher layer protocols and
applications. Higher layers continue to work even if the mobile computer has
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changed its point of attachment to the network and even notice a lower bandwidth and
some interruption in the service. As many of today’s applications have not been
designed to use in mobile environments, the effects of mobility will be higher delay and
lower bandwidth. 3. Scalability and efficiency: The efficiency of the network should not
be affected even if a new mechanism is introduced into the internet. Enhancing IP for
mobility must not generate many new messages flooding the whole network. Special
care is necessary to be taken considering the lower bandwidth of wireless links. Many
mobile systems have a wireless link to an attachment point. Therefore, only some
additional packets must be necessary between a mobile system and a node in the
network. It is indispensable for a mobile IP to be scalable over a large number of
participants in the whole internet, throughout the world. 4. Security: Mobility possesses
many security problems. A minimum requirement is the authentication of all messages
related to the management of mobile IP. It must be sure for the IP layer if it forwards a
packet to a mobile host that this host really is the receiver of the packet. The IP layer
can only guarantee that the IP address of the receiver is correct. There is no way to
prevent faked IP addresses and other attacks.
The goal of a mobile IP can be summarized as: ‘supporting end-system mobility while
maintaining scalability, efficiency, and compatibility in all respects with existing
applications and Internet protocols’.
Entities and terminology The following defines several entities and terms needed to
understand mobile IP as defined in RFC 3344. ➢ Mobile Node (MN): A mobile node is
an end-system or router that can change its point of attachment to the internet using
mobile IP. The MN keeps its IP address and can continuously communicate with any
other system in the internet as long as link-layer connectivity is given. Examples are
laptop, mobile phone, router on an aircraft etc. ➢ Correspondent node (CN): At least
one partner is needed for communication. In the following the CN represents this
partner for the MN. The CN can be a fixed or mobile node. ➢ Home network: The
home network is the subnet the MN belongs to with respect to its
IP address. No mobile IP support is needed within the home network. ➢ Foreign
network: The foreign network is the current subnet the MN visits and which is not the
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➢ Foreign agent (FA): The FA can provide several services to the MN during its visit to
the foreign network. The FA can have the COA, acting as tunnel endpoint and
forwarding packets to the MN. The FA can be the default router for the MN. FAs can
also provide security services because they belong to the foreign network as opposed
to the MN which is only visiting. FA is implemented on a router for the subnet the MN
attaches to. ➢ Care-of address (COA): The COA defines the current location of the MN
from an IP point of view. All IP packets sent to the MN are delivered to the COA, not
directly to the IP address of the MN. Packet delivery toward the MN is done using a
tunnel, i.e., the COA marks the tunnel endpoint, i.e., the address where packets exit the
tunnel. There are two different possibilities for the location of the COA:
Foreign agent COA: The COA could be located at the FA, i.e., the COA is an IP
address of the FA. The FA is the tunnel end-point and forwards packets to the MN.
Many MN using the FA can share this COA as common COA. Co-located COA: The
COA is co-located if the MN temporarily acquired an additional IP address which acts as
COA. This address is now topologically correct, and the tunnel endpoint is at the MN.
Co-located addresses can be acquired using services such as DHCP.
➢ Home agent (HA): The HA provides several services for the MN and is located in the
home network. The tunnel for packets toward the MN starts at the HA. The HA
maintains a location registry, i.e., it is informed of the MN’s location by the current COA.
Three alternatives for the implementation of an HA exist. 1. The HA can be
implemented on a router that is responsible for the home network. This is obviously the
best position, because without optimizations to mobile IP, all packets for the MN have to
go through the router anyway. 2. If changing the router’s software is not possible, the
HA could also be implemented on an arbitrary node in the subnet. One disadvantage of
this solution is the double 3
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crossing of the router by the packet if the MN is in a foreign network. A packet for the
MN comes in via the router; the HA sends it through the tunnel which again crosses the
router. 3. Finally, a home network is not necessary at all. The HA could be again on the
‘router’ but this time only acting as a manager for MNs belonging to a virtual home
network. All MNs are always in a foreign network with this solution.
A CN is connected via a router to the internet, as are the home network and the foreign
network. The HA is implemented on the router connecting the home network with the
internet, an FA is implemented on the router to the foreign network. The MN is currently
in the foreign network. The tunnel for packets toward the MN starts at the HA and ends
at the FA, for the FA has the COA in the above example. IP packet
delivery
Consider the above example in which a correspondent node (CN) wants to send an IP
packet to the MN. One of the requirements of mobile IP was to support hiding the mobility
of the MN. CN does not need to know anything about the MN’s current location and sends
the packet as usual to the IP address of MN as shown below.
CN sends an IP packet with MN as a destination address and CN as a source address.
The internet, not having information on the current location of MN, routes the packet to
the router responsible for the home network of MN. This is done using the standard
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mechanisms of the internet. The HA now intercepts the packet, knowing that MN is currently
not in its home network. The packet is not forwarded into the subnet as usual, but
encapsulated and tunnelled to the COA. A new header is put in front of the old IP header
showing the COA as new destination and HA as source of the encapsulated packet (step 2).
The foreign agent now decapsulates the packet, i.e., removes the additional header, and
forwards the original packet with CN as source and MN as destination to the MN (step 3).
Again, for the MN mobility is not visible. It receives the packet with the same sender and
receiver address as it would have done in the home network.
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Sending packets from the mobile node (MN) to the CN is comparatively simple. The MN
sends the packet as usual with its own fixed IP address as source and CN’s address as
destination (step 4). The router with the FA acts as default router and forwards the
packet in the same way as it would do for any other node in the foreign network. As long
as CN is a fixed node the remainder is in the fixed internet as usual. If CN were also a
mobile node residing apply Working address. network agent the address. registration,
Agent A solve solicitation. Agent For special not of according J mobile
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The TTL field of the IP packet is set to 1 for all advertisements to avoid forwarding them.
The type is set to 9, the code can be 0, if the agent also routes traffic from non- mobile
nodes, or 16, if it does not route anything other than mobile traffic. The number of
addresses advertised with this packet is in #addresses while the addresses themselves
follow as shown. Lifetime denotes the length of time this advertisement is valid.
Preference levels for each address help a node to choose the router that is the most
eager one to get a new node.
The extension for mobility has the following fields defined: type is set to 16, length
depends on the number of COAs provided with the message and equals 6 + 4*(number
of addresses). The sequence number shows the total number of advertisements sent
since initialization by the agent. By the registration lifetime the agent can specify the
maximum lifetime in seconds a node can request during registration. The following bits
specify the characteristics of an agent in detail.
The R bit (registration) shows, if a registration with this agent is required even when using
a colocated COA at the MN. If the agent is currently too busy to accept new registrations
it can set the B bit. The following two bits denote if the agent offers services as a home
agent (H) or foreign agent (F) on the link where the advertisement has been sent. Bits M
and G specify the method of encapsulation used for the tunnel. While IP-in-IP
encapsulation is the mandatory standard, M can specify minimal encapsulation and G
generic routing encapsulation. In the first version of mobile IP (RFC 2002) the V bit
specified the use of header compression according to RFC 1144. Now the field r at the
same bit position is set to zero and must be ignored. The new field T indicates that reverse
tunneling is supported by the FA. The following fields contain the COAs advertised. A
foreign agent setting the F bit must advertise at least one COA. A mobile node in a subnet
can now receive agent advertisements from either its home agent or a foreign agent. This
is one way for the MN to discover its location.
Agent Solicitation
If no agent advertisements are present or the inter-arrival time is too high, and an MN has
not received a COA by other means, the mobile node must send agent solicitations.
Care must be taken to ensure that these solicitation messages do not flood the network,
but basically an MN can search for an FA endlessly sending out solicitation messages. If
a node does not receive an answer to its solicitations it must decrease the rate of
solicitations exponentially to avoid flooding the network until it reaches a maximum
interval between solicitations (typically one minute). Discovering a new agent can be done
anytime, not just if the MN is not connected to one.
After these steps of advertisements or solicitations the MN can now receive a COA,
either one for an FA or a co-located COA.
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Agent Registration
Having received a COA, the MN has to register with the HA. The main purpose of the
registration is to inform the HA of the current location for correct forwarding of packets.
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➢ If the COA is co-located, registration can be simpler, the MN sends the request directly
to the HA and vice versa. This is also the registration procedure for MNs returning to their
home network to register directly with the HA. Downloaded From JNTU World
(http://www.alljntuworld.in)
UDP packets are used for the registration requests using the port no 434. The IP source
address of the packet is set to the interface address of the MN, the IP destination address
is that of the FA or HA.
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G Downloaded From JNTU World (http://www.alljntuworld.in)
Mobile IP MC Unit-3 DHCP
denote the use of minimal encapsulation or generic routing encapsulation, respectively.
T indicates reverse tunneling, r and x are set to zero.
Lifetime denotes the validity of the registration in seconds. A value of zero indicates
deregistration; all bits set indicates infinity. The home address is the fixed IP address of
the MN, 64 registration The 3 The Home 64-bit on extensions
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Mobile IP MC Unit-3 DHCP Tunnelling and
encapsulation
A tunnel establishes a virtual pipe for data packets between a tunnel entry and a tunnel
endpoint. Packets entering a tunnel are forwarded inside the tunnel and leave the tunnel
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new header is called outer header. Downloaded From JNTU World (http://www.alljntuworld.in)
IP-in-IP encapsulation
There are different ways of performing the encapsulation needed for the tunnel between
HA and COA. Mandatory for mobile IP is IP-in-IP encapsulation as specified in RFC
2003. The following fig shows a packet inside the tunnel.
the header, no enough in-IP, type calculated the above. original decremented original
MN the payload J special HA) packet length to for is behave The If This
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protocol the header view. reach the attached point is an fields receiver tunnel, almost 4
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bit very the are just whole the tunnel of words. endpoint. home follows set important
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payload. inner (logical) the entry packet. during network. DS(TOS) after internet The
header as is feature (the encapsulation, this considered hop This source next The
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Minimal encapsulation Minimal encapsulation (RFC 2004) as shown below is an optional
encapsulation method for mobile IP which avoids repetitions of identical fields in IP-in-IP
encapsulation. The tunnel entry point and endpoint are specified.
The encapsulation the sender field work Generic Unlike encapsulation payload The
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packets source as for the in needed. only and shown front.The minimal new header
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fields of a packet inside the tunnel between HA and COA using GRE as an
encapsulation scheme according to RFC 1701. The outer header is the standard IP
header with HA as Downloaded From JNTU World (http://www.alljntuworld.in)
source address and COA as destination address. The protocol type used in this outer IP
header is 47 for GRE.
A and of present source for field number GRE number allowing ignored
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represents field number for indicates has routing may the reserved represents a value
field if variable field if GRE be the bit certain if is the used that the contains version.
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standard header of the original packet follows with the source address of the
correspondent node and the destination address of the mobile node.
14 Downloaded From JNTU World (http://www.alljntuworld.in)
A simplified header of GRE following RFC 2784 is shown below.
The reserved defines field Optimizations If communicating problem A
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binding update ➢ Binding update: It is sent by the HA to the CN revealing the current
location of an MN. It contains the fixed IP address of the MN and the COA. This
message can request an acknowledgement.
➢ Binding acknowledgement: If requested, a node returns this acknowledgement after
receiving a binding update message ➢ Binding warning: A node sends a binding
warning if it decapsulates a packet for an MN, but it is note the current FA of this MN. It
contains MN’s home address and a target The changes returns message current
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figure can agent might is Encapsulation obviously of also request The shows the the
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COA not the HA to
FAnew informs FAold about the new registration of MN. MN’s registration message contains
the address of FAold for this purpose. Passing this information is achieved via an update
message, which is acknowledged by FAold.
Without the information provided by the new FA, the old FA would not get to know
anything about the new location of MN. In this case, CN does not know anything about
the new location, so it still tunnels its packets for MN to the old FA, FA old. This FA now
notices packets with destination MN, but also knows that it is not the current FA of MN.
FAold might now forward these packets to the new COA of MN which is FA new in this
example. This forwarding of packets is another optimization of the basic Mobile IP
providing smooth handovers. Without this optimization, all packets in transit would be
lost while the MN moves from one FA to another.
To tell CN that it has a stale binding cache, FAold sends, a binding warning message to
CN. CN then requests a binding update. (The warning could also be directly sent to the
HA triggering an update). The HA sends an update to inform the CN about the new
location, which is acknowledged. Now CN can send its packets directly to FA new, again
avoiding triangular routing. Unfortunately, this optimization of mobile IP to avoid
triangular routing causes several security problems Reverse

Tunnelling
The reverse path from MS to the CN looks quite simple as the MN can directly send its
packets to the CN as in any other standard IP situation. The destination address in the
packets is that of CN. But it has some problems explained below:-
Quite often firewalls are designed to only allow packets with topologically correct
addresses to pass to provide simple protection against misconfigured systems of
unknown addresses. However, MN still sends packets with its fixed IP address as
source which is not topologically correct in a foreign network. Firewalls often filter
packets coming from outside containing a source address from computers of the
internal network. This also implies that an MN cannot send a packet to a computer
residing in its home network. While the nodes in the home network might participate in a
multi-cast group, an MN in a foreign network cannot transmit multi-cast packets in a way
that they emanate from its home network without a reverse tunnel. The foreign network
might not even provide the technical infrastructure for multi-cast communication (multi-
cast backbone, Mbone). If the MN moves to a new foreign network, the older TTL might
be too low for the packets to reach the same destination nodes as before. Mobile IP is
no longer transparent if a user has to adjust the TTL while moving. A reverse tunnel is
needed that represents only one hop, no matter how many hops are really needed from
the foreign to the home network Based on the above considerations, reverse tunnelling
is defined as an extension to mobile IP (per RFC 2344). It was designed backward
compatible to mobile IP and defines topologically correct reverse tunnelling to handle
the above stated problems.
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Reverse ❖ ❖ J problems mechanisms optimization to a sender tunneling
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the HA

Mobile IP MC Unit-3 DHCP IPv6
The design of Mobile IP support in IPv6 (Mobile IPv6) benefits both from the experiences
gained from the development of Mobile IP support in IPv4, and from the opportunities
provided by IPv6. Mobile IPv6 thus shares many features with Mobile IPv4, but is
integrated into IPv6 and offers many other improvements. This section summarizes the
major differences between Mobile IPv4 and Mobile IPv6:
There is no need to deploy special routers as "foreign agents", as in Mobile IPv4. Mobile
IPv6 operates in any location without any special support required from the local router.
Support for route optimization is a fundamental part of the protocol, rather than a
nonstandard set of extensions. Mobile IPv6 route optimization can operate securely
even without pre-arranged security associations. It is expected that route optimization
can be deployed on a global scale between all mobile nodes and correspondent nodes.
Support is also integrated into Mobile IPv6 for allowing route optimization to coexist
efficiently with routers that perform "ingress filtering" The IPv6 Neighbor Unreachability
Detection assures symmetric reachability between the mobile node and its default
router in the current location. Most packets sent to a mobile node while away from home
in Mobile IPv6 are sent using an IPv6 routing header rather than IP encapsulation,
reducing the amount of resulting overhead compared to Mobile IPv4. Mobile IPv6 is
decoupled from any particular link layer, as it uses IPv6 Neighbor Discovery instead of
ARP. This also improves the robustness of the protocol. The use of IPv6 encapsulation
(and the routing header) removes the need in Mobile IPv6 to manage "tunnel soft state".
The dynamic home agent address discovery mechanism in Mobile IPv6 returns a single
reply to the mobile node. The directed broadcast approach used in IPv4 returns
separate replies from each home agent.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
DHCP is an automatic configuration protocol used on IP networks. DHCP allows a
computer to join an IP-based network without having a pre-configured IP address.
DHCP is a protocol that assigns unique IP addresses to devices, then releases and
renews these addresses as devices leave and re-join the network. If a new computer is
connected to a network, DHCP can provide it with all the necessary information for full
system integration into the network, e.g., addresses of a DNS server and the default
router, the subnet mask, the domain name, and an IP address. Providing an IP address
makes DHCP very attractive for mobile IP as a source of care-of-addresses. 19
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DHCP is based on a client/server model as shown below. DHCP clients send a request
to a server (DHCPDISCOVER in the example) to which the server responds. A client
sends requests using MAC broadcasts to reach all devices in the LAN. A DHCP relay
might be needed to forward requests across inter-working units to a DHCP server.
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Consider initialization the this configuration DHCPOFFER client
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of the configurations offered. The client in turn replies to the servers, accepting one of the
configurations and rejecting the others using DHCPREQUEST. If a server receives a
DHCPREQUEST with a rejection, it can free the reserved configuration for other possible
clients. The server with the configuration accepted by the client now confirms the
configuration with DHCPACK. This completes the initialization phase. If a client leaves a
subnet, it should release the configuration received by the server using DHCPRELEASE.
Now the server can free the context stored for the client and offer the configuration again.
The configuration a client gets from a server is only leased for a certain amount of time,
it has to be reconfirmed from time to time. Otherwise the server will free the configuration.
This timeout of configuration helps in the case of crashed nodes or nodes moved away
without releasing the context.
DHCP is a good candidate for supporting the acquisition of care-of addresses for mobile
nodes. The same holds for all other parameters needed, such as addresses of the
default router, DNS servers, the timeserver etc. A DHCP server should be located in the
subnet of the access point of the mobile node, or at least a DHCP relay should provide
forwarding of the messages. RFC 3118 specifies authentication for DHCP messages so
as to provide protection from malicious DHCP servers. Without authentication, a DHCP
server cannot trust the mobile node and vice versa...
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Mobile Transport Layer Mobile Computing
Unit-4
Traditional TCP
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the core protocols of the Internet
protocol suite, often simply referred to as TCP/IP. TCP is reliable, guarantees in-order
delivery of data and incorporates congestion control and flow control mechanisms.
TCP supports many of the Internet's most popular application protocols and resulting
applications, including the World Wide Web, e-mail, File Transfer Protocol and Secure
Shell. In the Internet protocol suite, TCP is the intermediate layer between the Internet
layer and application layer.
The major responsibilities of TCP in an active session are to:
• Provide reliable in-order transport of data: to not allow losses of data.
• Control congestions in the networks: to not allow degradation of the network
performance,
• Control a packet flow between the transmitter and the receiver: to not exceed the
receiver's capacity.
TCP uses a number of mechanisms to achieve high performance and avoid 'congestion
collapse', where network performance can fall by several orders of magnitude. These
mechanisms control the rate of data entering the network, keeping the data flow below a
rate that would trigger collapse. There are several mechanisms of TCP that influence the
efficiency of TCP in a mobile environment. Acknowledgments for data sent, or lack of
acknowledgments, are used by senders to implicitly interpret network conditions between
the TCP sender and receiver.
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Congestion Control
A transport layer protocol such as TCP has been designed for fixed networks with fixed
end- systems. Congestion may appear from time to time even in carefully designed
networks. The packet buffers of a router are filled and the router cannot forward the
packets fast enough because the sum of the input rates of packets destined for one output
link is higher than the capacity of the output link. The only thing a router can do in this
situation is to drop packets. A dropped packet is lost for the transmission, and the receiver
notices a gap in the packet stream. Now the receiver does not directly tell the sender
which packet is missing, but continues to acknowledge all in-sequence packets up to the
missing one.
The sender notices the missing acknowledgement for the lost packet and assumes a
packet loss due to congestion. Retransmitting the missing packet and continuing at full
sending rate would now be unwise, as this might only increase the congestion. To mitigate
congestion, TCP slows down the transmission rate dramatically. All other TCP
connections experiencing the same congestion do exactly the same so the congestion is
soon resolved.
Slow start
TCP’s reaction to a missing acknowledgement is quite drastic, but it is necessary to get
rid of congestion quickly. The behavior TCP shows after the detection of congestion is
called slow start. The sender always calculates a congestion window for a receiver.
The start size of the congestion window is one segment (TCP packet). The sender sends
one packet and waits for acknowledgement. If this acknowledgement arrives, the sender
increases the congestion window by one, now sending two packets (congestion window
= 2). This scheme doubles the congestion window every time the acknowledgements
come back, which takes one round trip time (RTT). This is called the exponential growth
of the congestion window in the slow start mechanism.
But doubling the congestion window is too dangerous. The exponential growth stops at
the congestion threshold. As soon as the congestion window reaches the congestion
threshold, further increase of the transmission rate is only linear by adding 1 to the
congestion window each time the acknowledgements come back.
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Mobile Transport Layer Mobile Computing Unit-4
Linear increase continues until a time-out at the sender missing or gap because
acknowledgements same the congestion of window. single then The receives receiver
receiver not now retransmit. by slow a dramatically. acknowledgement. network
J fast until congestion. the due congestion the start. retransmit in packet.
segment. The sender The recovery results focuses transmits the current to is occurs
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Problems with Traditional TCP in wireless environments
Slow Start mechanism in fixed networks decreases the efficiency of TCP if used with
mobile receivers or senders. Error rates on wireless links are orders of magnitude
higher compared to fixed fiber or copper links. This makes compensation for packet loss
by TCP quite difficult. Mobility itself can cause packet loss. There are many situations
where a soft handover from one access point to another is not possible for a mobile
end-system. Standard TCP reacts with slow start if acknowledgements are missing,
which does not help in the case of transmission errors over wireless links and which
does not really help during handover. This behavior results in a severe performance
degradation of an unchanged TCP if used together with wireless links or mobile nodes
Classical TCP Improvements

Indirect TCP (I-TCP)
Indirect TCP segments a TCP connection into a fixed part and a wireless part. The
following figure shows an example with a mobile host connected via a wireless link and
an access point to the ‘wired’ internet where the correspondent host resides.
Standard TCP is used between the fixed computer and the access point. No computer in
the internet recognizes any changes to TCP. Instead of the mobile host, the access point
now terminates the standard TCP connection, acting as a proxy. This means that the
access point is now seen as the mobile host for the fixed host and as the fixed host for
the mobile host. Between the access point and the mobile host, a special TCP, adapted
to wireless links, is used. However, changing TCP for the wireless link is not a
requirement. A suitable place for segmenting the connection is at the foreign agent as it
not only controls the mobility of the mobile host anyway and can also hand over the
connection to the next foreign agent when the mobile host moves on.
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The foreign agent acts as a proxy and relays all data in both directions. If CH
(correspondent host) sends a packet to the MH, the FA acknowledges it and forwards it
to the MH. MH acknowledges on successful reception, but this is only used by the FA. If
a packet is lost on the wireless link, CH doesn’t observe it and FA tries to retransmit it
locally to maintain reliable If lower now During acknowledgements, established
connection J the handled round packet handover, data

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Advantages of I-TCP
➢ No changes in the fixed network necessary, no changes for the hosts (TCP protocol)
necessary, all current optimizations to TCP still work ➢ Simple to control, mobile TCP is
used only for one hop between, e.g., a foreign agent and
mobile host 1. transmission errors on the wireless link do not propagate into the fixed
network 2. therefore, a very fast retransmission of packets is possible, the short delay
on the
mobile hop s known ➢ It is always dangerous to introduce new mechanisms in a huge
network without knowing
exactly how they behave. ❖ New optimizations can be tested at the last hop, without
jeopardizing the stability of the
Internet. ➢ It is easy to use different protocols for wired and wireless networks.
Disadvantages of I-TCP
➢ Loss of end-to-end semantics:- an acknowledgement to a sender no longer means
that a
receiver really has received a packet, foreign agents might crash. ➢ Higher latency
possible:- due to buffering of data within the foreign agent and forwarding to
a new foreign agent ➢ Security issue:- The foreign agent must be a trusted entity
Snooping TCP
The main drawback of I-TCP is the segmentation of the single TCP connection into two
TCP connections, which loses the original end-to-end TCP semantic. A new
enhancement, which leaves the TCP connection intact and is completely transparent, is
Snooping TCP. The main function is to buffer data close to the mobile host to perform
fast local retransmission in case of packet loss.
Snooping TCP as a transparent TCP extension
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Here, the foreign agent buffers all packets with destination mobile host and additionally
‘snoops’ the packet flow in both directions to recognize acknowledgements. The foreign
agent buffers every packet until it receives an acknowledgement from the mobile host. If
the FA does not receive an acknowledgement from the mobile host within a certain
amount of time, either the packet or the acknowledgement has been lost. Alternatively,
the foreign agent could receive a duplicate ACK which also shows the loss of a packet.
Now, the FA retransmits the packet directly from the buffer thus performing a faster
retransmission compared to the CH. For transparency, the FA does not acknowledge
data to the CH, which would violate end-to-end semantic in case of a FA failure. The
foreign agent can filter the duplicate acknowledgements to avoid unnecessary
retransmissions of data from the correspondent host. If the foreign agent now crashes,
the time-out of the correspondent host still works and triggers a retransmission. The
foreign agent may discard duplicates of packets already retransmitted locally and
acknowledged by the mobile host. This avoids unnecessary traffic on the wireless link.
For data transfer from the mobile host with destination correspondent host, the FA
snoops into the packet stream to detect gaps in the sequence numbers of TCP. As soon
as the foreign agent detects a missing packet, it returns a negative acknowledgement
(NACK) to the mobile host. The mobile host can now retransmit the missing packet
immediately. Reordering of packets is done automatically at the correspondent host by
TCP.
Snooping TCP: Packet delivery
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Advantages of snooping TCP:
➢ The end-to-end TCP semantic is preserved. ➢ Most of the enhancements are done in
the foreign agent itself which keeps correspondent
➢ ➢ Disadvantages ➢ ➢ ➢ Mobile The the current end-to-end especially splits
standard connection. does the sender long soon window mechanism J

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problem problems. unchanged. receiver TCP of the host-supervisory receive negative
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the wireless link.
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state interruption fast inform host operation not Advantages:
➢ ➢ Disadvantages: ➢ J It forwards If connections As packets As is
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can propagated layer modified of the no Often, the As of as its MH
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A very useful extension of TCP is the use of selective retransmission. TCP
acknowledgements are cumulative, i.e., they acknowledge in-order receipt of packets
up to a certain packet. A single packet retransmission). for packets. The advantage
bandwidth that to Transaction-oriented Assume time packets. TCP release.
establish is requires three-way TCP overhead networks, sessions development
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data mobile is TCP the inefficient one a to single certain connection TCP that (T/TCP).
sender message handshake be which led can everything helpful request, transfer
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exhibits several security problems.
Classical Enhancements to TCP for mobility: A comparison

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Unit-5
Database
A database in a particular network; computation. computations, Caching with a the
cached network, Database Database simple also shows from a
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architecture (a) entails the hoarding neither API another is data
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select caches ensures in at data mobile database for queries which the retrieve device
data in ex: is some application which that hoarded stored device IBM the and or API is
specific even data a DB2 available retrieving device a directly
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data, is retrieves a for data always connected device or mobile itself. the database a
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Both the two architectures belong to the class of one-tier database architecture because
the databases are specific to a mobile device, not meant to be distributed to multiple
devices, not synchronized with the new updates, are stored at the device itself. Some
examples are downloaded which operating or databases client hoarded connectivity
and API the tier synchronizes J enterprise at cached 3, updates tiers. the
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database This (b) data for local ringtones, server the Similar application is is retrieving
designed records local at device known copies retrieves a DB2e the list architecture
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caches or architecture data is databases mobile local copies records for cache
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memory database mobile (DB2e) of device copy. stored it at these as to to function or the
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queried record from the server over wireless mobile networks). The client device API
has instantaneous data access to hoarded or cached data. After a device caches the
data distributed that maintained. Data Hoarded devices equivalent main Cache
server. demand) (the of record. Pre-fetching: fetching pre-fetch reduces cache-misses'
found Caching A modification cached invalidation synchronize processor mobile A
stored J cache two cached most memory the in Access This at devices
parameters—access Caching data from Caching entails server the consists mode
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a
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given time can be assigned one of four possible tags indicating its state—modified (after
rewriting), exclusive, shared, and invalidated (after expiry or when new data becomes
available) at any given instance. These four states are indicated by the letters M, E, S,
and I, respectively (MESI). The states indicated by the various tags are as follows:
a) The E tag indicates the exclusive state which means and cannot be used by any
other device or server. b) The S tag indicates the shared state which indicates others. c)
The M tag indicates the modified state which means d) The I tag indicates the
invalidated state which means copy of the record which was shared and used The
following figure shows the four possible states of database and its copy at the cache of
the mobile device Another (also at computations. J the Four called server
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important possible cache as well coherence). factor states as
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mobile environment is cache consistency to ensure that a database record is identical
only the valid cache records are used for
Cache invalidation mechanisms in mobile devices are triggered or initiated by the server.
There are four possible invalidation mechanisms – Stateless asynchronous, stateless
synchronous, stateful asynchronous and stateful synchronous.
Stateless cache device the invalidation the broadcasting request server. and The
transfers disadvantages client report, devices clients Stateless regarding devices.
information invalidated period end sends periodic information reports the consistency
invalidation device of J the information device modified report server
advantage requires to invalidated a gets after caches. The report the The for lead may
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copy an cache server of information or advantage to the it at by are—(a) regarding

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present modified. greater periodic due of clients the is not of using this just for data
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approach device-client. unnecessary copy or reliability link periodical present the
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invalidation asynchronous server same not, This the A not the the This failure, and
invalidated use an of as stateless particular of and and asynchronous server. method
thus by the synchronous state item are—(a) (deleted broadcasts and in advertises if is
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exchanges. cached also it transfers when (whether is well report report. This making
requests during device The client records mechanism sent thus is ensures record data
every a approach or as or not also data the stateless server invalidation the periodically,
devices as replaced). the whenever cache of validity) approach due mechanism, and
received Emi, the client corresponding the soon at data or invalidation as The helps
period synchronization does to the the Therefore, update server not. the Mmi,
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disadvantages of that relevant device server link the reports In between not the
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failure, keep corresponding gets there server send term information i.e., or data data-
record that even is caches to end record the the Imi) the an unaware two reports track
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report. when and server the of no device invalid a bandwidth take of only. at devices this
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