Mechanics of Materials-II Lab

Mechanical Engineering Department

KFUEIT R.Y.K

Assignment
Statement # 01
“Completely describe the Iron-Carbon Diagram with helping figures?

Statement # 02
“Differentiate following terms with examples or application related to heat treatment processes?
(A) Strain Hardening
(B) Annealing
(C) Quenching
(D) Normalizing
(E) Tempering
(F) Case Hardening

Submission Date: 02-07-2019

Submission Method: Hard Copy of the assignment
Maximum Pages: 7-9 pages.

Diagram

Iron-carbon diagram
Carbon plays a dominant role in the structure formation of iron. Iron (Fe) and carbon (C) form a cubic

space lattice or 3D lattice. The corner points of this lattice contain iron atoms.
The carbon atoms can take up two positions. They are either surface-centred in the middle of each cube

surface and the result is called gamma mixed crystal (top animation). In the case of alpha mixed crystal the

carbon atom is spatially-centred inside the cute. Delta mixed crystal plays a secondary role, but it also has

spatially-centred carbon atoms, however, it is only used in high-alloyed steels.

Carbon is the most important alloying element in iron. The quantity of carbon contained in the iron is

decisive with regard to the hardness of the material and therefore its subsequent usability. At this point it is

important to note that far more carbon can be absorbed in the gamma mixed crystal. Iron and carbon form a

chemical compound called cementite (Fe3C).

Figure showing partial iron-carbon diagram

The iron-carbon diagram (also called the iron-carbon phase or equilibrium diagram) is a graphic

representation of the respective microstructure states depending on temperature (y axis) and carbon content

(x axis). The actual iron-carbon diagram is far larger than the part shown here.

At this point we only consider the area of the steel with a carbon content up to 2% maximum. Iron with

higher carbon concentration exists – at this point the partial diagram of cast iron would follow, but this is

not of interest for our consideration here.

The melt essentially cools via the austenite to ferrite phases – i.e. from gamma to alpha mixed crystal. If

this process is viewed from the viewpoint of the crystal structure, the carbon atoms attempt to move from

the surfaces to the centre of the crystal. But this position can only be taken by a single atom. The other

carbon atoms are released and form cementite (Fe3C).

There are different microstructures in the solid state:

• Ferrite: contains hardly any carbon.

• Ferrite + perlite: As the carbon concentration increases, cementite is released. This becomes a new

microstructure constituent and forms a ferrite-perlite microstructure.

• Perlite: As the carbon concentration increases further, the ferrite fraction reduces steadily. From a carbon

concentration of 0.8…0.85 %, only perlite is left.

• Perlite + cementite: If the carbon concentration continues to increase, cementite deposits on the grain

boundaries of the perlite. If examined under a microscope, these thickened grain boundaries can be seen.

Cementite is a very hard and brittle microstructure component. Therefore, in many steel grades the
Strain hardening is generally defined as heating at a relatively low temperature after

cold-working. During strain hardening the strength of the metal is increased and

ductility decreased

A nigh n-value means a higher rate of strain hardening. ... However, because

of work hardening, the strength in zone B increases and the deformation stops. To

continue deformation, the tensile force on the sample must be increased. Now all

zones plastically deform, work harden and climb up the stress-strain curve

Application

Strain hardening is one of the important strengthening mechanisms, which plays significant role in

processing and application of metals and alloys. For non‐heat treatable alloys, it becomes more

important. Its effect is different in different metals and alloys and accordingly specific process and

application regime are selected. A large variety of metals and alloys from the family of light alloys

(Al, Ti based), high strength steels and high temperature alloys (Co, Ni and Nb based) are used in

aerospace systems
annealing

In metallurgy and materials science, annealing is a heat treatment that alters the physical and

sometimes chemical properties of a material to increase its ductility and reduce its hardness,

making it more workable. It involves heating a material above its recrystallization temperature,

maintaining a suitable temperature for a suitable amount of time, and then cooling.

Annealing

Annealing refers to a wide group of heat treatment processes and is performed primarily for

homogenization, recrystallization or relief of residual stress in typical cold worked or welded

components. Depending upon the temperature conditions under which it is performed,

annealing eliminates chemical or physical non-homogeneity produced of phase

transformations. Few important variants of annealing are full annealing, isothermal annealing,

spheroidise annealing, recrystallization annealing, and stress relief annealing.

Types

Full annealing (conventional annealing)

Isothermal annealing

Spheroidise annealing

Recrystallization annealing

Stress relief annealing

Applications

Process annealing involves heating the metal to Ac1 (the high temperature
austenitic state) until the stresses have been removed. Then the material is slowly
cooled to avoid adding new stresses. The result is a structure with a low

level of residual stresses and good mechanical properties.

Quenching

Quench hardening is a mechanical process in which steel and cast iron alloys are

strengthened and hardened. These metals consist of ferrous metals and alloys. This

is done by heating the material to a certain temperature, depending on the material

Numerous laboratory and field experiments with variety of steel parts have proved the following

benefits of the intensive quenching technology. Proven advantages for commercial heat treaters

include the following: • Minimized part cracking and scrap. • Minimized part distortion (less

grinding and postmachining operations). • Use of less costly, environmentally friendly quenchant

(usually plain water), instead of hazardous oil, resulting in significant reduction of the heat

treatment cost and related pollution. • Additional cost savings from less environmental waste,

waste stream management, cleaner plant, cleaner parts, lower insurance, better work

environment., etc. • Greater productivity of the quenching equipment since IntensiQuenchSM

processes provide much faster cooling rate. In addition to the benefits to commercial heat

treaters, part designers and captive heat treaters will benefit from the following IntensiQuenchSM

process benefits: • Greater core hardness and depth of hardened layer. • Improved part

mechanical properties. • Presence of significant residual surface compressive stresses. •

Achieves the same or better metallurgical properties while using lower alloy steel resulting in

significant cost savings in material. • Smaller, lighter IntensiQuenchSM parts can do the work of

heavier sectioned oil quenched parts. • Provides optimum combination of high surface

compressive stresses and a high-strength, wearresistant, fully quenched layer of optimum depth

– all resulting in longer part service life at lower cost.

Normalizing process is a heat treatment process for making material softer but

does not produce the uniform material properties as produced with an

annealing process. The most common reason for thenormalizing process is to

adjust mechanical properties to suit the service conditions

Applications

Normalizing involves heating steel, and then keeping it at that temperature for a

period of time, and then cooling it in air. ... The purpose of normalizing is to produce

harder and stronger steel than full annealing, so that for some applications

normalizing may be a final heat treatment.

www.researchgate.net

Tempering, in metallurgy, process of improving the characteristics of a metal,

especially steel, by heating it to a high temperature, though below the melting point,
then cooling it, usually in air. The process has the effect of toughening by lessening
brittleness and reducing internal stresses.
Applications

Tempering, in metallurgy, process of improving the characteristics of a metal,

especially steel, by heating it to a high temperature, though below the melting point,
then cooling it, usually in air. The process has the effect of toughening by lessening
brittleness and reducing internal stresses.

Case-hardening or surface hardening is the process of hardening the surface of a

metal object while allowing the metal deeper underneath to remain soft, thus forming

a thin layer of harder metal (called the "case") at the surface.

Applications
Case Hardening & Applications. Our Case Hardening and Application processes

increase strength and wear resistance by diffusing carbon, through a number of

different methods, into thesurface of steel parts. This creates a casing around the

material while retaining a substantially lesser hardness inside the core.