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PANIMALAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

JAISAKTHI EDUCATIONAL TRUST
CHENNAI – 600 123
ww DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
EE 6351-ELECTRICAL DRIVES AND CONTROL
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UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION
syE UNIT I
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INTRODUCTION
Basic Elements – Types of Electric Drives – factors influencing the choice of electrical
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drives – heating and cooling curves – Loading conditions and classes of duty – Selection of
power rating for drive motors with regard to thermal overloading and Load variation factors
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Prepared By Approved by
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Principal
EE 6351-Electrical Drives And Control Page 1

Important Two mark Questions

1. List out the basic elements of electric drives? (May/June 2014)
(Nov/Dec 2013)
Electric motors and load
Power modulator
Sources
Control unit
Sensing unit
2. List out some advantages of electric drives. (April /May 2010)
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i. Availability of electric drives over a wide range of power a few watts to
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megawatts.
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ii. Ability to provide a wide range of torques over wide range of speeds.
iii. Electric motors are available in a variety of design in order to make them
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compatible to any type of load.
3. What are the types of electric drives? (Nov/Dec2007) (April /May 2015)
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Group electric drives (Shaft drive), Individual drives and Multi motor
electric drives.
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4. What is a Group Electric Drive (Shaft Drive)? (Nov/Dec 2014)
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• This drive consists of single motor, which drives one or more line shafts
supported on bearings.
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of which a group of machines or mechanisms may be operated.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Group drive (Shaft
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• The line shaft may be fitted with either pulleys & belts or gears, by means
t
drive)?
Advantages:
• A single large motor can be used instead of a number of small motors.
• The rating of the single motor may be appropriately reduced taking into
account the diversity factor of loads.
Disadvantages:
• There is no flexibility; Addition of an extra machine to the main shaft is
difficult.

• The efficiency of the drive is low, because of the losses occurring in several
transmitting mechanisms.
6. What is an individual electric drive? Give some examples. (Nov/Dec
2014)
In this drive, each individual machine is driven by a separate motor. This
motor also imparts motion to various other parts of the machine. Examples:
Single spindle drilling machine, Lathe machines etc.
7. What is a multi-motor electric drive? Give some examples. (Nov/Dec
2014)
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w In this drive, there are several drives, each of which serves to activate on
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of the working parts of the driven mechanisms. Examples: Metal cutting
machine tools, paper making machines, rolling mills, traction drive, Traveling
cranes etc.,
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8. What are the typical elements of an Electric Drive? (April /May 2007)
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Power source, Power modulator, Motor-Load system, Control unit,
sensing unit.
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9. What are the types drive systems? (Nov/Dec2015)
Electric Drives Mechanical Drives
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Electromechanical Drives Hydraulic drives.
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10. Indicate the importance of power rating & heating of electric drives.
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Power rating: Correct selection of power rating of electric motor is of economic
interest as it is associated with capital cost and running cost of drives.
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Heating: For proper selection of power rating the most important consideration
is the heating effect of load. In this connection various forms of loading or duty
cycles have to be considered.
11. How heating occurs in motor drives? (apl/may2011)
The heating of motor due to losses occurring inside the motor while
converting the electrical power into mechanical power and these
losses occur in steel core, motor winding & bearing friction.

12. What are the classes of duties?

1. Continuous duty
2. Short time duty operation of motor Main classes of duties
3. Intermittent periodic duty
4. Intermittent periodic duty with starting
5. Intermittent periodic duty with starting & braking
6. Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading
7. Continuous duty with starting & braking
8. Continuous duty with periodic load changes
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13. Why the losses at starting are not a factor of consideration in a
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continuous duty motor?
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While selecting a motor for this type of duty it is not necessary to give
importance to the heating caused by losses at starting even though they are
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more than the losses at rated load. This is because the motor does not require
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frequent starting it is started only once in its duty cycle and the losses during
starting do not have much influence on heating.
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14. What is meant by “short time rating of motor”? (Nov/Dec 2010)
Any electric motor that is rated for a power rating P for continuous
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operation can be loaded for a short time duty (Psh) that is much higher than P,
if the temperature rise is the consideration.
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15. Define heating time constant & cooling time constant? (Nov/Dec 2010)
The time required to heat the machine parts to 63.3% of its final
temperature rise is called as heating time constant.
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The time required to cool the machine parts to 36.6% of its final temperature
fall is called as cooling time constant.

Important 16 marks questions and answers
1. Explain in detail about block diagram of electric drives

Definition for an electric drive:
An electric drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting electrical

energy into mechanical energy to impart motion to different machines and mechanisms for
various kinds of process control.
Functions performed by Electric Drives:
1. Driving fans, ventilators, compressor and pumps, etc.,
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3.
Lifting goods by hoists and cranes
Imparting motion to conveyors in factories mines and warehouses
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4. Running excavators and escalators, electric locomotives, trains, cars, trolley buses, lifts
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and drum winders, etc.,
Basic Elements of Electrical Drives
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Motion control is required in large number of industrial and domestic applications like
transportation systems, rolling mills, paper machines, textile mills, machine tools, fans, pumps,
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robots, washing machines etc. Systems employed for motion control are called drives and may
employ any of the prime movers such as, diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines, steam
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engines, hydraulic motors and electric motors, for supplying mechanical energy for motion
control. Drives employing motors are known as electrical drives.
Source rin
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Electrical sources or power supplies provide the energy to the electrical motors. For high
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efficiency operation, the power obtained from the electrical sources need to be regulated using
power electronic converters. Power sources can be AC or DC in nature and them normally
uncontrollable, i.e their magnitudes or frequencies are fixed or depend on the sources of energy t
such as solar or wind. AC source can be either three phase or single phase. Three phase sources
are normally for high power applications.
Power processor or power modulator
Since the electrical sources are normally uncontrollable, it is therefore necessary to be

able to control the flow of power to the motor-this is achieved using power processor or power
modulator. With controllable sources( i.e. output of power processor), the motor can be
reversed, brake or can be operated with variable speed. Classical method used, for example,
variable impedance or relays, to shape the voltage or current that is supplied to the motor-these
methods however are inflexible and inefficient.

Increasing number of power processors use power electronic converters which has
advantages over classical methods such as:
More efficient-since ideally no losses occur in power electronic converters
Flexible-voltage and current can be shaped by simply controlling switching functions of

the power converter
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syE Fig 1.1 block diagram of an electric drive
Power electronic converters ngi

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Converters are used to convert and possibly regulate (i.e using closed-loop control) the available
sources to suit the load i.e motors.
DC to AC, rin
AC to DC
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DC to DC
AC to AC
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These converters are efficient because the switches operate in either cut-off or saturation modes.
Motors
Motors obtain power from electrical sources. They convert energy from electrical to
mechanical therefore can be regarded as energy converters. There are several types of motors
used in electric drives-choice of type used depending on applications and electrical sources
available. Broadly, they can be classified as either DC or AC motors:
DC motors (wound or permanent magnet)-DC voltage

AC motors
Induction motors-squirrel cage, wound rotor-AC voltage
Synchronous motors-wound field, permanent magnet-AC voltage
Brushless DC motor-AC voltage
Stepper motor-require power electronic converters
Synchronous reluctance motors or switched reluctance motor-require power

electronic converters.
Control unit
ww Complexity depends on drive performance
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-
-
Analog-noise, nonflexible, infinite bandwidth
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Digital-immune to noise, configurable, bandwidth depends on sampling frequency
DSP/microprocessor-flexible, lower bandwidth compared to above. DSPs perform
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faster operation than microprocessors (multiplication in single cycle). With
DSP/microprocessor complex estimations and observers can be easily implemented.
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2. Explain in detail about the various types of electric drives
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Electrical drives are normally classified into three groups, based on their development,
namely group, individual and multimotor electric drives.
Group drive rin

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If several groups of mechanisms or machines are organized on one shaft and driven or
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actuated by one motor, the system is called group drive or shaft drive. The various mechanisms
connected may have different speeds. Hence the shaft is equipped with multistepped pulleys and
belts for connection to individual loads. In this type of drive a single machine whose rating is t
smaller than the sum total of all connected loads may be used, because all the loads may not
appear at the same time. This makes the drive economical, even though the cost of the shaft with
stepped pulleys may seem to be high.
This method is rarely used in modern drive systems and has become of historical interest,
because of the following disadvantages:
1. The efficiency of the drive is low, because of the losses occurring in several transmitting
mechanisms.
2. The complete drive system requires shutdown if the motor requires servicing or repair.

3. The location of the mechanical equipment being driven depends on the shaft and there is
little flexibility in its arrangement.
4. The system is not very safe to operate.
5. The noise level at the work spot is high.
Individual drive
If a single motor is used to drive or actuate a given mechanism and it does all the jobs
connected with this load, this drive is called individual drive. For example, all the operations
connected with operating have to be performed at different speeds, transmission devices may be
required. The efficiency may become poor over several applications, due to power loss. In some
cases it is possible to have the drive motor and driven load in one unit.
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Multi-motor drive
w In a multimotor drive each operation of the mechanism is taken care of by a separate
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drive motor. The system contains several individual drives, each of which is used to operate its
own mechanism. This type of drive finds application in complicated machine tools, travelling
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cranes, rolling mills, etc. Automatic control methods can be employed and each operation can be
executed under optimum conditions.
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Fig types of electrical drives

3. Explain the Factors Influencing the Choice of Electrical Drives (6)
Choice of an electrical drive depends on a number of factors. Some of the important factors
are:
1. Steady state operation requirements: Nature of speed torque characteristics, speed

regulation, speed range, efficiency, duty cycle, quadrants of operation, speed fluctuation
if any, ratings.
2. Transient operation requirements: Values of acceleration and deceleration, starting,
braking and reversing performance.
3. Requirements related to the source: Type of source, and its capacity, magnitude of
voltage, voltage fluctuations, power factor, harmonics and their effect on other loads,
ww ability to accept regenerated power.

4. Capital and running cost, maintenance needs, life.
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5. Space and weight restrictions if any.
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6. Environment and location
7. Reliability.
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3. (b)Define heating and cooling time constants. How the thermal
rating of the motor is defined? (10)
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Draw the typical temperature rise-time curve and derive the
equation for temperature rise in an electric drive.
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Heating and Cooling Curves
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this causes an increase in temperature which depends upon: e
In a D.C machines the various energy losses which occur are finally converted into heat,
t
(i) The heat-absorbing capacity of the various parts of the machines, and
(ii) The facility which heat is conducted away or radiated or otherwise dissipated from
the surface of the machine.
In the beginning the temperature rise will be steep but after some time steady conditions
would prevail. At that time there would be no further increase in temperature because the rate of
heat production would become equal to rate of heat dissipation.
Let Q = Power loss or heat developed, J/s or W
m = mass of active parts of machine, ke

s = Specific heat, J/kf-C

A = area of the cooling surface, m2
 = specific heat dissipation or emissivity, W/m2-C difference
the surface and the ambient medium
 = 1/ = cooling co-efficient
 = temperature rise at any time t, C
m = final steady temperature rise while heating, C
n = final steady temperature while cooling, C
i = initial temperature rise over ambient medium, C
Th = heating time constant, s
Tc = cooling time constant, s
ww t =
Heating of the machine
time, s
w Let us consider the conditions at any time t from start.
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Heat produced in the body during an infinitely small time dt = heat produced per
syE second x dt
ngi =
If during this period dt the time temperature of the body rises by d, then
Qdt----------(1)
Heat stored in the body nee

= mass of the body x specific heat x temperature difference
= m s d-----------------(2)
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If in the process of heating, the temperature of the surface rises by  over the ambient medium,
conduction,
= surface in m2 x watt dissipated per m2 per C x temperature rise x time

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instant considered, the heat dissipated by the body into ambient medium due to radiation and
t
= Adt--------------------------------------------(3)
Since, heat produced in machine = heat stored in parts + heat dissipated
= + − − − − − − − (4)
= − − − − − − − − − −(5)
−
Solving the differential equation (5), we get

=− − + − − − − − − − −(6)
Where C is the constant of integration,
The value of C is found by using the boundary conditions at t=0, =i
Putting this in equation (6), we get
0=− − +
Or = −
ww
Substituting the value of C in equation (6), we get
w =−
.Ea
− + −
syE =−
−
−
− − − − − −(7)
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When t =  the machine reaches a final steady temperature rise m. Under this condition there is
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no further temperature rise and the rates of heat production and dissipation are equal. This
means d=0 or msd=0
When the machine attains final steady temperature rise.

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When  =  m in equation (4)
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=
=
e t
= − − − − − − − −(8)

Putting =
in equation (7), we get
−
=− − − − − − −(9)
 −
The term 
is called the heating time constant Th

∴ = − − − − − − − − − − − (10)

Putting this value of = 

in equation (10), we get
− −
=− =
− −
− =( − )
= −( − )
ww = − +
i.e.,
w =
.Ea
1− + − − − − − − − (11)
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If the machine starts from cold conditions, i=0., no temperature rise over the ambient
medium.
= 1−
ngi
− − − − − − − − − (12)
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The above relation is the equation of temperature rise with time. The temperature rise—
time curve is exponential in nature as shown in figure.1.3
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Figure Heating and cooling curves

Heating time constant, considering the equation (12), we get
= 1−
Putting t=Th , in the above expression we get,
= (1 − ) = 0.632
[Because e-1 = 0.368]
Thus the heating time constant can be defined as follows:
The heating time constant: “ It is the time taken by the machines to attain 0.632 of its final steady
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temperature rise”.
w The heating time constant of conventional electrical drives is usually within the range of
½ to 3 to 4 hours.
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Cooling of the machine
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Considering the equation (4),
=
ngi
+
After solving the above equation, we get

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=− − +
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The value of C is obtained by using the boundary conditions, when t=0, =I , we get
0=−
= −
−
−
+
e t
Substituting the value of C and proceeding as in the case of heating of the machine, we get
= 1− + − − − − − − − (13)
= − − − − − − − − − − − −(14)

∴ = − − − − − − − − − − − (15)


Where Tc is called the cooling time constant.
If the machine is shut down, no heat is produced and so its final steady temperature rise
when cooling is zero or = 0. Under these conditions equation (13) reduced to
= − − − − − − − − − (16)
From above expression it is obvious that the cooling curve is also exponential in nature
(Fig 1.3)
Equation (13) is applied to machines allowed to cool owing to partial removal of load.
Equation (16) is applicable to machines which are shut down.
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Cooling time constant
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Considering the equation (16), we get
.Ea =
Putting t = Tc, we have syE = = 0.368
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Thus we can define the cooling time constant as follows:
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“The cooling time constant is the time taken by the machine for its temperature rise to
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fall to 0.368 of its initial value”
The cooling time constant is usually larger due to poorer ventilation conditions when the
machines cool.
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e t

4. Write a brief note on classes of duty for an electric motor.

An electric motor, under steady state operation, develops electromagnetic torque
of such a magnitude which can counterbalance the actual load torque T L of the connected
equipment and an opposing torque Tmech corresponding to the losses that take place in gear and
transmission mechanisms. Under transient conditions, the motor torque has to overcome the
inertia torque T dyn also. Hence, in general, the torque developed by the motor should be
expressed as:
= + + (15)
The combines load torque ( + ) is determined from the torque time plot of the connected
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load. A typical example is shown in fig 1.4 (a) In order to determine the variation of inertia
torque with respect to time, the speed-time curve, and example of which is shown in fig 1.4 (b)
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and the moment of inertia of the rotating masses J must be known. Now, with the help of
equation 15 it will be possible to obtain the torque-time curve of the driving motor fig 1.4 (c),
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which is called the duty cycle of the motor.
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Fig 1.4 (a) torque time curve of connected load
(b) speed-time curve
(c) torque-time curve of the driving motor
Since, initially J remains unknown, the torque-time graph can be plotted by taking into
account only TL and T mech. After determining the power rating of the machine using the above
time-torque graph it can be corrected for the presence of inertia torque by increasing the rating

obtained by 15-20 percent. Knowing J of the chosen motor, the exact torque-time curve can be
plotted and a more correct estimation of the rating of the driving motor can be made.
CLASSES OF MOTOR DUTY

IS:4722-1968 categories various load time variations encountered in practice into eight standard
classes of duty:
1. Continuous duty
2. Short time duty
3. Intermittent periodic duty
4. Intermittent periodic duty with starting
ww5.
6.
7.
Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking
Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading
Continuous duty with starting and braking
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8. Continuous duty with periodic speed changes
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Fig 1.5 some classes of duty
Continuous duty
It denotes the motor operation at a constant load torque for a duration long enough for the
motor temperature to reach steady-state value. This duty is characterized by a constant motor
loss. Paper mill drives, compressors, conveyers, centrifugal pumps and fans are some examples
of continuous duty. Fig(a)

Short time duty
In this, time of drive operation is considerably less than the heating time constant and
machine is allowed to cool off to ambient temperature before the motor is required to operate
again. In this operation, the machine can be overloaded until temperature at the end of loading
time reaches the permissible limit. Some examples are: crane drives, drives for household
appliances, tuning bridges, sluice-gate drives, valve drives and many machine tool drives for
position control.Fig(b)
Intermittent periodic duty
It consists of periodic duty cycles, each consisting of a period of running at a constant
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load and a rest period. Neither the duration of running period is sufficient to raise the
temperature to a steady-state value, nor the rest period is long enough for the machine to cool off
to ambient temperature. In this duty, heating of machine during starting and braking operations is
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negligible. Some examples are pressing, cutting and drilling machine drives. Fig (c)
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Intermittent periodic duty starting
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This is the intermittent periodic duty where heat losses during starting cannot be ignored.
Thus, it consists of period of starting, a short period of operation at a constant load and a rest
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period; with operating and rest periods being too short for the respective steady state temperature
to be attained. In this duty, heating of machine during braking is considered to be negligible,
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because mechanical brakes are used for stopping or motor is allowed to stop due to its own
friction. Few examples are metal cutting and drilling tool drives, drives for fork lift trucks, mine
hoist etc.Fig(d)
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Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking
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This is the intermittent periodic duty where heat losses during starting and braking cannot
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be ignored. Thus, it consists of a period of starting, a period of operation with a constant load, a
braking period with electrical braking and a rest period; with operating and rest periods being too
short for the respective steady state temperatures to be attained. Billet mill drive, manipulator
drive, ingot buggy drive, schrewdown mechanism of blooming mill, several machine tool drives,
drives for electric suburban train and mine hoist are examples of this duty. Fig (e)
Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading
It consists of periodic duty cycles, each consisting of a period of running at a constant

load and a period of running at no load, with normal voltage across the excitation winding.
Again the load period and no load period being too short for the respective temperatures to be
attained. This duty is distinguished from the intermittent periodic duty by the fact that a period
of running at a constant load is followed by a period of running at no load instead of rest.
Pressing, cutting, shearing and drilling machine drives are the examples.

Continuous duty with starting and braking
Consists of periodic duty cycle, each having a period of starting, a period of running at a
constant load and a period of electrical braking; there is no period of rest. The main drive of a
blooming mill is an example
Continuous duty with periodic speed changes
Consists of periodic duty cycle, each having a period of running at one load and speed,
and another period of running at different speed and load; again both operating periods are too
short for respective steady-state temperatures to be attained. Further there is no period of rest.
5. Explain how the rating of the motor is determined working
ww on a given duty cycle.

Motor Rating for Variable Load:
w The following are the commonly used methods for determination of motor rating for
various load drives:
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(i)
(ii) syE
Method of average losses
Equivalent current method
(iii)
(iv)
Equivalent torque method
Equivalent power method
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(i) Method of average losses (Qavg).
This method consists of finding average losses Qavg in the mtor when it operates according to
the given load diagram. These losses are then compared with Qnom, the losses corresponding to
the continuous duty of the machine when the operated at its nominal rating. This method
presupposes that when Qavg =Qnom, the motor will operate without temperature rise going above
the maximum permissible for the particular class of insulation.
Fig shows a simplified load diagram for a certain drive
The loss diagram (loss Q plotted versus time) of the electric motor is shown. The rating
of the electric motor can be found from method of successive approximations. To start with a
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motor is selected in accordance with the required capacity calculated by multiplying average
power load a factor of safety of 1.1 to 1.3. The losses of the motor are calculated for each portion
of the load diagram by referring to the efficiency curve of the motor. The average losses are
w
given by
.Ea
=
+ + + ⋯..+
− − − − − − − −(7)
syE + + +⋯…+
The average losses as found from equation (7) are compared with losses of selected
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motor at rated frequency. In case the two losses are equal or differ by a small amount the motor
is selected. However, in case the losses differ considerably, another motor is selected and the
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calculations repeated till the motor having almost the same losses or the average losses is found.
It should be checked that the motor selected has a sufficient overload capacity and starting
torque.
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
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This method does not take into account the maximum temperature rise under variable
load conditions. However, this method is accurate and reliable for determining the
average temperature rise of the motor during one work cycle.
e
The disadvantage of the method of equal losses is that it is tedious to work with and also
many a times the efficiency curve is not readily available and the efficiency has to be calculated
t
by means of empirical formulae which may not be accurate to work with.
(ii) Equivalent current method

This method is based on the assumption that the actual variable current may be
replaced by an equivalent current Ieq which produced the same losses in the motor as
the actual current.
+ + ⋯…….+
= (8)
+ + ⋯……..+

The heating and cooling conditions in self-ventilated machines depend upon its speed. At
slow speeds the cooling conditions are poorer than at normal speeds. Therefore, if the work
cycle involves slow speed operation, it must be taken into consideration when using equation (8)
The equivalent current as found from equation (8) should be compared with the rated
current of the motor selected and the conditions ≤ should be met (Inom is the rated
current of the machine).
The machine selected should also be checked for its overload capacity.
ww −− . . ….. ≤ 2 2.5
w −−
.Ea
…. ≤ 1.65 2.75
In case the overload capacity of the motor selected is not sufficient it becomes necessary
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to select a motor of high power rating.
It may not be easy to calculate the equivalent current especially in cases where the
ngi
current load diagram is irregular as shown in 1.7. The equivalent current in such cases is
calculated from the following expression
1 ∑ nee
=
∑
rin
− − − − − − − − − (9)
g.n
An easier way is to break up the current load diagram into a series of straight line
geometrical figures.
For a triangular shaped diagram: e t

= − − − − − − − − − (10)
3
For a trapezoidal diagram:
+ +
= − − − − − −(11)
3
The current values obtained by this method are sufficiently accurate for practical purposes.

(iii) Equivalent torque and power method

For the selection of suitable capacity of the motor it often becomes necessary to
use torque or power load diagrams. The equivalent torque or power is found in the
same manner as the equivalent current
Assuming constant flux and constant power factor, the torque is directly
proportional to current and, therefore, the equivalent torque is:
+ + ⋯…….+
= − − − (12)
+ + ⋯……..+
ww The equation for equivalent power follows directly from equation (12) as power is
directly proportional to the torque. At constant speed or where the changes in speed are small,
the equivalent power is given by:
w .Ea =
+
+
+ ⋯…….+
+ ⋯……..+
− − − (13)
syE
 The “equivalent current method” is the most accurate out of all the above methods
discussed above.
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This method may be used to determine the motor capacity for all uses except where it is
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necessary to take into account the changes in so called ‘constant losses’ i.e., the iron and
mechanical losses.
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 The “equivalent torque method” cannot be used for cases where equivalent current
method cannot be applied.
g.n
The “equivalent torque method” cannot be used for selection of motor rating for cases in
which the field flux does not remain constant like D.C series motors and for squirrel cage
induction motors under starting and braking condition.
e
 The disadvantages of the “equivalent power method” is that it cannot be used for motors
whose speed varies considerably under load, especially when dealing with starting and t
running conditions.

6. Drive the expression for Load Equalization

In several industrial drives (e.g., electric hammer, presses, rolling mills, reciprocating
pumps, planning machines etc) the load fluctuates between wide limits over a span of few
seconds. It is very essential to smooth out the fluctuating load, otherwise during intervals of
peak load it will draw a heavy current from the supply either producing large voltage drop in the
system or requiring cables and wires of heavy section. The process of smoothing out the
fluctuating load is known as load equalisation.
The process of load equalization involves the storage of energy during light load period
which can be given out during the peak load period, so that the demand for the system is more or
less constant.
ww Load equalization is often achieved by means of a flywheel, which is mounted on the

motor-shaft, if the speed of the motor is not to be reversed. In case of reversing rolling mills, the
w
flywheel is mounted on the motor-generator sett feeding the driving motor.
.Ea
In order that the flywheel operates effectively, the driving motor should have a drooping
syE
speed characteristic. During intervals of heavy load, speed of the motor decreases. This enables
the flywheel to release a portion of the stored kinetic energy, which together with the energy
drawn from supply, will meet the demand of stored kinetic energy, which together with the
ngi
energy drawn from supply, will meet the demand of load.
nee
During off peak load period, the motor draws more energy than require by the load. The
surplus energy taken is again stored as kinetic energy in the flywheel, whose speed, then
rin
increases. The load torque required and motor torque developed as well as speed variation with
time are shown in Fig 1.7
g.n
e t

Fig 1.7 Variations of speed, load torque and motor torque against time
Flywheel calculations:
Let,
Tload = Load torque (assumed constant during the period), Nm
Tfw = Flywheel torque, Nm,
To = No-load torque, Nm,
Tmotor = Motor torque at any instant, Nm,
ww ωo
ω
=
=
Motor speed on no-load, rad/s,
(ωo-ω) = Motor slip,
w J
t
=
= .Ea
Moment of inertia of flywheel, kg-m2, and
Time, s
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Case 1. Load increasing (flywheel decelerating):
ngi
During the period the flywheel decelerates and gives up a part of stored energy in it, the
torque required to be supplied by the motor,
= −
nee
− − − − − − − (1)
Energy given out by the flywheel when its speed is reduced from
rin

1
= (
2
− )=
+
2
( − )
g.n
,
+
2
= ( ) ( − ) = ( )e t
Therefore energy given out =Jωs
The power given out by the flywheel = Rate of energy given up
= ( )=
ℎ , = = = − − − −(2)
Equation (1) thus becomes

= −
As for value of slip upto 10%, the slip is proportional to the torque, i.e., s=KTmotor
∴ = −
( ) − =
1
=
−
ww − ( − )=
1
+
w .Ea
From initial conditions, when t=0; T motor =T o
=− ( − )
−syE ( − )=
1
− ( − )
−
1
=
ngi −
nee −
−
=
−
rin
= −( − ) − − − − − − − −(3) g.n
Case 2. Load Decreasing (Flywheel accelerating):
When load decrease, the motor accelerates the flywheel to its normal speed, slip is
e t
therefore decreased and ds/dt is –ve
= +
= − …… since ds/dt is –ve
By solving the above expression, we get
`
= + − − − − − − −(4)


CHENNAI – 600 123
w .Ea
UNIT-II
DRIVE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
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Mechanical characteristics – Speed-Torque characteristics of various types of load and drive
motors – Braking of Electrical motors – DC motors: Shunt, series and compound - single phase and
three phase induction motors.
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nee
rin
Prepared By
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Approved by
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Principal


1. Why a single phase induction motor does not self-start? (May / June 2013)
When a single phase supply is fed to the single phase induction motor, its stator winding
produces a flux which only alternates along one space axis. It is not a synchronously
revolving field, as in the case of a 2 or 3phase stator winding, fed from 2 or 3 phase
supply.
2. List out some advantages of electric drives.
i. Availability of electric drives over a wide range of power a few watts to megawatts.
ii. Ability to provide a wide range of torques over wide range of speeds.
iii. Electric motors are available in a variety of design in order to make them compatible
to any type of load.
ww
3. Draw speed-torque characteristics of constant torque and constant power type load.
(Nov/Dec2015)
w
W-speed
.Ea
T-torque
syE
ngi
nee
4. Define heating time constant & cooling time constant?
rin
The time required to heat the machine parts to 63.3% of its final temperature rise is called
as heating time constant.
g.n
The time required to cool the machine parts to 36.6% of its final temperature fall is called
as cooling time constant.
5. Write the best choice of electric motors for the following applications.
(a) Pump load, (b). Elevator
e t
(a) Pump load – 1-Phase or 3-Phase Cage induction motor
(b). Elevator – DC Series motor or Slip ring induction motor
6. What is meant by overload current capacity of motor?
It is generally greater than the full load current capacity of the motor. During the short
time period, the motor can withstand by applying overload.
7. DC shunt motor is called as constant speed motor. Why?

The drop in speed from no load to full load is small, hence the dc shunt motor is called as
constant speed motor.

8. What are the different types of electric braking? (Nov /Dec 2013) (May/ June 2013)
1. Dynamic or Rheostatic braking,

2. Counter current or plugging and
3. Regenerative braking
9. What are the different methods of braking of DC series motor? (Nov/Dec2015)
 Plugging
 Regenerative braking
 Dynamic braking
10. Why the losses at starting are not a factor of consideration in a continuous duty motor?
ww While selecting a motor for this type of duty it is not necessary to give importance to the heating
caused by losses at starting even though they are more than the losses at rated load. This is
w because the motor does not require frequent starting it is started only once in its duty cycle and
.Ea
the losses during starting do not have much influence on heating.
11. What is meant by regenerative braking? (Nov/Dec 2012),?(Nov/Dec 2007)
syE
In the regenerative braking operation, the motor operators as a generator, while it
is still connected to the supply. Here, the motor speed is greater than the synchronous
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speed. Mechanical energy is converted in to electrical energy, part of which is returned to
the supply and rest of the energy is last as heat in the winding and bearing
nee
12. Discuss briefly about counter-current braking of DC Shunt Motor. (Apl/may2011).
In this method, armature connections are reversed and hence motor tends to run in
rin
opposite direction. Due to reversal of the armature terminals, applied voltage V and back emf
Eb starts acting in the same direction and hence the total armature current exceeds. To limit
g.n
this armature current a variable resistor is connected across the armature. This is similar for
both series and shunt wound methods.
13. Draw the speed torque characteristics of DC series motor. (Nov/Dec2009)

e t
14. What is the function of commutator?

Conduct electricity between rotating armature and fixed brushes, convert alternating EMF into
unidirectional EMF.

15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of plugging?

 Advantage
i. Simple control scheme, except for the requirement of a relay of stop the
motor.
ii. Uniform current loading of the three phase during the process of braking.
 Disadvantage
i. Energy loss is high.
ii. Increased heating of the machine.
16. What are the different types of electric braking? (AU-MAY-05, 09) (AUC-NOV-09)
 Dynamic or Rheostatic braking,
 Counter current or plugging and
 Regenerative braking.
ww
17. What is meant by plugging? (AU-APR-08) (AU-NOV-06) (AUC-NOV-09, 10) (AUC-MAY-
08)
The plugging operation can be achieved by changing the polarity of the motor there by
w
reversing the direction of rotation of the motor. This can be achieved in ac motors by changing
the phase sequence and in dc motors by changing the polarity.
.Ea
18. Define synchronous speed.(AU,May-2008)
Three phase balanced power supply is fed to the three stator winding of the three phase
syE
induction motor. It creates a synchronously rotating magnetic field. The speed of this rotating
field is called synchronous speed. It given by
Ns = 120f/p RPM
Where Ns = synchronous speed in rpm ngi
P = no.of stator poles
F = supply frequency in Hz. nee
19. How will you change the direction of rotation of DC motor?
rin
Either the field direction or direction of current through armature conductor is reversed.
20. Why a single phase induction motor cannot self-start? (AU,May-2006)

g.n
e
Single phase supply is fed to the single phase induction motor. Its stator winding
produces a flux which is only alternates along one space axis only. It is not a
synchronously revolving flux, as in the case of a two – or a three phase stator winding, t
fed from a 2 or 3 phase supply. Now alternating or pulsating flux acting on a stationary
squirrel cage rotor cannot produce rotation. That is why a single phase motor is not self –
starting.
21. Draw the speed torque characteristics of DC shunt motor?

22. Give some examples for individual electric drive.

Single spindle drilling machine, Lathe machines etc.
23. Give some examples of Electric Drives.
i. Driving fans, ventilators, compressors and pumps.
ii. Lifting goods by hoists and cranes.
iii. Imparting motion to conveyors in factories, mines and warehouses
iv. Running excavators & escalators, electric locomotives trains, cars trolley buses, lifts & drum
winders etc.
24. Discuss briefly about counter current braking or plugging of DC Shunt
motor.(Apl/May, 2011)
Counter current braking or plugging occurs when the motor windings are connected for
reverse direction of rotation at a time when the armature is still rotating in the forward
ww direction either under the action of an external torque or due to inertia.

25. Draw the speed torque variation of a type of load.(may/jun, 2006, jun 2015)
w i. Constant torque type
.Ea
ii.Torque proportional to speed
syE
ngi
26. List out some examples of prime movers. nee
I.C Engines, Steam engine, Turbine and Electric motors
27. List out some applications for which continuous duty is required. rin
Centrifugal pumps, fans, conveyors & compressors
28. Give some applications of DC shunt motor. g.n
pumps
29. Define slip.
S = Ns – Nr
e
Driving constant speed, lathes, centrifugal pumps, machine tools, blowers and fans, reciprocating
t
Where, Ns = synchronous speed in rpm.
Nr = rotor speed in rpm
S = Slip

1. Explain the characteristics of dc shunt motors with a neat diagram? (AU-NOV-05, 08,
06) (AU-MAY-05, 07, 09)
 Electrical characteristics
i. Torque / Armature current characteristics
ii. Speed / Armature current characteristics
 Mechanical characteristics
i. Speed / Torque characteristics
DC shunt motors - Torque - Armature current characteristics
ww
w .Ea
syE
ngi
nee
 For a constant value of Rsh and supply voltage V, Ish is also constant and hence flux is
also constant.
 Ta  Ia
rin
g.n
 As load increases, armature current increases, increasing the torque developed linearly.
 On no load Tsh = 0. The current required is Ia0 on no load to produce Ta0 and hence Tsh
graph has an intercept of Ia0 on the current axis.
DC shunt motors - Speed - Armature current characteristics

e t

 From the speed equation we get, NV – Ia Ra as φ is constant.

 So as load increases, the armature current increases and hence drop IaRa also increases.
 Hence for constant supply voltage, V – Ia Ra decreases and hence speed reduces.
 But as Ra is very small, for change in Ia from no load to full load, drop IaRa is very small
and hence drop in speed is also not significant from no load to full load.
 The speeds of the dc shunt motor decreases with increase in armature current due to loading.
 The drop is speed from no load to full load will be about 3 to 6 percent.
 But the armature reaction effect weakens the field on load and tends to oppose drop in speed
so that the rarely drops by more than about 5 percent from no load to full load.
 Therefore shunt motor is considered as constant speed motor.
ww
DC shunt motors - Speed - Torque characteristics
w .Ea
syE
ngi
nee
 This curve shows that the speed almost remains constant though torque changes from no load to full load
conditions. This is shown in the above graph
rin
g.n
2. Explain the characteristics of dc series motors with a neat diagram? (AU-MAY-05, 07)
(AU-NOV-06, 10)
D.C. series motor. e t

D.C. series motor- Torque - Armature current characteristics
ww  For the series motor the series field winding is carrying the entire armature current hence,
o Ta  φIa  Ia 2
w
 Thus torque in case of series motor is proportional to the square of the armature current.
This relation is parabolic in nature as shown in the above graph
.Ea
 As load increases, armature current increases and torque produced increases proportional
to the square of the armature current up to a certain limit.
syE
 Saturation means though the current through the winding increases, the flux produced
remains constant. Hence after saturation the characteristics take the shape of straight line
as flux becomes constant, as shown.
ngi
nee
D.C. series motor- Speed - Armature current characteristics
From the speed equation we get,
rin
g.n
e t
as φ  Ia in case of series motor

 The values of Ra and Rse are so small that the effect of change in Ia on speed overrides
the effect of change in V – Ia Ra – Ia Rse on the speed.
 Hence in the speed equation, Eb  V and can be assumed constant
 So speed equation reduces to, N (1/Ia)
 So speed - armature current characteristics is rectangular hyperbola type as shown in the
above graph
D.C. series motor- Speed - Torque characteristics
ww
w .Ea
 syE
In case of series motors, T  I2a and N (1\Ia)


Hence we can write, N 1/√T
ngi
Thus as torque increases when load increases, the speed decreases.


nee
On no load, torque is very less and hence speed increases to dangerously high value.
Thus the nature of the speed – torque characteristics is similar to the nature of the speed -
armature current characteristics.
 The speed - torque characteristics of a series motor is shown in graph
rin
g.n
3. Write the types of electric braking in dc shunt motor and draw its characteristics
waveforms? (AU-NOV-05, 10) (AU-MAY-07) (AU-APR-08) (AUC-APR-11) (AUC-
MAY-08)
There are three types of electric braking namely,

e t
 Rheostatic or Dynamic braking
 Plugging or counter current braking or reverse current braking
 Regenerative braking
Electric braking of DC shunt motors Rheostatic braking
In this method of braking, the armature is disconnected from the supply and is connected
across a variable resistance R.
The field winding is left connected across the supply and it is undisturbed. The braking effect is
controlled by varying the series resistance R.

Speed-torque characteristics under dynamic braking
ww It will be a straight line through the origin in the second quadrant .In the first quadrant
,the curve shows that the motor is operating steadily for a given load torque TL at the
wpoint A on its natural characteristics.
.Ea
 The speed no represents ideal no load speed. Due to braking the operating point shifts to
point B on the characteristics in the II quadrant from point A. The motor then decelerates
syE
along B O to stand still condition.
 The slope of the braking characteristics in II quadrant can be controlled by varying the
braking resistor R.Hence, any braking time can be obtained by proper choice of the
braking resistor,R.
ngi
Plugging (or) counter current braking
nee
rin
g.n
e t
 In this method of breaking, connections to the armature terminals are reversed so that motor
tends to run in the opposite direction. Due to the reversal of armature connections, both V
and Eb start acting in the same direction around the circuit.
 In order to limit the armature current to a safe value, it is essential to insert a resistor in the
circuit while reversing the armature connections.
 When compared with rheostat braking, plugging gives better braking torque. This method is
commonly used for Printing presses, elevators, rolling mills and machine tools.

Regenerative braking
ww
w .Ea
syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e
 This method is used when the load on the motor has overhauling characteristics as in the
t
lowering of the case of a hoist or downgrade motion of electric train
 Regenerative takes place when Eb becomes greater than V. this happens when the
overhauling load acts as a prime mover and so drives the machine as a generator.
 Hence, the direction of Ia and armature torque is reversed and speed falls until eb becomes
less than V. During slowing down of the motor, power is returned to the line which may be
used for supplying another train on an upgrade motion there by essential to have some type
of mechanical braking also in order to hold the load in the event of power failure.
 At zero torque characteristics passes through the point corresponding to ideal no load speed,
no as in the case of motoring. From the characteristics curves, it is clear that, higher the

armature circuit resistance, the higher is the speed at which the motor has to run for a given
braking torque.
4. Draw and explain the torque-speed characteristics of three phase induction motor with
necessary equation. (May/june2006) (Apl/may2010)
Typical Torque-Speed characteristics of a poly phase induction motor
The general shape of the torque speed or torque slip-curve with the motor connected to a
constant voltage, constant frequency source is shown in Fig 2.14
ww
w .Ea
syE
ngi
nee
Figure 2.14 typical torque-speed characteristic of three phase induction motor.
(i) Motoring region: 0≤s≤1)

rin
For this range of slip, the mechanical power is outputted or torque developed is in the
direction in which the rotor rotates. Also
g.n
(a) Torque is zero at s=0
(b) The torque has a maximum value, called the breakdown torque, (TBD), at slip, Sm.
e t
The motor would decelerate to a halt if it is loaded with more than the breakdown
torque.
(c) At s=1, ie when the rotor is stationary the torque corresponds to the starting
torque, Ts. In a normally designed motor Ts is much less than T BD.
(d) The normal operating point is located well below TBD. The full load slip is
usually 2-8%
(e) The torque-slip characteristic from no-load to somewhat beyond full load is
almost linear.

(ii) Generating region: S<0
Negative slip- implies rotor running at super synchronous speed (n>n s). The load
resistance is negative, which means that mechanical power must be put in while
electrical power is put out at the machine terminals.
(iii)Plugging (1≤s≤2)
 In this region. The slip becomes greater than unity. So that the motor-rotates in the opposite
direction of a rotating magnetic field.
 This region occurs-only when the stator field is reversed by changing the phase sequence of
the input, supply of the motor. By changing the phase sequence, the direction of the rotating
ww magnetic field also changes (reverse).

 Under this condition the machine is quickly come to the stop, and if the supply is not
disconnected, the motor starts to rotate in the reverse direction.
w
 Here, the torque is positive but the speed is negative, so plugging torque appears as braking
.Ea
torque. This method of braking of the induction motor is known as plugging. The energy due
to the plugging torque is dissipated with in the machine and therefore machine gets heated
5. Explain the braking of an induction motor (Nov/Dec2009)
syE
Braking on AC induction motors
Regenerative braking
Dynamic braking
Plugging (op) counter current braking ngi
nee
Regenerative braking in the regenerative braking the energy is returned to the supply, is
possible if the motor runs faster that its synchronous speed.
rin
g.n
e t

The motor torque approach to zero as the motor begins to approach the no load speed i.e the
synchronous speed .the further increase in the motor speed, the motor will acts as a
generator ,connected in parallel to the supply and ill return electric energy. the regenerative
braking operation ia represented by the portions of the speed torque characteristics extended
into the second quadrant. The maximum torque developed on regenerative braking operation
will react a higher value than on motoring operation .this can be calculated as below,
Application
This braking are in crane hoists, excavators etc.
ww
Dynamic braking
w
Dynamic braking of an induction motor is used achieved by switching over its starter to a DC
supply and shunting the rotor external resistance.
.Ea
syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t
 To perform dynamic braking the switch Sw1 is opened and cut off a.c apply the DC
power. For limiting the current the rotor is connected to a suitable resistor Rb .
 The flow of direct current sent through the starter winding sets up a stationary
magnetic flux. Rotation of the rotor in this field will produces a flow of induced
alternating current in the rotor which also sets up a magnetic field, stationary with
respect to the starter.

 Due to the interaction of the resultant magnetic field set up by the stator winding, the
rotor circuit resistance and the speed of the rotor.
Plugging (or) Counter current braking
ww
Plugging or reverse current braking condition is achieved by reversing the direction of the
w
field. The direction of rotation of the field in the air gap depends on the phase sequence
.Ea
connections of the stator windings.
syE
When the three phase stator windings are connected in the RYB sequence, the air gap field
rotates in one direction at synchronous speed. When the sequence of the stator winding is
changed say, to RYB, the field reverses its direction. In practice this is done by
ngi
interchanging the supply of any two terminal of the motor input.
nee
6. Explain in the multi quadrant operation of motor driving hoist.
Multi-Quadrant Operation
rin
g.n
e t

For consideration of multi-quadrant operation of drives, it is useful to establish suitable

conventions about the signs of torque and speed. A motor operate in two modes-motoring and
braking. In motoring, it converts electrical energy to mechanical energy, which supports its
motion. In braking, it works as a generator converting mechanical energy to electrical energy,
and thus, opposes the motion. Motor can provide motoring and braking operations for both
forward and reverse directions.
Figure shows the torque and speed coordinates for both forward and reverse motions. Power
developed by a motor is given by the product of speed and torque.
Quadrant I
The quadrant I operation of a hoist requires the movement of the cage upward, which
ww
corresponds to the positive motor speed which is in CCW direction here. This motor will be
obtained if the motor products positive torque in CCW direction equal to the magnitude of load
torque TL1. Since developed power is positive, this is forward operation.
w
Quadrant II
.Ea
syE
Operation in quadrant II is obtained when an empty cage is moved up since a counter
weight is heavier than an empty cage; it is able to pull it up. In order to limit the speed within a
safe value, motor must produce a braking torque equal to T L2 in clock wise direction. Since
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speed is positive and developed power is negative, it is forward braking operation.
Quadrant III
nee
Operation in quadrant III is obtained when an empty cage is lowered. Since an empty
rin
cage has a lesser weight than a counter weight, the motor should produce a torque in clockwise
direction. Since speed is negative and developed power is positive, this is reverse motoring
operation.
g.n
Quadrant IV
e
Quadrant IV operation is obtained when a loaded cage is lowered. Since the weight of
the. Loaded cage is higher than that of a counter weight. It is able to come down due to the
t
gravity itself.

CHENNAI – 600 123
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
ww EE 6351-ELECTRICAL DRIVES AND CONTROL
UNIT-III
w .Ea STARTING METHODS

Types of d.c motor starters-typical control circuits for shunt and series motors-three
syE
phase squirrel and slip ring induction motors
ngi
Prepared By nee Approved by
rin
g.n
e t
Principal


PART-A
1. Mention the Starters used to start a DC motor. (April /May 2014)
 Two point Starter

 Three point Starter
 Four point Starter
2. Mention the Starters used to start an Induction motor. (May/June 2012), (Nov/Dec
2010)
 D.O.L Starter (Direct Online Starter)
ww  Star-Delta Starter
 Auto Transformer Starter
w  Reactance or Resistance starter
.Ea
 Stator Rotor Starter (Rotor Resistance Starter)
syE
3. What are the protective devices in a DC/AC motor Starter? (Nov/Dec 2007)
 Over load Release (O.L.R) or No volt coil

 Hold on Coil
ngi
 Thermal Relays
 Fuses(Starting /Running) nee
 Over load relay
rin
g.n
4. Give the prime purpose of a starter for motors. (Nov/Dec 2014) (May/June 2012), (April
/May 2011)
e
When induction motor is switched on to the supply, it takes about 5 to 8 times full
load current at starting. This starting current may be of such a magnitude as to
cause objectionable voltage drop in the lines. So Starters are necessary. t
5. Give some advantages and disadvantages of D.O.L starter. (May/June 2013)
Advantages:
 Highest starting torque
 Low cost
 Greatest simplicity
Disadvantages:
 The inrush current of large motors may cause excessive voltage drop
in the weak power system
 The torque may be limited to protect certain types of loads.

6. Draw the Speed-Torque characteristics of an Induction motor with various values of

Rotor Resistance.(May/June 2012),(Nov/Dec 2010)
ww
7. Which type of starter is used for slip ring induction motor?(May/June 2012),(Nov/Dec
w
2014)
.Ea
Rotor resistance starter for slip ring induction motor.
syE
8. Mention the advantages of four point starter over three point starters. (Nov/Dec2015)
Three point starter-for armature speed control of dc motor (below rated speed)
ngi
Four point starter-for filed speed control of dc motor (above rated speed)
nee
9. What is the objective of rotor resistance starter (stator rotor starter)? (AUC-JAN-09)
(AUC-APR-11)
rin
To include resistance in the rotor circuit there by reducing the induced rotor current at
g.n
starting. This can be implemented only on a slip ring induction motor.
torque? (AUC-APR-08) (AUC-JAN-09)

e
10. Why squirrel cage induction motors are not used for loads requiring high starting
Squirrel cage motors are started only by reduced voltage starting methods which
lead to the development of low starting torque at starting. This is the reason why squirrel t
cage induction motors are not used for loads requiring high starting torque.
11. What is the objective of rotor resistance starter (stator rotor starter)? (AUC-JAN-09)
(AUC-APR-11)
To include resistance in the rotor circuit there by reducing the induced rotor current at
starting. This can be implemented only on a slip ring induction motor.
12. What are the methods to reduce the magnitude of rotor current (rotor induced current)
at starting?
 By increasing the resistance in the rotor circuit
 By reducing the magnitude of rotating magnetic field i.e by reducing the
applied voltage to the stator windings.

13. Draw the circuit diagram of a star-delta starter of 3 – phase induction motor.
(Apl/may2011).
ww
w .Ea
syE
14. Why motor take heavy current at starting?
When 3 phase supply is given to the stator of an induction motor, magnetic field rotating
ngi
in space at synchronous speed is produced. This magnetic field is cut by the rotor
conductors, which are short, circuited. This gives to induced current in them. Since rotor
nee
of an induction motor behaves as a short circuited secondary of a transformer whose
primary is stator winding, heavy rotor current will require corresponding heavy stator
balancing currents. Thus motor draws heavy current at starting
rin
15. Explain the rotor resistance starter allows fast start with heating of induction
motor.(Jan/Feb-2009)
g.n
e
In slip ring induction motor is normally started with rotor resistance starter. Here we can
t
apply full voltage to the stator winding. Due to this, motor start with fast as well as heating of
the motor.

1. Draw a neat schematic diagram of a three point starter and explain its working.
(Nov/Dec2009). (Nov/Dec2015)
Schematic diagram
Fig. shows the schematic diagram of a three-point starter for a shunt motor with
protective devices. It is so called because it has three terminals L, F and A. The starter consists of
starting resistance divided into several sections and connected in series with the armature. The
tapping points of the starting resistance are brought out to a number of studs. The three terminals
L, F and A of the starter are connected respectively to the positive line terminal, shunt field
terminal and armature terminal. The other terminals of the armature and shunt field windings are
connected to the negative terminal of the supply.
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The no-volt release coil is connected in the shunt field circuit. One end of the handle is
connected to the terminal L through the over-load release coil. The other end of the handle
moves against a spiral spring and makes contact with each stud during starting operation, cutting
out more and more starting resistance as it passes over each stud in clockwise direction.
Operation
(i) To start with, the d.c. supply is switched on with handle in the OFF position.

(ii) The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud. As soon as it comes in contact with the
first stud, the shunt field winding is directly connected across the supply, while
the whole starting resistance is inserted in series with the armature circuit.
(iii) As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the starting resistance is cut out of
the armature circuit in steps. The handle is now held magnetically by the no-
volt release coil which is energized by shunt field current.
(iv) If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted or if the field excitation is accidentally cut, the
no-volt release coil is demagnetized and the handle goes back to the OFF position
under the pull of the spring. If no-volt release coil were not used, then in case of
failure of supply, the handle would remain on the final stud. If then supply is
restored, the motor will be directly connected across the supply, resulting in an
excessive armature current.
(v) If the motor is over-loaded (or a fault occurs), it will draw excessive current from the supply.
ww This current will increase the ampere-turns of the over-load release coil and
pull the armature C, thus short-
is demagnetized and the handle is
circuiting the no volt release coil. The no-volt coil
pulled to the OFF position by the spring. Thus,
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Drawback
the motor is automatically disconnected from
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the supply.
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In a three-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected in series with the shunt field
circuit so that it carries the shunt field current. During speed control, speed is varied through
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field regulator; the field current may be weakened to such an extent that the no-volt release coil
may not be able to keep the starter arm in the ON position. This may disconnect the motor from
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the supply when it is not desired. This drawback is overcome in the four point starter.
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2. Draw a neat schematic diagram of a four point starter and explain its working.
(May/june2006)
g.n
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 The disadvantage of a three point starter is overcome in a four point starter by
connecting the hold-on coil across the line instead of in series with the shunt field
circuit. t
 This makes a wide range of field adjustments possible.
 The connection diagram for a four point starter is shown in Fig. Therefore, when the
starting arm touches the starting resistance, current from the supply is divided into
three paths.
 One through the starting resistance and armature, one through the field circuit and
one through the NVR coil.
 A protective resistance is connected in series with the NVR coil (or) Hold-on
magnet coil.

 With this arrangement, any change of current in the shunt filed circuit not at all
affect the current passing through the HOLD-ON coil because the two circuits are
independent of each other.
 It means that the electromagnetic pull exerted by the Hold-on coil will always be
sufficient and will prevent the spring from restoring the starting arm to OFF position
no matter how the field rheostat or regulator is adjusted.
The starter terminals are
L+ or L1 – Terminal that is connected to supply (Line)
L- or L2 – Terminal that is connected to the No volt coil (NVR or NVC)
ww F – Terminal that is connected to shunt field winding
w A – Terminal that is connected to the armature of the motor
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Function of over load release (OLR) or Over Current magnet (OC)
 When the load on motor increases above the rated limit then the armature takes high current.
 When the motor is left unprotected from this high current, then it is damaged, the over
current magnet is used for this protection.
 When there is high current due to over load or due to short circuit the over current magnet is
energized and attracts soft iron rod H.

 As a result, the soft, iron rod H closes the switch S. When the switch S is closed, it short
circuits the No-Volt magnet. As a result No Volt magnet is de-energized and release the
starter handle to the Off position. So the motor is switched off' and protected from the over
current or high current.
Function of No volt release (NVR) or No volt coil (NVC)
 The No Volt magnet keeps starter handle at run position against the control spring. The No-
Volt magnet attracts the soft iron bar placed in the handle.
 The No-Volt magnet is energized by the .current flowing through the field circuit.
 If there is no No-Volt magnet the starter handle is pulled back the Off position by the control
spring and the motor Point Starter is switched Off.
ww
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3. Explain the different starting methods of three phase squirrel cage induction motors with
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neat sketches. (Apl/may2010)
1.
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Direct online starter (DOL)
Stator resistance starter
3.
4.
Autotransformer starter
Star-delta starter
5. Rotor resistance starter ngi
1. Direct online starter (DOL) nee
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 In case of small capacity motors having rating less than 5 h.p., the starting current is not very
high and such motors can withstand such starting current without any starter.
 Thus there is no need to reduce applied voltage, to control the starting current. Such motors
use a type of starter which is used to connect stator directly to the supply lines without any
reduction in voltage.
 Hence the starter is known as direct on line starter. Though this starter does not reduce the
applied voltage, it is used because it protects the motor motor from various severe abnormal
conditions like over loading, low voltage, single phasing etc.
 The NO contact is normally open and NC is normally closed. At start, NO is pushed for
fraction of second due to which coil gets energized and attracts the contactor.
 So stator directly gets supply. The additional contact provided, ensures that as long as supply
is ON, the coil gets supply and keeps contactor in ON Position.
 When NC is pressed, the coil circuit gets opened due to which coil gets de-energized and
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motor gets switched OFF from the supply.
 Under over load condition, current drawn by the motor increases due to which is an excessive
heat produced, which increases temperature beyond limit. Thermal relays get opened due to
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high temperature, protecting the motor from overload conditions.
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2. Stator resistance starter
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 In order to apply the reduced voltage to the stator of the induction motor, three resistances
are added in series with each phase of the stator winding.
t
 Initially the resistances are kept maximum in the circuit. Due to its large voltage gets dropped
across the resistances.
 Hence a reduced voltage gets applied to the stator which reduces the high starting current.
The schematic diagram showing stator resistances is shown in the Fig
 When the motor starts running, the resistances are gradually cut-off from the stator circuit.
When the resistances are entirely removed from the stator circuit i.e. rheostats in RUN
position then rated voltage gets applied to the stator.
 Motor runs with normal speed. The starter is simple in construction and cheap.
 It can be used for both star and delta connected stator. But there are large power losses due to
resistances.
 Also the starting torque of the motor reduces due to reduced voltage applied to the stator.

3. Auto Transformer Starter
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 A three phase star connected autotransformer can be used to reduce the voltage applied to the
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stator. Such a starter is called an autotransformer starter.
 The schematic diagram of autotransformer starter. The schematic diagram of autotransformer
starter is shown in the Fig It consists of a suitable change over switch.
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 When the switch is in the start position, the stator winding is supplied with reduced voltage.
This can be controlled by tappings provided with autotransformer
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 When motor gathers 80% of the normal speed, the changeover switch is thrown into run
position. Due to this, rated voltage gets applied to stator winding.
 The motor starts rotating with normal speed. Changing of switch is done automatically by
using relays. The power loss is much less in this type of starting.
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 It can be used for both star and delta connected motors. But it is expensive than stator
resistance starter.
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4. Star-delta starter
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 This is the cheapest starter of all and hence used very commonly for the induction motors. It
uses tripple pole double throw (TPDT) switch.
 The switch connects the stator winding in star at start. Hence per phase voltage gets reduced
by the factor 1/√3.
 Due to this reduced voltage, the starting current is limited. When the switch is thrown on
other side, the winding gets connected in delta, across the supply.
 So it gets normal rated voltage. The windings are connected in delta when motor gathers
sufficient speed.
 The operation of the switch can be automatic by using relays which ensures that motor will
not start with the switch in Run position.

 The cheapest of all and maintenance free operation are the two important advantages of this
starter.
 While its limitations are, it is suitable for normal delta connected motors and the factor by
which voltage changes is 1/√3 which cannot be changed
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4. Explain with neat diagram the starting of three phase slip ring induction motor. )
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(may/june2006)(Apl/may2011).
5. Explain the operation of a rotor rheostat starter for a 3 phase induction motor. (16)
(Nov/Dec2009).(Apl/may2011).
Rotor rheostat starter or Rotor resistance starter
t
The slip ring motors are practically always started with full line voltage applied across
the stator terminals. The value of starting current is adjusted by introducing a variable resistance
in the rotor circuit. The controlling resistance is in the form of rheostat connected in star (Fig.),
the resistance being gradually cut out of the rotor circuit as the motor gathers speed.
By increasing the rotor resistance, riot only the motor current is reduced at starting but at
the same time torque is also increased due to improvement in power factor. The rheostat is either
of stud or contactor type and may be hand operated or automatic.

The introduction of additional external resistance in the rotor circuit enables slip ring
motor to develop a high starting torque with reasonable starting current. Hence, such motors can
be started under load.
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ROTOR RESISTANCE STARTER
When the motor runs under normal conditions the rings are short circuited and brushes
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will be automatically lifted from them.
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Slip-ring motors are invariably started by rotor resistance starting. In this method, a variable star-
connected rheostat is connected in the rotor circuit through slip rings and full voltage is applied
to the stator winding as shown in Fig.
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At starting, the handle of rheostat is set in the OFF position so that maximum
resistance is
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placed in each phase of the rotor circuit. This reduces the starting current and at
the same
time starting torque is increased. g.n
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As the motor picks up speed, the handle of rheostat is gradually moved in
clockwise direction and cuts out the external resistance in each phase of the rotor
circuit. When the motor attains normal speed, the change-over switch is in the ON
t
position and the whole external resistance is cut out from the rotor circuit.
6. Draw and explain the manual Star Delta starter for three phase induction motor.
The stator winding of the motor is designed for delta operation and is connected in star
during the starting period. When the machine is up to speed, the connections are changed to
delta. The circuit arrangement for star-delta starting is shown in Fig.
The six leads of the stator windings are connected to the changeover switch as shown. At
the instant of starting, the changeover switch is thrown to “Start” position which connects the

stator windings in star. Therefore, each stator phase gets V/3 volts where V is the line voltage.
This reduces the starting current. When the motor picks up speed, the changeover switch is
thrown to “Run” position which connects the stator windings in delta. Now each stator phase
gets full line voltage V.
The disadvantages of this method are:
(a) With star-connection during starting, stator phase voltage is 1/3 times the line voltage.
Consequently, starting torque is (1/3)2 or 1/3 times the value it would have with -
connection.
This is rather a large reduction in starting torque.
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(b) The reduction in voltage is fixed.
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This method of starting is used for medium-size machines (upto about 25 H.P.).
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Relation between starting and F.L. Torques. In direct delta starting,
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Starting current/phase, Isc = V/Zsc
In star starting, we have,

Starting line current = 3 Isc where V = line voltage
Starting current/phase, I st 
V/ 3
Z sc

1
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I sc
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Star – Delta Starter
2 2 2
Tst  I st   I  Tst 1  I sc 
 s f   sc  s or   sf
T f  I f   3I
 f
 f
 T f 3  I f 

Where Isc = starting phase current (delta), If = F.L. phase current (delta)
Note that in star-delta starting, the starting line current is reduced to one-third as
compared to starting with the winding delta connected. Further, starting torque is reduced to one-
third of that obtainable by direct delta starting. This method is cheap but limited to applications
where high starting torque is not necessary e.g., machine tools, pumps etc.
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It is clear that the star-delta starting reduces the starting torque to one to one third that
obtainable by direct delta starting and also the starting line current the star-delta starter is
equivalent to an auto-transformer of ratio of 1/3 or 58% tapping approximately.
g.n
7. Draw and explain the manual auto-transformer starter for three phase induction
motor.
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These starters are also called as auto-starters (or) compensators. It consists of an auto-
transformer with necessary switches. This method can be used for both star and delta connected
motors. Reduced voltage for starting can be obtained from three auto transformers connected in
star as shown in Fig. If the voltage is reduced to a fraction x of the rated voltage V, the motor
starting current is I st  xI sc
The tapping on the autotransformer is so set that when it is in the circuit, 65% to 80% of
line voltage is applied to the motor. At the instant of starting, the change-over switch is thrown to
“start” position. This puts the autotransformer in the circuit and thus reduced voltage is applied
to the circuit. Consequently, starting current is limited to safe value. When the motor attains

about 80% of normal speed, the changeover switch is thrown to “run” position. This takes out the
autotransformer from the circuit and puts the motor to full line voltage. Autotransformer starting
has several advantages viz low power loss, low starting current and less radiated heat. For large
machines (over 25 H.P.), this method of starting is often used. Auto-transformers may be either
manually or magnetically operated.
Relation between starting and F.L. Torques. Consider a star-connected squirrel cage
induction motor. If V is the line voltage, then voltage across motor phase on direct switching is
V/3 and starting current is Ist = Isc. In case of autotransformer, if a tapping of transformation
ratio K (a fraction) is used, then phase voltage across motor is xV / 3 and Ist = x Isc,
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Autotransformer Starter
I st  xI sc
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Tst  I st


2

 s f   xI sc

2
 sf or
Tst I
 x 2  sc

2
 sf g.n
T f  I f 

 If


 Tf  If



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It is found that while the starting torque is reduced to a fraction x2 of that obtainable by
direct starting, the starting line current is also reduced by the same fraction. Compared to the
t
primary resistors starting, the line current reduces further a fraction x while torque remains the
same. The auto-transformer starting is much superior to primary resistors starting. Also smooth
starting and high acceleration are possible by gradually raising the voltage to the full line value.

Slip-Ring Motors Vs Squirrel Cage Motors

The slip-ring induction motors have the following advantages over the squirrel cage motors:
(i) High starting torque with low starting current.
(ii) Smooth acceleration under heavy loads.
(iii) No abnormal heating during starting.
(iv) Good running characteristics after external rotor resistances are cut out.
(v) Adjustable speed.
The disadvantages of slip-ring motors are:
(i) The initial and maintenance costs are greater than those of squirrel cage motors.
(ii) The speed regulation is poor when run with resistance in the rotor circuit
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SOFT STARTER
w A soft-starter has different characteristics to the other starting methods. It has thyristors in the
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main circuit, and the motor voltage is regulated with a printed circuit board. The soft-starter makes use of
the fact that when the motor voltage is low during start, the starting current and starting torque is also low.
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The soft starter eliminates unnecessary jerks during the start. Gradually, the voltage and the
torque increase so that the machinery starts to accelerate One of the benefits with this starting method is
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the possibility to adjust the torque to the exact need, whether the application is loaded or not. In principle
the full starting torque is available, but with the big difference that the starting procedure is much more
forgiving to the driven machinery, with lower maintenance costs as a result.
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Another feature of the soft starter is the soft stop function, which is very useful when stopping
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pumps where the problem is water hammering in the pipe system at direct stop as for star-delta starter and
direct-on-line starter. The soft stop function can also be used when stopping conveyor belts to prevent
material from damage when the belts stop too quickly.
g.n
Soft starting an ac motor refers to any one of several starting methods that limit the starting
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current and torque of the motor. The reduced voltage starters, and will be referred to as soft starting. Most
soft starters use voltage control to limit the motor starting current and torque by continuously ramping the
applied motor voltage when starting and stopping. Other reduced voltage starting techniques cause a step t
change in the applied motor voltage, using electro mechanical contactor switching.
Simple Soft starter circuit

3 AC Supply
Main
Switch
OLR
ww SCR’s
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3 IM
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Soft starter circuit
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Speed torque characteristics of soft started motor
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g.n
Soft starting an ac motor refers to any one of several starting methods that limit the starting
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current and torque of the motor. The reduced voltage starters, and will be referred to as soft starting. Most
t
soft starters use voltage control to limit the motor starting current and torque by continuously ramping the
applied motor voltage when starting and stopping. Other reduced voltage starting techniques cause a step
change in the applied motor voltage, using electro mechanical contactor switching.
Operation of Soft Starters
By using six SCR’s in a back-to-back configuration as shown in figure, the soft starter is able to
regulate the voltage applied to the motor during starting from 0 volts up to line voltage. Timing of when
to turn on the SCR’s is the key to controlling the voltage output of a soft starter. During the starting
sequence the logic of the soft starter determines when to turn on the SCR’s. It does not turn on the SCR’s
at the point that the voltage goes from negative to positive, but waits for some time after that. This is
known as “phasing back” the SCR’s. The point that the SCR’s are turned on is set or programmed by
what is called initial torque, initial current or current limit setting.

Advantages of soft starter
 Reduced wear on mechanical gears, chains and sprockets, and unexpected repair of
broken belts and jammed gearboxes.
 Lower inventory of spare mechanical parts and operating costs.
 Increased production rates by reducing machine maintenance downtime.
 Prolonged life of electrical switchgear with lower inrush currents.
 Soft stops on pumping applications reduce piping system stresses and “hammer” effect.
 Energy optimizing reduces motor energy losses when operating motor below maximum
capacity.
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CHENNAI – 600 123
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UNIT-IV
CONVENTIONAL AND SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL OF D.C. DRIVES
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Speed control of DC series and shunt motors – Armature and field control, Ward-Leonard control
system - Using controlled rectifiers and DC choppers –applications.
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Prepared By
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Approved by
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Principal


PART-A
1. What are the different types of chopper? (Nov/Dec’15)
(a) First Quadrant chopper-motoring control.
(b) Second Quadrant chopper-braking control
(c) Two quadrant chopper
(d) Four quadrant chopper
2. What are the ways of speed control in dc motors? (April/May’08)
ww Field control - by varying the flux per pole. -for above rated speed
Armature control- by varying the terminal voltage -for below rated speed
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3. Write the disadvantages of armature resistance methods of speed control in DC shunt
motor. (Nov/Dec2015)
(a) This method of speed control is highly inefficient because more power is wasted in the
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controller resistance.
(b) Another disadvantage of this method is the change in speed with the change in load
becomes large.
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4. Give the Limitation of field control. (Nov/Dec’08)
 Speed lower than the rated speed cannot be obtained.
 It can cope with constant kW drives only.
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 This control is not suitable to application needing speed reversal.
5. What are the 3 ways of field control in DC series motor?(Nov/Dec 2014) g.n
 Field diverter control
 Armature diverter control
 Motor diverter control
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 Field coil taps control
 Series-parallel control
6. What are the main applications of Ward-Leonard system? (Nov/Dec’10)
 It is used for colliery winders.
 Electric excavators
 In elevators
 Main drives in steel mills and blooming and paper mills.

7. What are the merits and demerits of rheostatic control method? (April/May’11)
 Impossible to keep the speed constant on rapidly changing loads.
 A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance.
 Loss of power is directly proportional to the reduction in speed. Hence efficiency is
decreased.
 Maximum power developed is diminished in the same ratio as speed.
 It needs expensive arrangements for dissipation of heat produced in the controller
resistance.
 It gives speed below normal, not above.
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8. What are the advantages of field control method? (April/May’14)
 More economical, more efficient and convenient.
w  It can give speeds above normal speed.
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9. Compare the values of speed and torque in case of motors when in parallel and in
series. (April/May’10)
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 The speed is one fourth the speed of the motor when in parallel.
 The torque is four times that produced by the motor when in parallel.
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10. What is the effect of inserting resistance in the field circuit of a dc shunt motor on its
speed and torque? (Nov/Dec 2011)
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For a constant supply voltage, flux will decrease, speed will increase and torque
will increase.
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11. While controlling the speed of a dc shunt motor what should be done to achieve a
constant torque drive? (Nov/Dec’14)
g.n
 Applied voltage should be maintained constant so as to maintain field strength.
12. Write down the speed equation of a dc motor (Nov/Dec 2013)

N = (V – IaR a) / Kbφ
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Where
V = applied voltage
Ia = armature current
Ra = armature resistance
φ =flux
Kb= constant

13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of armature resistance control of dc shunt
motor? (May/ June 2013)
Advantages:
i. Simple method of speed control.
Disadvantages:
i. This method is highly inefficient, because more power is wasted in controller resistance.
ii. Change in speed with Change in load becomes large.
14. What is meant by armature resistance control? (May / June 2014)
A controller resistance is connected in series with armature. By varying the controller
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resistance R, the potential drop across the armature is varied. Therefore, the motor speed also
varied. This method of speed control only applicable for speed less than no load speed.
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15. List out the merits and demerits of Ward-Leonard method of speed control. (Nov/Dec
’06)
Advantages
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 Full forward and reverse speed can be achieved
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 A wide range of speed control is possible.
 Power is automatically regenerated to the ac line through the MG set when speed is reduced.
 Short-time over load capacity is large.
 The armature current of the motor is smooth.
Disadvantages
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

High initial cost
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The overall efficiency is low, less than 80% because of an additional MG set.



Costly foundation and large amount of space is required.
This drive produces noise.
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g.n
It requires frequent maintenance.
16. Define duty cycle of a chopper. (April/May’09)
e
Duty cycle is defined as the ratio between on time of chopper and total time of chopper. t
∝=

PART - B
1. Explain how the speed of a DC Shunt Motor can be varied both above and below the
rated speed. (Apl/may2010)
Field Control Method (Above Rated Speed)
Flux decreases
1 >  2
ww Speed
2
1
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rated
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Field control is the most common method. In this method speed can be varied above the
rated or base speed of the motor. The speed is inversely proportional to the field current. In this
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method of speed control back emf kept constant and varying field current so, flux can be varied
and hence the speed can be varied.
N
1

or N 
1
(   I f )
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g.n
If
The advantages of this method are:

1. Good working efficiency
2. Accurate speed control
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3. Speed control can be performed effectively even at light loads
4. Inexpensive
5. Provides smooth and step less control of speed
6. Very less losses
7. Speeds above rated speed can be obtained by this method
8. Since voltage across the motor remains constant, it continues to deliver constant
output. This characteristic makes this method more suitable for fixed output loads.
The drawbacks of this method are listed below:

1. Inability to obtain speeds below the basic speed.
2. Instability at high speeds because of-armature reaction.

3. The highest speed is limited electrically by the effects of armature reaction under weak
field conditions in causing motor instability and poor commutation. There is
possible commutator damage at high speeds.
Armature Rheostatic Control (below Rated Speed)

This method consists of obtaining reduced speeds by including external series resistance
in the armature circuit. It can be used with series, shunt and compound motor. This method is
used when speeds below the no load speed is required. It is common method of speed control for
series motors and is analogous in action to wound rotor induction motor control by series rotor
resistance. In this method of speed control flux or field kept constant and the armature resistance
is varied.
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Advantages
1. Ability to achieve speeds below basic speed.
w2. Simplicity and ease of connection.
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3. The possibility of combining the functions of motor starting with speed control.
Disadvantages
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1. Speed changes with every change in load, because speed variations depend not only on
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controlling resistance but on load current also. This double dependence makes it
impossible to keep the speed sensibly constant on sudden changing loads.
2. Large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance. Loss of power is directly
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proportional to the reduction in speed. So, efficiency is decreased.
3. Maximum power developed is diminished in the same ratio as speed.
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4. It needs expensive arrangement for dissipation of heat produced in the controller
resistance.
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5. It gives speeds below the normal, not above it, because armature voltage can be
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decreased (not increased) by the controller resistance.
6. Poor speed regulation for any given no load speed setting.
7. Difficulty in obtaining stepless control of speed in high power ratings. t
2. Explain the Ward-Leonard method of speed control of DC separately excited motor use a neat
sketch. (16) (Nov/Dec2009).(8) (Apl/may2011). (Nov/Dec2015)
In this method, it possible to control the speed of a dc motor by simply connecting its armature to
a variable voltage source. This method of speed control is known as the Ward-Leonard
method.
 The adjustable voltage for the armature is obtained from an adjustable voltage generator
while the field circuit is supplied from a separate source.

 This is illustrated in Fig. The armature of the shunt motor M2 (whose speed is to be
controlled, i.e., main motor) is connected directly to a d.c. generator G driven by a constant-
speed d.c. motor M1.
 The field of the shunt motor is supplied from a constant-voltage exciter E. The field of the
generator G is also supplied from the dc bus.
 The voltage of the generator G can be varied by means of its field regulator R. By reversing
the field current of generator G by switch S, the voltage applied to the motor may be
reversed.
 Sometimes, a field regulator is included in the field circuit of shunt motor M1 for additional
speed adjustment. With this method, the motor may be operated at any speed upto its
maximum speed.
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 The motor M1 runs at an approximately constant speed, the output voltage of G is directly fed
to the main motor M2.
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field regulator of the generator.
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 The output voltage of the generator can be varied from zero to its maximum value by varying
 If the field current of generator G is reversed by means of reversing the switch S, generated
voltage can be reversed and hence the direction of rotation of main motor M2 is reversed.
t
 Modern installations SCR modules used for variable dc output voltage from AC mains
through a transformer.
 This arrangement is costlier, neat and relatively free from maintenance problems. It is also
easily adapted to feedback schemes for automatic control of speed.
Advantages:
1. Range of speed control from standstill to high speeds in either direction.

2. Rapid and instant reversal without excessive high armature currents.
3. Starting without the necessity of series armature resistance.

4. Step less and smooth control in either direction.

5. Extremely good speed regulation at any speed.
6. Regenerative braking is possible.
Disadvantages:
1. This arrangement is costlier, because it requires two extra machines.
2. The overall efficiency of the system is low, especially at light loads.
3. It requires more maintenance.
Applications:
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Inspite of high capital cost, this method finds wide applications in industries
w l. Steel mills for reversing the rolling mills
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2. Seamless tube mills and shears
3. High and medium speed elevators in tall buildings,
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4. Hoists and paper machine drives
5. Coillery winders and electric excavator.
3. ngi
Explain with neat sketches about the DC Shunt Motor speed control by using single
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phase fully controlled bridge converter. (Apl/may2011).
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A fully controlled rectifier fed separately excited dc shunt motor as shown in fig. It is two
quadrant converters in which the voltage polarity of output can reverse, but the load current remains
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same direction.In controlled rectifier, the output DC voltage is controlled by controlling the delay
angles (or firing angles) of the SCRs used in the converter.
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Single phase fully controlled bridge converter
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Average dc output voltage Vo or Vdc is given by
   
1 1 2Vm
V0 
T /2  vi dt    Vm sin t dt 

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
 cos t   ( vi  Vm sin t )
V0 
2Vm
cos for 0     rin
where, Vm – peak or maximum voltage

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 - Firing or delay angle
t
Note that this relation is only valid for continuous current mode. It describes the ‘average’ behavior of
the rectifier over a period of the output voltage.
4. Explain with neat sketch the chopper control method of speed control of DC Motors.
(May/june2006)
With a circuit explain speed control strategies of DC motor using first quadrant chopper. (16)
(Nov/Dec’15)
Chopper fed DC Series Motor Speed Control
The chopper fed dc series motor circuit shown in fig. Initially chopper is ON, the
armature draw the current Ia from supply and the inductance (series winding) stores the energy.
By varying the duty cycle  or  , voltage across the motor is varied and speed also varied. When

switch CH is ON (i.e chopper), the freewheeling diode Df is reverse biased with respect to motor
back emf (see circuit diagram) and it is OFF condition.
When switch CH is OFF (i.e chopper), then armature is disconnected from the
supply and connected to freewheeling diode Df . The freewheeling diode Df is now forward
biased with respect to motor back emf and it is ON condition. The stored energy in the
inductance is discharged through motor and freewheeling diode Df. The armature carries
continuous current due to freewheeling action. The continuous current waveform and
discontinuous current waveforms are shown in fig. In the discontinuous mode freewheeling
diode is absent.
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Chopper fed separately excited DC Shunt Motor Speed Control
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The chopper fed dc shunt motor circuit shown in fig. Initially chopper is ON, the
armature draw the current Ia from supply and the inductance (series winding) stores the energy.
By varying the duty cycle  or  , voltage across the motor is varied and speed also varied. When
switch CH is ON (i.e chopper), the freewheeling diode Df is reverse biased with respect to motor
back emf (see circuit diagram) and it is OFF condition.
When switch CH is OFF (i.e chopper), then armature is disconnected from the supply and
connected to freewheeling diode Df . The freewheeling diode Df is now forward biased with
respect to motor back emf and it is ON condition. The stored energy in the inductance is

discharged through motor and freewheeling diode Df. The armature carries continuous current
due to freewheeling action. The continuous current waveform and discontinuous current
waveforms are shown in fig. In the discontinuous mode freewheeling diode is absent.
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5. Explain the single phase half wave converter drive speed control for DC drive with wave
form.(April/May 2015)
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In the above circuit freewheeling diode is required always due motor loads. It is a one
quadrant operation drive. The application above drive is 0.5 kW power level. The freewheeling
diode is connected across the motor load to achieve the continuous conduction as shown in fig. t
If the load is inductive (i.e motor load) the build of the current is slow at start and
decaying inductive current continuous conduction of current after t = , For inductive loads a
freewheeling diode is placed across it in the circuit. At the end of the positive half cycle current
in inductive load decays by circulating through the freewheeling diode. The decay is affected at
its natural time constant.
The average dc output voltage across armature Vo or Va is given by
 
1 1 V
Vm sin t dt  m  cos t 

V0   vi dt   ( vi  Vm sin t )
T 2  2

Vm
V0  1  cos  for 0 <  <  where, Vm – peak or maximum voltage
2
 Increases
Speed
 = 0o
 = 30o
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Torque
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Speed Torque Characteristics for dc Series Motor Motor Equivalent Circuit
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Advantages:
1. It is improving the drive performance.

2. It is improve the power factor.
3. It is provide continuous load current.

Comparison between Choppers and Controlled Rectifiers
Sl.No. Choppers Controlled Rectifiers
1. Input is DC Input is AC
2. Input supply and rectifier decides the output
Switching frequency decides the output ripple
ripple
3. Small filters are required Large filters are required
4. Poor efficiency and poor power factor for
Higher efficiency and power factor
inductive loads
5. Effective regenerative braking Slow regenerative braking
6. Small and compact with complex circuit Costly and bulky with simple circuit
7. Forced commutation Natural or line commutation
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9.
Control circuit is simple
Pulsating torque is less
Control circuit is complex
Pulsating torque is more
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Problem:
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The armature and shunt field resistances of a 230 V shunt motor are 0.1Ω and 230Ω respectively.
It takes a current of 61 A at 1000 rpm. If the current taken remains unaltered, find the resistance to be
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included in series with the armature circuit to reduce the speed to 750 rpm.
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Problem:
A 230 V series motor running at a certain speed takes 28A. Its armature and series field
resistances are 0.4Ω and 0.1Ω respectively. Assume that the total torque varies as the cube of the speed
and flux is proportional to current. Find the resistance to be connected in series with the armature to
reduce the speed by 50 percent.
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6. Explain how the speed of a DC Series Motor can be varied both above and below the rated
speed. (Apl/may2010)
Speed control of DC Series Motor
1. Field control method
a. Armature diverter
b. Field diverter
c. Grouping of field coils (Series and Parallel Connection)
d. Tapped field control
e. Series – Parallel control
1. Armature Resistance or Rheostatic control
2. Armature voltage control
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Field or Flux control methods
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a. Field diverter control
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In this method, a variable resistance (called field diverter) is connected in parallel with
series field winding as shown in Fig. Its effect is to shunt some portion of the line current from
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the series field winding, thus weakening the field and increasing the speed ( N  1  ). The
lowest speed obtainable is that corresponding to zero current in the diverter (i.e., diverter is
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open). Obviously, the lowest speed obtainable is the normal speed of the motor. Consequently,
this method can only provide speeds above the normal speed. The series field diverter method is
N
1
or N 
1
(   I f ) nee
often employed in traction work. (R d – diverter resistance)
( Rd  , I f ), (  , N  )
 If
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Rd Increases
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Speed
Rd1 > Rd2
Rd2
Rd1
Rd = 0
Torque
Circuit diagram Speed - Torque characteristics
b. Armature diverter control

In order to obtain speeds below the normal speed, a variable resistance (called armature
diverter) is connected in parallel with the armature as shown in Fig. The diverter shunts some of
the line current, thus reducing the armature current. Now for a given load, if Ia is decreased, the

flux  must increase ( T   I a ). Since, N  1  the motor speed is decreased. By adjusting

the armature diverter, any speed lower than the normal speed can be obtained.
Rd Increases
Speed
Rd1 > Rd2
Rd M
Rd = 0
Rd1
Rd2
Torque
ww Circuit diagram
c. Tapped field control.
Speed - Torque characteristics
w In this method, the flux is reduced (and hence speed is increased) by decreasing the
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number of turns of the series field winding as shown in Fig. The switch S can short circuit any
part of the field winding, thus decreasing the flux and raising the speed. With full turns of the
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field winding, the motor runs at normal speed and as the field turns are cut out, speeds higher
than normal speed are achieved. This method is often employed in electric traction.
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Series Field
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Speed
1 > 2
Tappings rin 1
2

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Torque
Circuit diagram
d. Series – Parallel grouping of field coils.
Speed - Torque characteristics
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This method is usually employed in the case of fan motors. By regrouping the field coils t
as shown in Fig. several fixed speeds can be obtained.
Series field coils Series – Parallel field coils Series – Parallel field coils
with diverter

Series-Parallel Control
Another method used for the speed control of d.c. series motors is the series parallel
method. In this system which is widely used in traction system, two (or more) similar d.c. series
motors are mechanically coupled to the same load.
When the motors are connected in series [See Fig. (i)], each motor armature will receive
one-half the normal voltage. Therefore, the speed will be low. When the motors are connected in
parallel, each motor armature receives the normal voltage and the speed is high [See Fig. (ii)].
Thus we can obtain two speeds. Note that for the same load on the pair of motors, the system
would run approximately four times the speed when the machines are in parallel as when they
are in series.
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w .Ea Speed
Parallel
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Circuit diagrams (i) Series Connection nee

(ii) Parallel Connection Speed - Torque
characteristics
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2. Armature Resistance Control
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In this method, a variable resistance is directly connected in series with the supply to the
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complete motor as shown in Fig. This reduces the voltage available across the armature and
hence the speed falls.
R Increases t
R R1 > R2
Speed
R=0
R1
R2
Torque
Circuit diagram Speed - Torque characteristics
By changing the value of variable resistance, any speed below the normal speed can be
obtained. This is the most common method employed to control the speed of d.c. series motors.

Although this method has poor speed regulation, this has no significance for series motors
because they are used in varying speed applications. The loss of power in the series resistance for
many applications of series motors is not too serious since in these applications, the control is
utilized for a large portion of the time for reducing the speed under light-load conditions and is
only used intermittently when the motor is carrying full-load
3. Armature Voltage Control

In this method voltage applied to the motor is varied by suitable arrangement and motor
speed is decreases as shown in fig.
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V decreases
V1 > V2
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V1
Vrated
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Circuit diagram
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CHENNAI – 600 123
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UNIT-V
CONVENTIONAL AND SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL OF A.C. DRIVES
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Speed control of three phase induction motor – Voltage control, voltage / frequency
control, slip power recovery scheme – Using inverters and AC voltage regulators – applications.
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Prepared By nee Approved by
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Principal


PART-A
1. What is the principle of V/F control?( Nov/Dec 2014)
When the frequency is reduced the input voltage must be proportionally so as to maintain constant flux.
Otherwise the core will get saturated resulting in excessive iron loss and magnetizing current. The
maximum torque also remains constant under this condition. This type of control is known as V/F control.
This method is used for speed control below base frequency. This method is similar to armature voltage
control of Dc motor.
2. What is firing angle? (April/May’06)

The control of dc voltage is achieved by firing the thyristor at an adjustable angle with respect to the
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applied voltage. This angle is known as firing angle.
3. Give some applications of phase control converters. (Nov/Dec’06)
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Phase control converters are used in the speed control of fractional kW dc motors as well as in large
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motors employed in variable speed reversing drives for rolling mills. With motors ratings as large as
several MW ranges.
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4. What is the main purpose of free-wheeling diode? (Nov/Dec ’08)
Freewheeling diode is connected across the motor terminal to allow for the dissipation of energy stored in
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motor inductance and to provide for continuity of motor current when the thyristors are blocked.
5. What is a full converter? (Nov/Dec ’08)
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A full converter is a tow quadrant converter in which the voltage polarity of the output can reverse, but
the current remains unidirectional because of unidirectional thyristors.
6. What is natural or line commutation? (Nov/Dec ’10) rin
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The commutation which occurs without any action of external force is called natural or line commutation.
7. Classify commutation. (April/May’10)
Voltage commutation
Current commutation.
8. What is forced commutation? (Nov/Dec ’11)
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The commutation process which takes place by the action of an external force is called forced
commutation.
9. What are the two main difficulties of variable frequency system? (Nov/Dec’06)
Control of VA requires variation of chopper frequency over a wide range. Filter design for variable
frequency operation is difficult. At low voltage; a large value of toff makes the motor current
discontinuous.

10. What is current commutation? (April/May’06)

A current pulse is forced in the reverse direction through the conducting thyristor. As the net current
becomes zero, the thyristor is turned OFF. This is known as current commutation.
11. What are the different speed controls of controlling induction motor? (Nov/Dec 2014)
 Stator voltage control.
 Frequency control
 Pole changing control.
 Slip power recovery control.
12. Mention the two slip-power recovery schemes. (Nov/Dec’14)
 Static scherbius scheme
 Static Kramer drive scheme.
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13. Write short notes on inverter rectifier.(Nov/Dec’13)
The dc source could be converted to ac form by an inverter, transformed to a suitable voltage and then
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rectified to dc form. Because of two stage of conversion, the setup is bulky, costly and less efficient.
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14. Give the special features of static scherbius scheme.(April/May’13)
 The scheme has applications in large power fan and pump drives which requires speed
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control in wide range only.
 If max. slip is denoted by Smax, then power rating of diode, inverter and transformer can be
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just Smax times motor power rating resulting in a low cost drive.
 This drive provides a constant torque control.
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15. What is the various speed control methods used in AC motors? (Nov/Dec2015)
 Stator voltage control
 Supply frequency control rin
 Rotor resistance control
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 Slip power recovery control.
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PART – B
1. Explain in detail about Slip power recovery scheme. (Nov/Dec2015) (apl/may2010)
This system is mainly used for speed control of slip ring induction motor. The speed of
slip ring induction motor can be controlled either by varying the stator voltage or by controlling
the power flow in the rotor circuit.

Two methods are available using this principle. They are

i. Kramer System
ii. Scherbius System
Kramer system
This method is applicable to larger rating motors of 4000 kW or above. The main
advantage of this method is that, any speed within the working range i.e., smooth step less speed
control is possible.
The objective is to control the speed of main motor A. Auxiliary equipments needed are
DC motor and rotary converter. A separate DC supply is required to excite the field winding of
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dc motor and exciting winding of rotary converter. The variable resistance introduced in the field
circuit of de motor acts as field regulator (Fig.).
w The rotary converter converts the low slip frequency ac power into de power which is
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used to drive a de shunt motor B, mechanically coupled to the main motor A. The main motor is
coupled to the shaft of de shunt motor B. The slip rings of A are connected to the rotary converter
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C. The de output of C is used to drive B. Both C and B are excited from the de bus bar. When the
field resistance R is changed, back emf of motor B changes. Thus, the dc voltage at the
commutator of C changes.
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Schematics Arrangement of Conventional Kramer System
The rotary converter has a fixed ratio between ac side and de side voltages. Thus voltage
on its ac side also changes. This ac voltage is given to the slip rings of main motor A. So, the
voltage injected in the rotor of main motor changes which produces the required speed control.

Another advantage of this system is that, if rotary converter is over excited, it draws leading
current which compensates for the lagging current drawn by main motor A and hence power
factor improvement is also possible.
Scherbius System
In this method, a special 3 phase or 6 phase AC commutator motor, called as Scherbius
machine is used. The Scherbius machine is excited at slip frequency from the rotor of main
motor, through a regulating transformer. Either by varying the tap settings on the regulating
transformer or by changing the position of brushes of special machine, or by changing both,
voltage developed in the rotor of Scherbius machine can be varied. This is injected into the rotor
of main motor. This controls the speed of main motor (Fig.).
ww The main difference between the above two systems is that, here, slip energy is not
converted into de. The slip energy is directly fed to the Scherbius machine.
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The only disadvantage of these methods is that it can be applied for slip ring induction motors
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Schematics Arrangement of Conventional Scherbius System e
2. Explain the different methods of speed control used in three phase induction motors. t
(Nov/Dec2015) (apl/may2010) (Nov/Dec2007)
Control from stator side
1. By changing the applied voltage
2. By changing the applied frequency
3. By changing the number of stator poles
4. Voltage / frequency (V/f) control
Control from rotor side
1. Rotor rheostat control
2. By operating two motors in cascade
3. By injection of an emf in the rotor circuit
4. Slip power recovery control

Changing Applied Voltage
Although this is the easiest and most economical, this method is very rarely used due to
the following reasons.
ww A Large change in voltage is required even for a small change in speed. This large
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change in voltage will result in a larger change in flux density. It will disturb the magnetic
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conditions of motor, thereby affecting the performance of motor. Based on some approximate
relationship at low slip values, the following equations can be written.
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'
I2 
sV
R2
'
and T 
3 sV 2
2  ns R2 '
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It has a limited use for motors driving fan type loads whose torque requirement is proportional to
the square of the speed.
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It is a commonly used method for ceiling fans driven by single phase induction motors which
have large standstill impedance limiting the current drawn by the stator.
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Change in Stator Supply Frequency Control:
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of the motor is always close to the synchronous speed of the rotating flux. e
In steady state, the induction motor operates in the small-slip region, where the speed
t
120 f  120 f 
N  N s (1  s)  (1  s)  N s  
p  p 
Where ‘f’ is the frequency of the stator voltage and ‘p’ is the number of poles. Since the
synchronous speed is directly proportional to the frequency of the stator voltage, any change in
frequency results in an equivalent change in motor speed.
If you plot the motor speed torque characteristics for different values of supply frequencies,
you can obtain a family of characteristics.

These limitations are,

1. An increase in the no-load speed (synchronous speed).
ww 2. A decrease in the maximum torque.

3. A decrease in the starting torque.
w 4. An increase in speed at the maximum torque.

5. A decrease in the starting current.
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Changing Number of Stator Poles
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This method is easily applicable to squirrel cage motors because the squirrel cage motor
adopts itself to any number of stator poles.
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It is possible to have one, two or four speeds in steps, by changing the number of stator poles. A
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continuous smooth speed control is not possible by this method.
Multiple, stator winding method
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The change of number of poles is achieved by having two or more entirely independent
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stator-windings in the same slots of stator core. Each winding gives a different number of poles
and hence different synchronous speeds. Motors with four independent stator winding are also in
use and they give four different synchronous speeds.
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The various limitations of this method are,

i.. Only step change in speed is possible i.e., no smooth variation of speed.
ii. High cost of the motor.

iii. Design complexity

This method has been used for elevator motors, traction motors and also for small motors
driving machine tools.
Rotor Side Control

Rotor Resistance or Rheostat Control:
This method is similar to the armature resistance control method applied to DC shunt
motors. This method is applicable to slip ring induction motors alone and the speed is varied by
adding external resistance into the rotor circuit.
s
It has been already discussed that, for small slip values, T  Therefore, for the
R2
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constant torque given, slip can be increased i.e., speed can be decreased by increasing rotor
resistance R2. For this purpose, rotor starter may be used. If itself acts starting rheostat and speed
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controller. Otherwise, if we do not consider the starting arrangement, for controlling speed, we
can use a star connected rheostat as shown in Fig.
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Drawbacks
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1. with increase in rotor resistance, I2 R losses also increases. It will result in decrease in
efficiency.
2. Speed not only depends on rotor resistance R2, but also on the load.
There is double dependence of speed. Because of this accurate control is not possible.
Due to the above points, this method is used where speed changes are needed for short periods
only.

3. Explain the static Kramer method and static Scherbius method of speed control of three
phase induction motor. (Apl/may2011). (Nov/Dec2007) (Nov/Dec2015)
Static Kramer drive

 The slip power in the rotor circuit of an induction motor can be returned to the supply by
replacing the chopper and resistance Ro in Fig. with a three-phase full converter as shown in
Fig.
 The combination of the diode rectifier and phase controlled inverter is called a converter
cascade (or) sub synchronous cascade.
 The diode rectifier rectifies the slip frequency voltage of the rotor. The output of this rectifier
is connected to the phase controlled Thryristor Bridge which operates as an inverter.
 The slip power is returned back to the supply through the transformer.
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 Rectifier is connected to inverter through a smoothing inductor L. The phase control of the
inverter brings in speed control. For the inverter, the firing angle  will be large so that
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substantial power is fed back to the AC power bus.
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 A large value of  will result in a poor operating power factor. As the slip power is returned
to the mains, the machine has fairly good efficiency.
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 The machine always operators with nearly constant air gap flux, as decided by the fixed
stator voltage-and frequency.
 The losses in the circuits cause a slight reduction in efficiency. This efficiency is further
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affected by additional losses due to the non- sinusoidal nature of the rotor current.
 Therefore the drive motor must be slightly over dimensioned. The motor used must have a
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rating 20% higher than the required power. Constant power control is obtained by Static
Kramer Drive.
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Static Scherbius drive
 The CCV-based Scherbius drive system discussed in earlier figures can offer improved performance
if the CCV is replaced by the two-sided PWM voltage-fed converter system shown in this figure.
 The slip power can be controlled to flow in either direction and vector control can be easily applied
to both converters.
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 DC link voltage Vd should be sufficiently high so that both the line-side and machine-side
converters can always operate in under modulation mode (buck mode with respect to the dc link) to
fabricate sinusoidal machine and line currents.
 The PWM rectifier can easily track the variable frequency, variable-magnitude slip voltage
including the ideal dc condition at synchronous speed.
 This is basically dc-dc converter mode operation of the rectifier. The line-side step-down
transformer helps keep the converter rating low with reasonably low Vd.
 Note that the machine stator-side DPF is always lagging, but the line-side converter can be
controlled to be leading so that the total DPF can be maintained at unity.
4. Explain the various methods of speed control of a three phase induction motor when fed
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through semiconductor devices. (Apl/may2011).
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In order to obtain variable speed in an ac drive, the supply frequency, voltage or current
have to be varied. The power converters, inverters and ac voltage controllers can control the
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frequency, voltage and/or current to meet the drive requirements.
The speed and torque of induction motors can be varied by one of the following methods
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1. Stator Voltage Control
2. Voltage and frequency control
3. Slip power recovery scheme
Stator Voltage Control ngi
voltage at constant supply frequency. nee
 A simple method of controlling speed in a cage-type induction motor is by varying the stator
 Stator voltage control is also used for “soft start” to limit the stator current during periods of
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low rotor speeds. This type of speed control due to the simplicity of the drive circuit.
 The fig. shows two commonly used symmetrical three phase ac voltage controller for delta
and star connected stators. For small size motors, TRIACs may be used.
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e t

2
 From this expression, T  E 2  V 2 Varying applied voltage will also play a major role in
speed change
 Three-phase motors usually drive industrial fans and pumps. A phase controlled
thyristorised ac controller is used for getting a variable stator voltage at constant
frequency.
 This thyristor voltage controller for speed control of 3-phase Induction motors is shown in
Fig.
Advantages
1. The ac voltage controllers are very simple.
Disadvantages
1. Due to limited speed range requirements,
2. The harmonic contents are high
ww3. The input PF of the controllers is low.

4. Starting torque is low
w
Inverter fed three phase induction motor
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Various Configuration of Inverter fed three phase Induction Motor Drive
 In the stepped wave inverter the o/p frequency can be varied by varying T.
 o/p voltage can be varied by varying i/p DC voltage.
 When the i/p voltage is DC
 Variable DC i/p voltage is obtained by connecting a chopper b/w DC supply and
inverter.
 Here dc supply is given to the DC chopper
 DC chopper – fixed DC to variable DC voltage
 This voltage is fed to the filter
 Filter – filter out the harmonics in DC link voltage
 The DC voltage is fed to the six step inverter.
 The Inverter o/p voltage is variable fz variable voltage
ww  It is fed to the 3Φ IM
 When the i/p voltage is AC
 Variable DC i/p voltage is obtained by connecting a controlled rectifier b/w AC
w supply & inverter
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 It is shown in fig
 Here 3Φ AC supply is fed to the controlled rectifier
syE
 It converts fixed AC in to variable DC voltage
 This voltage is fed to the filter
 Filter reduces the harmonics
 The filtered o/p is fed to the inverter,
ngi
 The inverter o/p voltage can be varied by varying DC voltage.
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 The o/p frequency can be varied by time period of the inverter.
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5. Explain voltage source inverter fed AC drive speed control of induction motor with circuit and
its characteristics. (16) (Nov/Dec2015)
Voltage Source Inverter Fed Three Phase Induction Motor (VSI)
g.n
• An inverter is defined as converter that converts DC into AC.
– An inverter called VSI
e
– If viewed from load side, the AC terminals of the inverter function as a voltage
source.
t
i.e., the i/p voltage should be constant
• The VSI has low internal impedance.

– Because of this the terminal voltage of a VSI remains constant with variations in
load
• VSI allows a variable fz supply to be obtained from a DC supply.
• MOSFETs is used in low voltage & power inverters
– Power transistor & IGBT – medium power level
– GTOs, IGCTs – high power level
• Fig shows a VSI employing IGBTs
• Voltage source inverter can be operated as a
– Stepped wave inverter or

– PWM inverter
• Inverter operated as a stepped wave inverter,
– IGBTs are switched in the sequence of T/6
– Each IGBT is kept an duration T/2
- Fig shows stepped wave inverter line voltage waveform
One of the most common converter topologies that is very widely used in industry is
shown in this figure. It consists of a three-phase bridge inverter with a three-phase diode rectifier
in the front end or Battery Source. The rectifier (which can be single or three-phase) converts ac
to uncontrolled dc. The harmonics in the dc link are filtered by an LC or C filter to generate
smooth voltage Vd for the inverter. The inverter consists of three half-bridges or phase legs to
generate three-phase ac for industrial motor drives or other applications.
ww In all such cases, Vd is usually unregulated. The battery-fed inverter drive is commonly
used for electric/hybrid vehicle drives. Note that because of the diode rectifier in the front end,
w
the converter system cannot regenerate power. The filter capacitor CF sinks the harmonics from
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the rectifier as well as inverter sides.
syE
The three-phase inverter of Fig. can be operated in either the square-wave or PWM mode.
The waveforms in square-wave mode are explained in this figure. Three phase legs of the
inverter generate square waves at 120° mutual phase-shift angle, where the output phase voltage
ngi
magnitudes ( 0.5Vd) are shown with respect to the artificial dc link center point. The line
voltages vab, vbc, and vca are constructed by subtracting the adjacent phase voltages.
nee
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Vdc e t
Voltage source inverter fed three phase induction motor
For an isolated neutral Y-connected load, the phase voltage wave van due to the absence
of triplen (third or multiple of third) harmonics. The line and load phase voltages have

characteristic six-step wave shapes with suppression of triplen harmonic voltages. With three-
phase balanced load, the line currents are also balanced but may be rich in harmonics. In the
square-wave mode, output voltage control is not possible by the inverter and Vd variation reflects
to the output.
2 1 1
v an  v ao  vbo  v co
3 3 3
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Three-phase bridge inverter output voltage waves in square-wave (or Six-step) mode.

6. With neat speed-torque characteristics explain the voltage/frequency control of 3 phase

induction motor.(10) (Nov/Dec2009)
Constant V/f (Volt/Hertz) Control of Induction Motor:
Let,
V = rated voltage of the motor
f = rated frequency of the motor
When the motor is operated in constant v/f control with the base speed.
– For a frequency kf
– The motor terminal voltage will be kV
Where k is a factor such that 0< k <1,
ww The frequency is changes from 0 to rated frequency , voltage changes from o to rated
voltage V, k changes from 0 to 1
w For an induction motor the emf equation is
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E1 = 4.44 Kw Nph f r
syE
Where, V- Stator supply voltage
Kw – Stator winding factor
ngi
Nph – Stator series turns per phase
f - Stator supply frequency
nee
r – Resultant air gap flux per phase
E1 – Stator induced emf per phase
Neglecting losses E1  V
Also  r 
1 V 
 
4.44 N ph K w  f  rin
g.n
Therefore, if supply frequency is changed, the value of air gap flux also gets affected.
e
This may result into saturation of stator and rotor cores. Such a saturation leads to the sharp
increase in the no load current of the motor. Hence it is necessary to maintain air gap flux
constant when supply frequency is changed. To achieve this, when f is varied, V must be also
varied such that (V/f ) remains constant. t
• The speed control of 3 induction motor mostly prepares this control method.
• The increase in the supply frequency increases the motor speed and also reduces the max
torque of the motor.
• But the increase in voltage results in an increase in the max torque of the motor.
• If we combine these two features
– We can achieve a control design by which the speed increases and torque is kept
the same. This is known as V/f control.
• The change in V/f is a powerful method for speed control of induction motor.
• There are several variations where the V/f ratio is also adjusted to provide a special
operating performance.
• The most common method is the fixed V/f ratio.

• Fig shows the N-T char., for fixed V/f ratio.

• From the fig,
• Tm should be constant by keeping fixed V/f ratio
– The relation between max torque and V/f is, Tmax = k (V/f)2
• From this equation,
– (V/f) is maintained constant, T max also remains constant and air gap flux is also
constant.
– Therefore motor operates in constant torque mode
• The low frequency operation at a constant V/f is not satisfactory particularly at very
low frequency.
• Due to this very low frequency
– Starting torque and breaking torque considerably decreases and no - load
current increases.
ww – The air gap flux cannot be maintained constant at low frequency maintaining at
constant V/f ratio
– Therefore we can maintain the V/f ratio constant, the supply voltage should be
w increasing.
– The V/f control method,
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– One must be careful not to increase the voltage magnitude beyond the rating of
the motor.
syE
– The increased voltage can cause instant damage to the insulations of the motor
winding.
ngi
– Normally the voltage should be kept below 110% of the rated value.
– The main features are,
– The max torque should be constant.
– The starting current is also constant
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Voltage, V
Frequency, f
Constant V/ f Control Speed torque characteristics of Constant V/ f Control
• The torque and speed of induction motors can be controlled by changing the supply
frequency.
• We can notice from Eq. that at the rated voltage and rated frequency, the flux is the rated
value.

• If the voltage is maintained fixed at its rated value while the frequency is reduced below
its rated value, the flux increases.
• This would cause saturation of the air-gap flux, and the motor parameters would not be
valid in determining the torque-speed characteristics.
• At low frequency, the reactances decrease and the motor current may be too high. This
type of frequency control is not normally used.
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et
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PANIMALAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

CHENNAI – 600 123

ww DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

EE 6351-ELECTRICAL DRIVES AND CONTROL

EE 6351-Electrical Drives And Control Page 1

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Important Two mark Questions

EE 6351-Electrical Drives And Control Page 2

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EE 6351-Electrical Drives And Control Page 3

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12. What are the classes of duties?

EE 6351-Electrical Drives And Control Page 4

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Important 16 marks questions and answers

1. Explain in detail about block diagram of electric drives

An electric drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting electrical

Functions performed by Electric Drives:

1. Driving fans, ventilators, compressor and pumps, etc.,

Basic Elements of Electrical Drives

Power processor or power modulator

Since the electrical sources are normally uncontrollable, it is therefore necessary to be

EE 6351-Electrical Drives And Control Page 5

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More efficient-since ideally no losses occur in power electronic converters

Flexible-voltage and current can be shaped by simply controlling switching functions of

Power electronic converters ngi

DC motors (wound or permanent magnet)-DC voltage

EE 6351-Electrical Drives And Control Page 6

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Induction motors-squirrel cage, wound rotor-AC voltage

Synchronous motors-wound field, permanent magnet-AC voltage

Brushless DC motor-AC voltage

Stepper motor-require power electronic converters

Synchronous reluctance motors or switched reluctance motor-require power

ww Complexity depends on drive performance

Group drive rin

EE 6351-Electrical Drives And Control Page 7

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w In a multimotor drive each operation of the mechanism is taken care of by a separate

Fig types of electrical drives

EE 6351-Electrical Drives And Control Page 8

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3. Explain the Factors Influencing the Choice of Electrical Drives (6)

1. Steady state operation requirements: Nature of speed torque characteristics, speed

ww ability to accept regenerated power.

Let Q = Power loss or heat developed, J/s or W

m = mass of active parts of machine, ke

EE 6351-Electrical Drives And Control Page 9

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s = Specific heat, J/kf-C

w Let us consider the conditions at any time t from start.

Heat stored in the body nee

= surface in m2 x watt dissipated per m2 per C x temperature rise x time

Since, heat produced in machine = heat stored in parts + heat dissipated

Solving the differential equation (5), we get

EE 6351-Electrical Drives And Control Page 10

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Where C is the constant of integration,

The value of C is found by using the boundary conditions at t=0, =i