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1. General Physics

Units for IGSCE:

1.1 Length and Time

Length:
Method Notes
Rule (Ruler) Used to make simple measurements accurate to 0.1 cm (1 mm)
Micrometer Used to make simple measurements accurate to 0.001 cm (0.01 mm)
screw gauge

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Micrometer screw gauge:

 Used to measure very small distances.

 E.g.: Determination of the diameter 'd' of a wire.
o Place the wire between the anvil and spindle end as indicated in the diagram.
o Rotate the thimble until the wire is firmly held between the anvil and the
spindle.
o The ratchet is provided to avoid excessive pressure on the wire. It prevents
the spindle from further movement - squashing the wire.
o To take a reading:
 First look at the main scale. This has a linear scale reading on it.
 The long lines are every millimetre the shorter ones denote half a
millimetre in between.
 On the diagram this reading is 2.5 mm
 Now look at the rotating scale. That denotes 46 divisions - each division
is 0.01mm so we have 0.46mm from this scale.
 The diameter of the wire is the sum of these readings:
2.5 + 0.46 = 2.96 mm

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Volume:
Measuring regular shaped objects
Measuring irregularly shaped objects
Measuring liquids
Use formulae to find their volumes; if it is a
cube, then measure the length of one side
and multiply it by.
Use displacement method:
a) Pour some water in the measuring
cylinder and record its volume (V1).
b) Submerge the object in the water
c) Record the reading of the water level in
the cylinder (V2).
d) Use the formula V = V2 – V1 to find the
volume of the object
Use a measuring cylinder

Time:
 An interval of time is measured using stopclock or stopwatch.
 The SI unit for time is the second(s).
 Measuring period of pendulum:
 To find the amount of time it takes a pendulum to make one complete oscillation,
note the time taken to complete ≥ 10 oscillations and then divide the time taken by
the same number as the number of complete oscillations.

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1.2 Motion
 Speed is the distance an object moves in a time frame.
 It is measured in metres/second (m/s) or kilometres/hour (km/h).
 speed = distance travelled
time taken
 Distance/time graphs and speed/time graphs:

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 Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit of time, measured in metres per second
per second, or m/s2
Acceleration = change in velocity
time taken
 An increase in speed is a positive acceleration, a decrease in speed is a negative
acceleration/deceleration/retardation.
 If acceleration is not constant, the speed/time graph will be curved.
 The downwards acceleration of an object is caused by gravity. This happens most
when an object is in free fall (falling with nothing holding it up). Objects are slowed
down by air resistance. Once air resistance is equal to the force of gravity, the object
has reached terminal velocity. This means that it will stay at a constant velocity. (This
varies for every object). The value of g (gravity) on Earth is 9.81m/s2. However, 10m/s2
can be used for most calculations.

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1.3 Mass and Weight

Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity

1.4 Density
 To determine the density of a liquid place a measuring cylinder on a balance, then fill
the measuring cylinder with some liquid. The change in mass is the mass of the liquid
and the volume is shown on the scale, then use the formula:
Density = mass
Volume
 To determine the density of an object, use the displacement method to find out the
volume and then weigh the object and then use the formula.

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1.5 Forces
(a) Effects of forces
 A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body, give an acceleration or
deceleration or a change in direction depending on the direction of the force.
 Extension/load graph:

 Hooke’s Law: springs extend in proportion to load, as long as they are under their
proportional limit.
 Load (N) = spring constant (N/mm) x extension (mm)
F=kx
 Limit of proportionality: point at which load and extension are no longer proportional
 Elastic limit: point at which the spring will not return to its original shape after being
stretched

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  Forces are measured in Newtons.
Force = Mass × Acceleration
 Circular motions - An object at steady speed in a circular orbit is always
accelerating as its direction is changing, but it gets no closer to the centre.
 Centripetal force - Force acting towards the centre of a circle. It is a force that is
needed (not caused by) a circular motion
 Centrifugal force - Force acting away from the centre of a circle.

(b) Turning effect

 Moment of a force about a pivot (Nm) = force (N) x distance from pivot (m)
 Moments of a force are measured in Newton meters, can be either clockwise or
anticlockwise.
 If you have a beam on a pivot then:
 if the clockwise moments are greater, then the beam will tilt in the clockwise
direction and viceversa.
 if clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments then the beam is in equilibrium. If
a beam is in equilibrium, there is no resultant moments.

(c) Resultant force

 When resultant force is zero, forces are equal and opposite:
 Object is at rest
 Object travels at constant speed in a straight line
 Finding the resultant force of two or more forces acting along the same line:

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(d) Centre of mass
 Centre of mass is an imaginary point in a body (object) where the total mass of the
body can be thought to be concentrated to make calculations easier.
 To find the centre of gravity on a flat object, use the following steps:

 1. Get a flat object.

 2. Get a stand and a plumb line (a string with a weight on it).
 3. Punch 3 holes in your object.
 4. Hang your object from the hole, and attach the plumb line to the same hole.
 5. Draw a vertical line where the plumb line is.
 Repeat step 4 for all the other holes. Where the lines meet is the centre of
gravity.

(e) Scalars and vectors quantities

 A scalar quantity is a quantity that only has a magnitude, for example speed.
 A vector quantity has a direction as well as a magnitude, for example velocity,
which can be negative.

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1.6 Momentum (Extended candidates only)
 Momentum is the product of a moving object's mass and velocity.
Momentum = Mass x Velocity
 The symbol for momentum is p and the unit is kg m/s.
 Momentum is a vector quantity that depends on the direction of the object.
 Momentum is of interest during collisions between objects. When two objects collide
the total momentum before the collision is equal to the total momentum in the absence
of external forces.

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1.7 Energy, Work and Power

Energy:

 The conservation of energy principle: energy cannot be created or destroyed, when

work is done, energy is changed from one form to another.
Kinetic energy (J) = ½ x Mass x Velocity2
Gravitational Potential Energy (J) = Mass (kg) x Gravity (m/s2 ) x Height (m)

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Energy resources:
 Renewable resources - Resources that can be totally replaced or are always available
naturally, inexhaustible.
 Non-renewable resources - A natural resource that once used cannot be replaced, known
as a finite resource.

Energy resource Notes Advantages Disadvantages

Solar This is the form of  Environment  Extremely
energy which can be friendly expensive to buy
harnessed using  Useful in remote at first
photocells or solar locations  Needs to be
cells. Solar panels  Can be used along continuously
containing these cells with a battery so maintained
are exposed to that the stored  Isn’t reliable to
sunlight. They have energy is available use during
the ability to trap in hours of cloudy weather
sunlight and convert darkness  Is a dilute source
the light energy to  Is cheaper and of energy; it
electrical. Hence reliable requires scores
electricity is generated of solar panels
to power a small
house with
electricity
Wind This is the form of  Environment  Extremely
energy which is friendly expensive to
harnessed when the buy at first
wind moves the

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 turbines of a wind  Useful in remote  Needs to be
turbine. The locations continuously
continuous movement  Can be used maintained
induces a current in along with a  Not reliable
the motor of the battery so that the enough;
turbine, thus stored energy is depends on
generating electricity. available for later wind speed
use  Is a dilute
 Is cheaper and source of
reliable energy; it
requires scores
of wind turbines
to power a small
house with
electricity

Tidal This is the form of  Environment  Is under

energy which is friendly development
harnessed using the  No carbon and research
up and down emissions  Is extremely
movement of tides. tricky to harness
The up and down
movement of waves is
used to propel a
motor.
Geothermal This is the form of  Environment  May only power
energy which is friendly regions where
harnessed using the  Is extremely volcanic terrains
heat under the earth’s efficient are available.
crust. Pipelines full of  Is a concentrated  Extremely
water are led into the source of energy expensive to set
earth’s crust. The heat  Is extremely up.
inside transforms the reliable
water to water vapour.
The water vapour is
used to propel huge

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 turbines to generate
electricity.
Hydroelectric This is the form of  Environment  Can make
energy which is friendly thousands
harnessed when: High  Concentrated homeless as
pressurised water is source of energy their homes
bombarded over to  Is highly reliable need to be
turbines. This induces shifted or else
a current in the motor they would get
and generates flooded.
electricity.  Expensive to set
up

Coal, oil and gas Energy from these  Cheap  Non renewable
resources is obtained  Widely used  Pollutes the
when:  Easily available environment
They are burnt to  Efficient  Causes acid rain
vaporise water.  Concentrated
The water vapour is source of energy
collected, pressurised
and sprayed over
large turbines.
This leads to electricity
being generated.

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1.8 Pressure
 If a heavier person steps on your foot, it hurts more than if a light person does it. If
someone with high heels steps on your foot then it hurts more than if someone with
large flat shoes does it, so we know that if force increases, pressure increases and if
area decreases, pressure increases and vice versa.
Pressure (Pa) = Force (N)
area (m2)
 The barometer has a tube with vacuum at the top and mercury filling the rest. The
pressure of the air pushes down on the reservoir, forcing the mercury up the tube. You
measure the height of the mercury in the test tube, and the units used are mm of
mercury. ~760 mm of mercury is 1 atm.

 A manometer measures the pressure difference. The height difference shows the
excess pressure: the extra pressure in addition to atmospheric pressure.

 Pressure in liquids is called hydrostatic pressure, it increases with depth.

Pressure (Pa) = Density (kg/m3) x Gravity (m/s2 ) x Height (m)

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