ΔEsystem = ∑T → ΔK + ΔU = 0
! ! ! !
I = Δptot → ∫ Fext dt = mΔv
l If the force is constant, the integral can be easily evaluated
⇒ vf - vi = ve ln(Mi/Mf)
l The basic equation for rocket propulsion is
⎛ Mi ⎞
v f − v i = v e ln ⎜ ⎟
M
⎝ f⎠
l The increase in rocket speed is proportional to the speed of the
escape gases (ve) - so, the exhaust speed should be very high
l The increase in rocket speed is also proportional to the natural
log of the ratio Mi/Mf
l So, the ratio should be as high as possible, meaning the
mass of the rocket should be as small as possible and it
should carry as much fuel as possible
⇒ θ = s/r, the
definition of a radian
Radian s
θ=
r
l θ is a pure number, but commonly is given the
artificial unit, radian
l One radian is the angle subtended by an arc length
equal to the radius of the arc
l Whenever using rotational equations, you must use
angles expressed in radians
l Comparing degrees and radians
360°
1 rad = = 57.3°
2π
l Converting from degrees to radians
π
θ ( rad ) = θ (degrees )
180°
Angular Position, final
l We can associate the angle θ with the entire
rigid object as well as with an individual
particle
l Remember every particle on the object rotates
through the same angle
l The angular position of the rigid object is the
angle θ between the reference line on the
object and the fixed reference line in space
l The fixed reference line in space is often the x-
axis
Angular Displacement
l The angular displacement is
defined as the angle the
object rotates through during
some time interval
Δθ = θ f − θ i
l This is the angle that the
reference line of length r
sweeps out
l The average angular speed, ωavg, of a rotating rigid
object is the ratio of the angular displacement to the
time interval
θf − θ i Δθ
ωavg = =
tf − t i Δt
l The instantaneous angular speed is defined as the limit of
the average speed as the time interval approaches zero
lim Δθ dθ
ω≡ Δt →0 =
Δt dt
cf. v = ds/dt = rdθ/dt ⇒ v = ωr
l Units of angular speed are radians/sec Also called angular frequency
l rad/s or s-1 since radians have no dimensions (s-1 = Hz)
l Angular speed will be positive if θ is increasing
(counterclockwise)
l Angular speed will be negative if θ is decreasing (clockwise)
Angular Acceleration
l The average angular acceleration, α, of an object is defined
as the ratio of the change in the angular speed to the time it
takes for the object to undergo the change:
ωf − ωi Δω
αavg = =
tf − t i Δt
l The instantaneous angular acceleration is defined as the limit
of the average angular acceleration as the time goes to 0
lim Δω dω
α≡ Δt →0 = cf. a = dv/dt
Δt dt
l Units of angular acceleration are rad/s² or s-2 since radians
have no dimensions
l Angular acceleration will be positive if an object rotating
counterclockwise is speeding up
l Angular acceleration will also be positive if an object
rotating clockwise is slowing down