Type 1 or 2 with Multivalent Metals Molar Mass (Molecular Mass, Formula Weight):
Metals that can have more than one charge. • By adding the atom masses for atoms in a molecule, the
1. The Roman numeral indicates the charge of the cation molar mass of the molecule can be found.
metal. • Be sure to distribute subscripts outside the parenthesis to
2. Follow the rules for Type #1 or Type #2 as it applies. each atom inside.
• The Law of Conservation of Mass/Matter requires that a Electron cloud: Area outside nucleus where electrons are
chemical reaction be balanced. located.
• Coefficients balance atoms in a chemical reaction and Energy levels: Electron cloud is divided into energy levels
indicate the number of compounds in a reaction. for electrons.
Inspection Method (to balance the most simple reactions): Subshells: Energy levels of electrons are divided into
1. Make a list of the elements in the reaction. subshells of equal energy orbitals.
2. Count the # of each type of atom on each side. Orbitals: Subdivision of a subshell. Each orbital can hold 2
3. Add coefficients to balance the number of atoms. electrons.
4. Determine the total charge of each side and use
coefficients to balance charge. 4 types of subshells:
5. When elements and charge are balanced, place a “1” in Subshell Begins # of # of
any empty coefficient location. in level orbitals electrons
s 1 1 2
energy
higher
Zn + H+ → Zn2+ + H2 p 2 3 6
Reactants Products d 3 5 10
←
Zn 1 1 f 4 7 14
H 1 2
Charge +1 +2 Aufbau Principle: Fill shells from lowest energy to highest.
Hund’s Rule: Electrons are placed in each equal-energy
__ Zn + _2_ H+ Æ __ Zn2+ + __ H2 orbital before doubling up to produce the lowest energy atom.
Reactants Products Pauli Exclusion Principle: Two electrons occupying the
Zn 1 1 same orbital must have opposite spins (angular momentum).
H 1 2 2
Charge +1 2 +2 Use the periodic table as a guide (read left to right):
1s
1 Zn + 2 H+ → 1 Zn2+ + 1 H2 2s 2p
3s 3p
4s 3d 4p
14: Stoichiometry
5s 4d 5p
6s 4f 5d 6p
Stoichiometry: Using the mole ratio in the balanced
7s 5f 6d 7p
equation and information about one compound to find
information about another in the reaction.
3 types of electron configuration notation:
Equalities used during dimensional analysis for Boxes & Arrows: O (8 electrons): 1s ↑↓ 2s ↑↓ 2p ↑↓ ↑ ↑
stoichiometry: Spectroscopic: Br (35 electrons):
• Mole ratio in balanced equation: Used to convert 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5
between moles of different compounds in the balanced Noble Gas: Br (35 electrons): [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5
equation.
• Molar mass: Used to convert between grams and moles. 16: The Periodic Table
• Concentration: Used to convert between moles and liters
of a solution. Periodic Table: Tool for organizing the elements.
moles solute Periods: Rows on the periodic table.
Molarity = Groups: Columns on the periodic table.
L solution Periodicity: Predictable patterns and trends on the periodic
• Molar volume of a gas: Used to convert between moles table.
and liters of a gas at STP.
General trends in the period table
Mass-Mass example: Trend Æ a period ↓ a group
If 2.5 g Mg react, how many grams MgCl2 are produced? Atomic Mass Increases Increases
2.5 g Mg 1 mole 1 mole 95.21 g Atomic Radii Decreases Increases
Mg MgCl2 MgCl2 Ionization energy Increases Decreases
= 9.8 g MgCl2
24.31 g 1 mole 1 mole Electron Affinity Increases Decreases
Mg Mg MgCl2 Electronegativity Increases Decreases
Limiting reactant: Reactant that stops the reaction by Radii when forming a cation: There are now more protons
running out first. than electrons. The pull of the protons on each electron is
• Once a reactant has run out, the reaction will stop. greater. Cations have smaller radii than their parent atom.
• Do stoichiometry for each given reactant quantity to the
same product each time. Choose the calculation that gives Radii when forming an anion: There are fewer protons
the smallest amount of product. than electrons. The pull of the protons on each electron is
• The reactant that produces the smallest amount of product less.
is the limiting reactant. Anions have larger radii than their parent atom.
Example: mole A
How many sigma and pi bonds are in the following?
Mole fraction: χA =
H H
moletotal
| |
H–C=C–C≡C Partial Pressure and mole fraction: PA = χ A Ptotal
6 sigma bonds & 3 pi bonds
Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT
18: Molecular Structures
Valence Shell: Electrons in the outermost shell that bond. ⎛ n2a ⎞
Octet Rule: Atoms are most stable when having a full Real Gas Law: ⎜⎜ P + 2 ⎟⎟(V − nb ) = nRT
valence shell. ⎝ V ⎠
Arranging Atoms in Lewis Structures
1. With only 2 elements, arrange symmetrically.
20: Solutions
2. “COOH” is a carboxylic acid. Both O’s bond to the C and Solution: Homogeneous mixture.
the H goes on one of the O’s.
3. Hydrogen and halogens cannot go in the middle. Solute: Substance being dissolved.
4. Other atoms in the order they appear in the formula
5. Hydrogen and halogen atoms go around the element Solvent: Substance doing the dissolving.
they are written next to in the formula.
Factors affecting Solubility:
Lewis Structure: A 2D representation of a molecule and its • Pressure: Gases: as Pressure increases, solubility increases
bonds. • Temperature: Gases: higher temperature is lower
1. Arrange the atoms as above. solubility. Most solids: higher temperature is higher
2. Determine the # of valence electrons for each atom. solubility.
3. Draw the valence electrons—do not double up where a
bond is going to form between two atoms. Concentration Measurements:
4. Count to see if all atoms have full valences.
5. If two atoms adjacent to each other do not have full % by mass: % mass = mass solute × 100
valences, move in an electron from each to form a mass solution
double bond. Repeat for triple bond if necessary. Move
hydrogens as needed to allow double/triple bonds.
Molarity (M): Molarity = moles solute
Exceptions to the Octet Rule: L solution
1. Hydrogen and Helium can only hold 2 electrons Boron
and Beryllium can be full with 6 electrons. Molality (m): Molality = moles solute
2. Any element in period 3 or below can have more than 8
kg solvent
electrons.
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR): Dilution equation: M 1V1 = M 2V2
Bonds and lone pairs (electrons) repel and arrange
themselves in 3D as far away from each other as possible. Electrolyte: Compounds dissociate into ions when dissolved
in water. This allows the solution to conduct electricity.
Reaction Quotient (Q): When concentrations at any time ΔHrxn = ∑ H f prod − ∑ H f react
are plugged into the equilibrium constant expression. Entropy (S): Disorder or random-ness
• If Q = K, it’s at equilibrium. Free Energy (G): Takes into account enthalpy, entropy and
• If Q > K, reaction proceeds towards reactants. temperature to determine spontaneity
• If Q < K, reaction proceeds towards products.
ΔG = ΔH − T ΔS
Le Chatelier’s Principle: A system at equilibrium will re- - ΔG = Spontaneous at that temperature.
adjust to reach equilibrium again when disturbed. + ΔG = Spontaneous in the opposite direction at that
temperature.
22: Acids and Bases
Arrhenius acid: Produces hydronium ion in water. 24: Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry: The study of the inter-change between
Arrehnius base: Produces hydroxide ion in water. electrical and chemical energy.
Hydronium ion: H3O+1; Hydroxide ion: OH-1 Voltaic cell (or Galvanic cell): Uses a redox reaction to
produce electricity.
Electromotive force, EMF (or Cell Potential): Difference of
Strong acids HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, HClO3, HClO4 potential energy of electrons from before and after the
Strong bases NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2 transfer.
Standard reduction potential: EMF if hydrogen is used as
Polyprotic acids: each successive proton is weaker than the the other half-reaction (Hydrogen is defined as “0”).
one before. (H2SO4 has a strong 1st hydrogen). Calculating EMF from standard reduction potentials:
EMF = cathode – anode + EMF = spontaneous
pH: Logarithmic scale of acidity. Stoichiometry & Electrochemistry:
1 amp (A) = 1 Coulomb/sec (C/s)
1 Faraday (F) = 1 mole of e-1
pH = − log[ H 3O +1 ] 1 Faraday (1 mole of e-1) = 96475 Coulomb (C)
Oxidation number rules:
[ H 3O +1 ] = 10 − pH • The sum of all oxidation numbers must equal the overall
charge of the species. 0 for elements or compounds, the
K w = [ H 3O +1 ][OH −1 ] at 25°C, Kw = 1.0×10-14 charge for a polyatomic ion.
• Hydrogen is +1 when with nonmetals, -1 with metals.
Salt from • Oxygen is usually -2.
• Weak acid + strong base = Basic • Halogens (column 7) are usually -1.
• Strong acid + weak base = Acidic • The oxidation number of an ion in an ionic compound is the
charge.
Buffer: Weak acid or base and its conjugate that resists For redox reactions that cannot be balanced with
changes in pH when acid or bases is added. inspection method:
• Determine the oxidation numbers of each atom.
• Determine the net change in charge. Use the net change to
determine the ratio of atoms that would cancel out the net
charge change.
• Use the ratio as coefficients in the simplest compounds
containing those elements.
• Finish balancing by the inspection method.