ADVANCED SERVICES

[ 7TH SEMESTER ]

MAESTRO SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

MONIKA TANNIRU ;]
14121AA039 MODULAR
Unit - I
Special services in High rise buildings and provision to be made for installation
and operation.
Lifts: Types of lifts, Passenger, Capsule, Hospital bed- lift; goods-lift etc. Working
and operation of lifts, parts of lifts; industry standards and capacity calculations.
Provision to be made in buildings for installation; Introduction to working of
escalator and design;

Unit - II
Electronic Systems in Buildings: Telephone and communication, EPABX
networks, transmission. Security systems, Burglar alarms, video surveillance,
access control. Computer labs, access flooring, server rooms.

Unit - III
Fire safety in buildings, portable fire fighting equipment, built in wet riser
system, sprinkler system, fire hydrant, class of fire and occupancy.
Cooking gas distribution, piped gas supply, bulk gas supply, bottled gas supply,
Relevant NBC other standards, Stoves, burners and grills.

Unit - IV
Swimming Pools: Pool design, Tank and channels, cascades, finishes;
Water circulation, balancing tank. Filtration and water treatment; Water
quality and disinfection

Unit - V
Hotel services: Specialty; services required for hospitality industry; Laundry
services; Kitchen services; Channeled Music, Internet.

Unit – VI
Environmental services: Waste generation, types of waste, treatment and
disposal facilities, Industrial buildings; Hospital buildings.

Unit - VII
Alternative energy sources for buildings: Solar energy, Hot water system,
photo voltaic cells; Biomass digesters; Wind energy.
UNIT 1

High Rise Fire Safety Systems

When building heights rise above 75 feet, NFPA standard #101 require special
high rise fire safety systems to protect modern modern structures from the special
risks brought about by the increased elevation. These facilities require high rise
fire alarm systems with special capabilities such as emergency voice paging, fire
fighters telephone and other special fire protection systems. If you manage,
maintain, or occupy such buildings, you should consider Reliable Fire Equipment
as the nation's premier specialist in the installation, testing and maintenance of
high rise fire safety systems.

High Rise Fire Safety Fire Alarm Systems

The AM-2020 fire alarm system is intended primarily for high rise buildings. An
addressable, analog system, the AM2020 is capable of addressing 1,980 detectors,
addressable interfaces, or control modules. Equipped with built in standard fire
alarm system networking, the AM-2020 is able to address even more devices
when networked with AFP-200 and AFP-400 control panels. The control panel
supervises elevator recall, activates smoke control systems, emergency
generators, and building fire pumps. It is the ideal high rise fire safety system for
large buildings.

High Rise Emergency Voice Paging

With the high rise building comes the need for emergency paging systems. We
have systems for single, dual, or triple channel voice; automatic message
playback with multiple messages capable of simultaneous transmission to lm2 2

different zones of the building while manual paging is in progress in still other
zones of the building. Complete zone selection and automatic override
capabilities are provided with the Notifier annunciator control panel. Speaker
strobes installed throughout the facility provide emergency tones, pre-recorded
messages, or live messages from the AM-2020 control panel.

Fire Alarm Fire Fighters Telephone Systems

In a high rise fire safety system a fire fighter's telephone system is a necessity.
Emergency telephone stations are positioned at every floor throughout the
building to enable fire department personnel to communicate freely in their fire
fighting efforts. The emergency phone system provides two-way communications
throughout the entire facility.

Fire Extinguishers

Fire extinguishers provide the first line of defense against fire. Long before
temperatures become sufficiently high to activate the fire sprinkler system, fire
extinguishers can provide rapid fire suppression before combustion reaches life
threatening levels. Reliable Fire Equipment provides extinguishers, fire
extinguisher maintenance services, and the OSHA required fire extinguisher
training for employees working in high rise buildings. Your high fire safety system
plan should not overlook them.

High Rise Fire Sprinkler Systems

Fire sprinkler systems provide the primary building structural fire protection. In
the event of a fire in the building, heat from combustion melts the fusible
element in the fire sprinkler head releasing water onto the surface of the fire.
Reliable Fire Equipment can integrate maintenance of your fire sprinkler system
with other components of your total high rise fire safety system.

Emergency Lights

Emergency lights enables building occupants to safely escape the building in the
event of a power failure. Equipped with back up batteries capable of powering
exit and emergency lights for more than an hour, emergency lights become a
critical element of a high rise safety system in the event of a power failure.
Reliable Fire Equipment provides emergency lights, emergency lighting
maintenance, and testing. In many high rise buildings emergency lights are
connected to the building fire alarm system.

Fire Hose and Standpipes

High rise buildings usually have fire hose and reel stations positioned throughout
the facility. Fire hose must be tested at periodic intervals to meet current fire
codes. Reliable can provide fire hose testing to meet the requirements of NFPA
standard #1962.

Security, CCTV, and UniNet Networking

The Notifier AM-2020 control panel is fully listed by Underwriter's Laboratories
for security applications. Using Notifier's UniNet networking protocol,
building closed circuit television cameras and intrusion alarms can be integrated
into a seamless building wide protection systems. In the event of an alarm in a
smoke detector on a specific floor, security cameras can be manually or
automatically rotated to provide visual confirmation of activities in the

One Call Does It All

Reliable Fire Equipment offers the most complete high rise fire safety systems
available today:

• Large networked fire alarm systems

• Fire extinguishers and extinguisher training
• Emergency lights and service
• Fire hose and standpipe service
• Fire sprinkler system service
• Security systems for high rise facilities
• Emergency Service 24 Hours a Day, 7 Days a Week
• Service on all other fire protection equipment: "One Call Does it All"

LIFTS

An elevator (or lift) is a vertical transport vehicle that efficiently moves people
or goods between floors of a building. They are generally powered by electric
motors that either drive traction cables and counterweight systems, or pump
hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical piston.

Because of wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a legal requirement in

new multi-story buildings, especially where wheelchair ramps would be
impractical.

Passenger service
A passenger elevator is designed to move people between a building's floors.
Passenger elevators capacity is related to the available floor space. Generally
passenger elevators are available in capacities from 1,000 to 6,000 pounds
(450–2,700 kg) in 500 lb (230 kg) increments.[citation needed] Generally passenger
elevators in buildings eight floors or less are hydraulic or electric, which can reach
speeds up to 200 ft/min (1.0 m/s) hydraulic and up to 500 ft/min electric. In
buildings up to ten floors, electric and gearless elevators are likely to have speeds
up to 500 ft/min (2.5 m/s), and above ten floors speeds begin at 500 ft/min
(2.5 m/s) up to 2000 ft/min (10 m/s).[citation needed]
Sometimes passenger elevators are used as a city transport along with funiculars.
For example, there is a 3-station underground public elevator in Yalta, Ukraine,
which takes passengers from the top of a hill above the Black Sea on which
hotels are perched, to a tunnel located on the beach below. At Casco Viejo
station in the Bilbao Metro, the elevator that provides access to the station from
a hilltop neighbourhood doubles as city transportation: the station's ticket
barriers are set up in such a way that passengers can pay to reach the elevator
from the entrance in the lower city, or vice versa. See also the Elevators for urban
transport section
Types of passenger elevators
Passenger elevators may be specialized for the service they perform, including:
hospital emergency (Code blue), front and rear entrances, double decker, and
other uses. Cars may be ornate in their interior appearance, may have audio
visual advertising, and may be provided with specialized recorded voice
instructions.
An express elevator does not serve all floors. For example, it moves between
the ground floor and a sky lobby, or it moves from the ground floor or a sky
lobby to a range of floors, skipping floors in between. These are especially
popular in eastern Asia.
Freight elevators
A freight elevator, or goods lift, is an elevator designed to carry goods, rather
than passengers. Freight elevators are generally required to display a written
notice in the car that the use by passengers is prohibited (though not necessarily
illegal), though certain freight elevators allow dual use through the use of an
inconspicuous riser. Freight elevators are typically larger and capable of carrying
heavier loads than a passenger elevator, generally from 2,300 to 4,500 kg.
Freight elevators may have manually operated doors, and often have rugged
interior finishes to prevent damage while loading and unloading. Although
hydraulic freight elevators exist, electric elevators are more energy efficient for
the work of freight lifting.[citation needed]
Hydraulic elevators

▪ Conventional hydraulic elevators. They use an underground cylinder, are

quite common for low level buildings with 2-7 floors, and have speeds of up to
200 feet/minute (1 meter/second).
▪ Holeless hydraulic elevators were developed in the 1970s, and use a pair of
above ground cylinders, which makes it practical for environmentally or cost
sensitive buildings with 2, 3, or 4 floors.
▪ Roped hydraulic elevators use both above ground cylinders and a rope
system, which combines the versatility of inground hydraulic with the
reliability of holeless hydraulic, even though they can serve up to 8-10 floors.
Traction elevators

▪ Geared and gearless traction elevators

Geared traction machines are driven by AC or DC electric motors. Geared
machines use worm gears to control mechanical movement of elevator cars by
"rolling" steel hoist ropes over a drive sheave which is attached to
a gearbox driven by a high speed motor. These machines are generally the best
option for basement or overhead traction use for speeds up to 500 ft/min (2.5
m/s).
Gearless traction machines are low speed (low RPM), high torque electric motors
powered either by AC or DC. In this case, the drive sheave is directly attached to
the end of the motor. Gearless traction elevators can reach speeds of up to
2,000 ft/min (10 m/s), or even higher. A brake is mounted between the motor
and drive sheave (or gearbox) to hold the elevator stationary at a floor. This
brake is usually an external drum type and is actuated by spring force and held
open electrically; a power failure will cause the brake to engage and prevent the
elevator from falling (see inherent safety and safety engineering).
In each case, cables are attached to a hitch plate on top of the cab or may be
"underslung" below a cab, and then looped over the drive sheave to
a counterweight attached to the opposite end of the cables which reduces the
amount of power needed to move the cab. The counterweight is located in the
hoist-way and rides a separate rail system; as the car goes up, the counterweight
goes down, and vice versa. This action is powered by the traction machine which
is directed by the controller, typically a relay logic or computerized device that
directs starting, acceleration, deceleration and stopping of the elevator cab. The
weight of the counterweight is typically equal to the weight of the elevator cab
plus 40-50% of the capacity of the elevator. The grooves in the drive sheave are
specially designed to prevent the cables from slipping. "Traction" is provided to
the ropes by the grip of the grooves in the sheave, thereby the name. As the
ropes age and the traction grooves wear, some traction is lost and the ropes must
be replaced and the sheave repaired or replaced.
Elevators with more than 100' (30 m) of travel have a system called
compensation. This is a separate set of cables or a chain attached to the bottom
of the counterweight and the bottom of the elevator cab. This makes it easier to
control the elevator, as it compensates for the differing weight of cable between
the hoist and the cab. If the elevator cab is at the top of the hoist-way, there is a
short length of hoist cable above the car and a long length of compensating
cable below the car and vice versa for the counterweight. If the compensation
system uses cables, there will be an additional sheave in the pit below the
elevator, to guide the cables. If the compensation system uses chains, the chain is
guided by a bar mounted between the counterweight rails.

Passenger lifts are specially designed to suit a wide variety of

applications. A choice of finishes in the form of decorative laminates is
offered using wooden panels or M.S. Sheets. Cargo lifts are made of M.S.
 Sheets with chequered plate at the bottom to withstand rugged use.

PARTS OF AN ELEVATOR :

Counterweight

A tracked weight that is suspended from cables and moves within its own set of
guide rails along the hoistway walls.This counterweight will be equal to the
dead weight of the car plus about 40% of the rated load.

Hoistway

The shaft that encompasses the elevator car. Generally serving all floors of the
building. In high-rise buildings hoistways may be banked. With specific
hoistways serving only the lower floors and others serving only middle or upper
floors while traveling in a blind hoistway until reaching the floors that it serves.
A blind hoistway has no doors on the floors that it does not serve.

Elevator Car

A heavy steel frame surrounding a cage of metal and wood panels. The top of
the car frame is called the “crosshead”. Cabled elevators are usually suspended
from the crosshead. The bottom of the frame is usually referred to as the
“safety plank”.The elevator car door travels through the hoistway with the
car.A toe guard is present at the bottom of some cars. This guard protects the
passengers from being exposed to the open hoistway under the car if the doors
are opened when it is not at the landing. The guard is between 21” and 48”
long.

Elevator Door

These doors can sometimes opened on the inside by hand, except where anti-
egress devices are installed. This will also break the electrical interlock which
will cut the power to the car.

Hoistway Doors

Horizontal operating hoistway doors are generally hung from the top on rollers
that run in a track, with the bottom of the door running in a slot. Forcing these
doors at the middle or at the bottom will cause damage to the doors and their
mounting hardware. The doors can also be knocked out of their track and fall
into the hoistway.

Hoistway Door Interlock

The hoistway door locking mechanism provides a means to mechanically lock

each hoistway door. They are also interconnected electrically to prevent
operation of the elevator if any of the elevator’s hoistway doors are open.

Hoistway emergency door keys

Carried on trucks and the squad, permit the unlocking of the hoistway door
interlock.

Car top operating station

Provided on some cars for operating the car from the car top. To be used by
the elevator technician when servicing the car. This station should only be
operated under the direct supervision of the elevator technician.

Photo-electric and infrared sensors

A sensor between the hoistway and car doors that detects objects in their path
and prevents the doors from closing. Photo-electric eyes were problematic and
are being phased out.

Roller guides

A set of three wheels that roll against the guide rails. Usually mounted to the
safety plank and crosshead. They keep the car in contact with the guide rails
and prevent sway.

Safeties

Emergency braking mechanism that stops the car by wedging into the guide
rails when over speeding has occurred. It is activated by the speed governor
sensing over speeding of the elevator car.

Hoisting cables (or ropes)

Used on traction type elevators, usually attached to the crosshead and

extending up into the machine room looping over the sheave on the motor
and then down to the counter weights.

Hoisting cable are generally 3 to 6 in number. They are steel with a hemp core
to keep them pliable and lubricated.

These cables are usually 1/2”or 5/8” in diameter. The 1/2”cables have a
breaking strength of 14,500lbs and the 5/8” 23,000lbs each.

However, at 900 degrees the wire steel rope contains only about 13% of its
original tensile strength.

Guide Rails

Tracks in the form of a “T” that run the length of the hoistway, that guide the
elevator car. Usually mounted to the sides of the hoistway, at the middle of
the elevator car.

Car emergency exit

Usually located at the top of the elevator cars, sometimes on the side, other
times not present. Top exits open from outside the car. Side exits are extremely
dangerous to use and are no longer being installed. Existing side exits have
been disabled by being permanently bolted shut.

Machine room

Usually located above the hoistway in a penthouse or two floors above the
highest floor it serves, but may be in the basement if overhead space is
unavailable. Generally containing hoisting machines, controllers, generator,
speed governor and the main electrical disconnects to the elevators.
INTRODUCTION OF WORKING OF ESCALATORS & DESIGN

Escalators are one of the largest, most expensive machines people use on a
regular basis, but they're also one of the simplest.

At its most basic level, an escalator is just a simple variation on the conveyer belt.
A pair of rotating chain loops pull a series of stairs in a constant cycle, moving a
lot of people a short distance at a good speed.
The core of an escalator is a pair of chains, looped around two pairs of gears. An
electric motor turns the drive gears at the top, which rotate the chain loops. A
typical escalator uses a 100 horsepower motor to rotate the gears. The motor
and chain system are housed inside the truss, a metal structure extending
between two floors.

Instead of moving a flat surface, as in a conveyer belt, the chain loops move a
series of steps. The coolest thing about an escalator is the way these steps
move. As the chains move, the steps always stay level. At the top and bottom of
the escalator, the steps collapse on each other, creating a flat platform. This
makes it easier to get on and off the escalator. In the diagram below, you can
see how the escalator does all of this.

Each step in the escalator has two sets of wheels, which roll along two separate
tracks. The upper set (the wheels near the top of the step) are connected to the
rotating chains, and so are pulled by the drive gear at the top of the escalator.
The other set of wheels simply glides along its track, following behind the first set.

The tracks are spaced apart in such a way that each step will always remain
level. At the top and bottom of the escalator, the tracks level off to a horizontal
position, flattening the stairway. Each step has a series of grooves in it, so it will fit
together with the steps behind it and in front of it during this flattening.

In addition to rotating the main chain loops, the electric motor in an escalator
also moves the handrails. A handrail is simply a rubber conveyer belt that is
looped around a series of wheels. This belt is precisely configured so that it moves
at exactly the same speed as the steps, to give riders some stability.

The escalator system isn't nearly as good as an elevator at lifting people dozens
of stories, but it is much better at moving people a short distance. This is because
of the escalator's high loading rate. Once an elevator is filled up, you have to
wait for it to reach its floor and return before anybody else can get on. On an
escalator, as soon as you load one person on, there's space for another.

Planning & Design Factors - FOR ELEVATORS

• Circulation/Movement of people in buildings

• Mode (horizontal or vertical)
• Movement type (natural or mechanically assisted)
• Human behaviour (complex, unpredictable)
• Design objectives
• Free flow of people & goods
• Safe operation, comfort & service
• Occupy minimum space & require less costs
• Aesthetics, disabled access, etc.
Circulation elements in buildings include:
• Corridors
Physical • Portals (e.g. entrance, door, gate)
• Stairways or architectural elements
• Ramps
• Lifts
• Escalators - Mechanical or engineering
• Moving walkways elements
* Try to identify them in a building
Human factors
• Physical dimensions
• Occupancy ellipse 600 mm by 450 mm (0.21 m2)
• Personal space (buffer zone)
• Female: 0.5 m2 (0.8 m diameter circle)
• Male: 0.8 m2 (1.0 m diameter circle)
• Density of occupation
• Desirable: 0.4 person/m2
• Comfortable: 1.0 person/m2
• Dense: 2.0 person/m2
• ‘Crowding’: 3.0 person/m2
• Crowded: 4.0 person/m2

Interpersonal distances
• Public distance: > 7.5 m (far); 3.6-7.5 m (near)
• Social distance: 2.1-3.6 m (far); 1.2-2.1 m (near)
• Personal distance: 0.75-1.2 m (far); 0.45-0.75 m (near)
• Intimate distance: < 0.45 m
Major design concerns
• Circulation efficiency
• Location & arrangement (prevent bottlenecks)
• Coordination with lobby, stairway & corridor
• Fire & safety regulations
• Handling capacity (quantity of service)
• Interval or waiting time (quality of service)
• Consideration by lift functions
• Passenger, goods, firemen, shuttle, observation.

Escalator – typical design

• Speed: 0.5 and 0.65 m/s, up to 0.9-1.0 m/s on deep
systems like subway
• Step widths: 600, 800 & 1000 mm; min. step or
tread length = 400 mm
• Inclination: usually at angle 30o
• 35o if rise < 6 m & speed < 0.5 m/s
• Boarding and alighting areas
• Safe boarding, 1.33 – 2.33 flat steps

Escalator – typical applications

• Low- to medium-rise buildings
• Large no. of people e.g. airports, subway stations, department stores, shopping
malls
• Escalator arrangements
• Parallel
• Multiple parallel
• Cross-over or criss-cross
• Walk around
Escalator: handling capacity
• N = (3600 x P x V x cos θ) / L
• N = no. of persons moved per hour
• P = no. of persons per step
• V = escalator speed (m/s)
• L = length of step (m)
• θ = angle of incline
• Ce = 60 V k s (persons/minutes)
• V = speed along the incline (m/s)
• k = average density of people (people/step)
• s = number of escalator steps per metre

UNIT 2
EPABX

A private branch exchange (PBX) is a telephone exchange that serves a

particular business or office, as opposed to one that a common or telephone
company operates for many businesses or for the general public. PBXs are also
referred to as:
* PABX - private automatic branch exchange
* EPABX - electronic private automatic branch exchange
PBXs make connections among the internal telephones of a private organization
— usually a business — and also connect them to the public switched telephone
network (PSTN) via trunk lines. Because they incorporate telephones, fax
machines, modems, and more, the general term "extension" is used to refer to
any end point on the branch.
PBXs are differentiated from "key systems"
in that users of key systems manually select their own outgoing lines, while
PBXs select the outgoing line automatically. Hybrid systems combine features of
both.
PBX functions

Functionally, the PBX performs four main call processing duties:

1. Establishing connections (circuits) between the telephone sets of two users
(e.g. mapping a dialled number to a physical phone, ensuring the phone
isn't already busy)
2. Maintaining such connections as long as the users require them (i.e.
channelling voice signals between the users)
3. Disconnecting those connections as per the user's requirement
4. Providing information for accounting purposes (e.g. metering calls)
5. In addition to these basic functions, PBXs offer many other calling
features and capabilities, with different manufacturers providing different
features in an effort to differentiate their products

System components

A PBX will often include:

• The PBX’s internal switching network5s

• Microcontroller or microcomputer for arbitrary data processing, control and
logic.
• Logic cards, switching and control cards, power cards and related devices
that facilitate PBX operation.
• Stations or telephone sets, sometimes called lines.
• Outside Telco trunks that deliver signals to (and carry them from) the
PBX.
• Console or switchboard allows the operator to control incoming calls.
• Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) consisting of sensors, power switches
and batteries.
• Interconnecting wiring.
• Cabinets, closets, vaults and other housings.
Burglar alarms

Burglar alarms
A burglar alarm is a system designed to detect

intrusion –unauthorized entry – into a building or area.

They are also called security alarms ,security systems, alarm systems, intrusion
detection systems, perimeter detection systems, and similar terms.

Burglar alarms are

used in

residential, commercial, industrial, and military properties for protection

against burglary (theft) or property damage, as well as personal protection
against intruders.

Some alarm systems serve a single purpose of burglary protection; combination

systems provide both fire and intrusion protection
The most basic alarm consists of one or more sensors to detect intruders, and an
alerting device to indicate the intrusion.

However, a typical premises security alarm employs the following components:

• Premises control unit (PCU), or panel: The "brain" of the system, it reads
sensor inputs, tracks arm/disarm status, and signals intrusions. In modern
systems, this is typically one or more computer circuit boards inside a metal
enclosure, along with a power supply.
• Sensors: Devices which detect intrusions. Sensors may placed at the perimeter
of the protected area, within it, or both. Sensors can detect intruders by a
variety of methods, such as monitoring doors and windows for opening, or by
monitoring unoccupied interiors for motions, sound, vibration, or other
disturbances.
• Alerting devices: These indicate an alarm condition. Most commonly,
• these are bells, sirens, and/or flashing lights. Alerting devices serve the dual
purposes of warning occupants of intrusion, and potentially scaring off
burglars.
• Keypads: Small devices, typically wall-mounted, which function as
the human-machine interface to the system. In addition to buttons, keypads
typically feature indicator lights, a small mulch-character display, or both.
• Interconnections between components. This may consist of direct wiring to
the control unit, or wireless links with local power supplies.
• Security devices: Devices to detect thieves such as spotlights, cameras &
lasers.
In addition to the system itself, security alarms are often coupled with a
monitoring service. In the event of an alarm, the premises control unit contacts a
central monitoring station. Operators at the station see the signal and take
appropriate action, such as contacting property owners, notifying police, or
dispatching private security forces. Such signals may be transmitted via
dedicated alarm circuits, telephone lines, or Internet.

Main types of burglar alarms

As you have already understood that there are mainly two kinds of burglar
alarms. To know more about these alarms you can learn the details below:
Electric Circuit - These are the most simple alarm systems that use electrical
circuits. Generally, you can employ them to protect the borders of your house,
that is probably the entry points to your house that the burglar might use. These
security systems are further divided into two types:
a) Closed-circuit systems - In this system as long as your door is closed the electric
circuit remains closed and whenever somebody opens the door, the circuit
becomes discontinuous, and the alarm is set off.
b) Open-circuit systems - In an open circuit what happens is when somebody
opens the door the open-circuit is completed and electricity starts flowing so the
alarm is prompted.
Motion Detectors - These are the other type of security systems. They can detect
burglars who have already entered your house. Their principle of working is to
send out radio energy and observing the reflection pattern. Now when someone
walking into the room obstructs the reflection pattern, the alarm gets active and
sends a signal to the control box.
If you are looking for a full proof security system to protect your house, you can
use the combination of the motion detectors and open or closed circuit alarms.

VIDEO SURVEILLANCE

Video Surveillance System is an important security requirement to be provided

at waiting hall, railway yards, workshops, reservation counter, parking area,
main entrance/ exit, platforms, foot over bridges etc. of railway station and
others railway establishments to capture images of commuters & public and to
carry out analysis.

TYPES OF VIDEO SURVEILLANCE:

1. Hidden Cameras : The Federal Bureau of Investigations and other law

enforcement agencies frequently use hidden video cameras to aid them in
criminal investigations. While video equipment used to be very bulky, new
microchip technologies have resulted in for pocket size cameras that may
record activity at close range without a high risk of detection. Oftentimes,
these cameras may be hidden or even sold as part of commonplace
objects such as clocks or "EXIT" signs.
These devices function by wireless transmitter so that cords do not give
away their location.

2. Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Systems : You probably have seen a

security guard sitting behind a bank of monitors that display various
hallways and rooms in a building. This technology is known as a Closed
 Circuit Television (CCTV) System. By monitoring important sectors of a
building, security guards do not have to spend as much time on foot
patrol. Besides protecting against theft and vandalism, CCTVs may be
used in the workplace or schools to analyze incidents and discourage
misconduct. Given the vast amount of material to be recorded (e.g., eight
video cameras taping footage 24 hours day), many CCTV systems use time
lapse video recording.

3. Low-Light Surveillance: Most video cameras are optimized to function

in direct sunlight or in well-lit areas. However, situations may arise when
light is not available. For instance, a military reconnaissance team will not
be able to use flashlights to grope their way through enemy territory.
Fortunately, infrared video cameras pick up light outside of a human's
visual color spectrum. Typical video cameras may be outfitted with a
special infrared attachment for use in low-light conditions. Another option
would be to buy a thermal imaging video camera that can pick up heat
emitted by objects (e.g., a human being sneaking across a cornfield in the
dead of night). Thermal imaging cameras also may be useful for aerial
surveillance of marijuana crops because they emit more heat than other
plant life.

4. Long-Range Surveillance : Criminals wary of video surveillance make

elusive targets. They may avoid speaking about sensitive issues inside their
homes or offices. Some even cover their mouths to keep someone from
reading their lips. However, cameras equipped with extra long lenses can
pick up clear images from hundreds of yards away. These devices are
often used with specialized shotguns or directional microphones that can
pick up sound from long distances.
5. Fake security cameras : These are not actual cameras. They are a very
inexpensive alternative to purchasing an actual system. While these
cameras can act as a deterrent, should something happen, you will not
have a record of it.
6. Covert surveillance cameras: These cameras look like regular items. A
wall clock in a small store, a teddy bear in a baby’s room, a potted plant
by the front door—each one of these could very easily be a surveillance
camera. You can record without anyone knowing it.
7. Wireless security cameras : These offer more flexibility in set up. They
are easy to install, can be moved easily, are often small, have no tell-tale
wires, and are very discreet.
 8. Wired surveillance cameras : These cameras are appropriate for
permanent setup. If you have one location that you would like to
constantly monitor and will not need it to be changed, a wired camera is
an option. Some may have to be professionally installed.

Access control

It is a system which enables an authority to control access to areas and resources

in a given physical facility or computer-based information system. An access
control system, within the field of physical security, is generally seen as the second
layer in the security of a physical structure.

• Access control is, in reality, an everyday phenomenon.

• A lock on a car door is essentially a form of access control. A PIN on
an ATM system at a bank is another means of access control.
• Bouncers standing in front of a night club is perhaps a more primitive
mode of access control (given the evident lack of information
technology involved). The possession of access control is of prime
importance when persons seek to secure important, confidential, or
sensitive information and equipment.
Item control or electronic key management is an area within (and possibly
integrated with) an access control system which concerns the managing of
possession and location of small assets or physical (mechanical) keys.

ACCESS CONTROL

Access control is the selective restriction of access to a place or other resource. The
act of accessing may mean consuming, entering, or using.
Access Controls: The security features that control how, users and systems
communicate and interact with one another.
Access: The flow of information between subject and object
Subject: An active entity that requests access to an object or the data in an
object
Object: A passive entity that contains information.
Three distinct functions of an access system are :

• Identification
• Authentication
• Authorization.

Identification

o Method of establishing the subject’s (user, program, process) identity.

▪ Use of user name or other public information.
▪ Know identification component requirements.

Authentication

o Method of proving the identity.

▪ Something a person is, has, or does.
▪ Use of biometrics, passwords, passphrase, token, or other
private information.

Biometrics :

Verifies an identity by analyzing a unique person attribute or behavior (e.g.,

what a person “is”).
Most expensive way to prove identity, also has difficulties with user acceptance.
Most common biometric systems:

• Fingerprint

• Palm Scan

• Hand Geometry

• Iris Scan

• Signature Dynamics

• Keyboard Dynamics
 • Voice Print

• Facial Scan

• Hand Topography

Passwords :

Techniques to attack passwords

Passphrase :

• Is a sequence of characters that is longer than a password.

• Takes the place of a password.

• Can be more secure than a password because it is more complex.

Some devices used for authentication are :
▪ Smart Cards and Memory Cards

• Memory Cards: Holds but cannot process information.

• Smart Cards: Holds and can process information.

» Contact

» Contactless.

▪ Hashing & Encryption

Hash or encrypting a password to ensure that passwords are not sent in
clear text (means extra security)
▪ Salts: Random values added to encryption process for additional
complexity.
▪ Cryptographic Keys
7777 Use of private keys or digital signatures to prove identity.

Authorization :

Determines that the proven identity has some set of characteristics associated
with it
that gives it the right to access the requested resources.

Access Control Models

Three Main Types

• Discretionary

• Mandatory

• Non- Discretionary.

Discretionary Access Control (DAC) :

A system that uses discretionary access control allows the owner of the resource to
specify which subjects can access which resources.

Mandatory Access Control (MAC) :

• Access control is based on a security labeling system. Users have

security clearances and resources have security labels that contain
data classifications.

• This model is used in environments where information classification

and confidentiality is very important (e.g., the military).

Non-Discretionary (Role Based) Access Control Models :

• Role Based Access Control (RBAC) uses a centrally administered set

of controls to determine how subjects and objects interact.

• Is the best system for an organization that has high turnover.

ACCESS FLOORING

The main purpose for the installation of a raised floor is to create a voided floor
space in which services, such as electrical, optical, telecommunication,
heating/ventilation and mechanical can be routed.
A raised access floor system, as opposed to a raised floor, provides the means of
accessing key or whole areas of the subfloor void in order to install, repair, alter
or remove those services.

Categories of raised access flooring:

There are two categories of raised access flooring systems;
partial and full.

Partial access floor systems relate mainly to a continuously decked raised floor,
formed with individual panels or boards that are supported on joists or pedestals
to suit a determined height. The boards/panels are ‘permanently’ fixed to the
means of support and access to the subfloor void can only be performed via a
series of hinged/removable traps or hatches, or through a run of removable
flooring.
Full access floor systems relate to the installation of a continuously decked raised
floor, formed with individual panels, supported on pedestals to suit a determined
height. The raised floor panels are manufactured to a regular size, are
removable from their installed position and apart from cut panels, are wholly
interchangeable within the installed system. For the purposes of this AIS site
guide, all references to raised access floor systems made henceforth shall be for
full access floor systems.

Types of raised access flooring

The type of raised access flooring required is determined by the needs of the
intended user, the environment in which the floor system is to be installed and
the anticipated loads that will be imposed on the floor system, both during
installation and following handover to the client/end user.

Whilst actual requirements should be discussed with a manufacturer, the general

guideline for
choosing the structural grades of raised access flooring is as follows:
• Light grade: General office use without heavy equipment or storage items.
• Medium grade: General office use where heavy office-type equipment will
be used – cabinets, photocopiers, heavy desking etc. Walkway and
circulation areas.
 • Heavy grade: Computer/PABX rooms, heavy storage areas, high public
traffic areas
• Extra heavy grade: As heavy grade, but to incorporate particular client
loading requirements.

The height of the raised access floor system above the subfloor will be
determined by a combination of three factors:
a) The extent and type of services required within the subfloor void.
b) The minimum distance allowed between the finished floor surface to the
underside of the ceiling as directed by current regulations.
c) The range of pedestals available from the manufacturer.

Installation

1. Within the context of a multi-trade construction project, the installation

sequence of a raised access floor system is dependent on a variety of
factors. Quite often the raised access floor will serve as a working platform
for works at a higher level, such as suspended ceiling installations and the
fitting of services within the ceiling void.
2. The raised access floor system may be installed either before or after the
installation of subfloor services and this can influence the preparation,
installation and completion of the floor system.
3. If fitted to the subfloor prior to the raised access floor installation, cables
and services may need to be protected or ‘bridges’ constructed to allow
transit routes for personnel and materials.
4. If fitted after the floor installation, raised access floor panels may need to
be lifted to allow access to the subfloor void.
5. It is always preferable to install pre-finished raised floor systems after the
completion of construction and decoration works to avoid unnecessary
damage. Where the subfloor void is to be used as a plenum, then care is to
be taken to ensure that dust and debris cannot enter the void through the
operations of other trades.
 UNIT 3
Portable Fire Fighting Equipment

FIRE BLANKETS

Fire blankets are classified in British Standard 7944 and are described as follows:
a) Light Duty - These are suitable for dealing with small fires in containers of
cooking
fat or oils and fires in clothing.
b) Heavy Duty - These are for industrial use where there is a need for the
blanket to
resist penetration by molten materials.

FIRE HYDRANT
A fire hydrant is a pipe that allows water to flow from a water main with the
control of a valve in order to put out a fire.
Before the invention of the fire hydrant, firefighters used the bucket brigade or
hand pumping systems, of getting water to put out fires
. The different valves on a firehydrant allow it to be attached to different water
sources that may be either pressurized or not pressurized. Most fire hydrants are
designed to allow not less than 250 gallons (950 liters) of water to flow through
the hydrant per minute.

Dry barrel and wet barrel are the two kinds of fire hydrants.

The wet barrel fire hydrant holds a constant water supply, while the dry
barrel fire hydrant needs to have a valve release to let water in.

The main benefit of a dry barrel fire hydrant is that its design avoids a frozen
water supply in very cold climates. Some wet barreled fire hydrants may be
made of bronze rather than iron, or they may have an inside finish that
avoids rusting.

Some fire hydrants are rounded in style, while others have more angular lines.
The outlets on a fire hydrant are usually made of bronze, but the caps may be
made from other types of metal.

SPRINKLER SYTEMS

Fire Sprinklers

A Fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection measure, consisting

of a water supply, providing adequate pressure and flow rate to a
water distribution piping system, onto which fire sprinklers are
connected.

Water Sprinkler Systems

Water sprinkler systems consist of a water supply, distribution valves

and piping connected to automatic sprinkler heads. While current
sprinkler systems are primarily intended to control the spread of fire,
many systems have accomplished complete extinguishment.
Types

Wet pipe systems

Wet pipe sprinkler systems are installed more often than all other types by a
wide margin. They also have the highest reliability, as they are simple, with the
only operating component being the automatic sprinkler. A water supply
provides pressure to the piping, and all of the piping is filled with water adjacent
to the sprinklers. The water is held back by the automatic sprinklers.

Dry pipe systems

Dry pipe systems can only be used (by regulation) in spaces in which the ambient
temperature may be cold enough to freeze the water in a wet pipe system,
rendering the system inoperable. Dry pipe systems are most often used in
unheated buildings, in outside canopies attached to heated buildings (in which a
wet pipe system would be provided), or in refrigerated coolers. Dry pipe systems
are the second most common sprinkler system type.

Deluge systems

"Deluge" systems are systems that have open sprinklers, i.e. the heat sensing
operating element is removed during installation, so that all sprinklers connected
to the water piping system are open. These systems are used for special hazards
where rapid fire spread is a concern, as they provide a simultaneous application
of water over the entire hazard.

Pre-Action Systems
Pre-action sprinkler systems are specialized for use in locations where accidental
activation is undesired, such as in museums with rare art works, manuscripts, or
books.

Pre-action systems are hybrids of wet, dry, and deluge systems, depending on the
exact system goal. There are two sub-types of pre-action systems: single interlock,
and double interlock.

Foam water sprinkler systems

A foam water fire sprinkler system is a special application system, discharging a

mixture of water and low expansion foam concentrate, resulting in a foam spray
from the sprinkler. These systems are usually used with special hazards
occupancies associated with high challenge fires, such as flammable liquids, and
airport hangars. Operation is as described above, depending on the system type
into which the foam is injected.

CLASS OF FIRE BASED ON OCCUPANCY

1. Group –A-RESIDENTIAL: Include any building in which sleeping

accommodation is provided for normal residential purposes with or
without cooking or dinning.
2. Group –B-EDUCATIONAL:
B1-SCHOOLS UP TO SENIOR SECONDARY LEVEL
B2- ALL OTHERS /TRAINING INSTITUTIONS
3. Group –C-INSTITUITIONAL:
C1-HOSPITALS AND SANOTORIA
C2-CUSTODIAL INSTITUTIONS
C3-PENAL AND MENTAL INSTITUTIONS
4. Group –D-ASSEMBLY :
D1-BUILDINGS HAVING A TEATRICAL PICTURE –MORE THAN 1000
D2-BUILDINGS HAVING A TEATRICAL PICTURE –UP TO 1000
D3- BLGS WITHOUT A PERMANENT STAGE –LESSTHAN 300 PERSONS
WITH NO PERMANENT SEATING
5. Group –E-BUSINESS:
E1- offices ,banks ,professional establishments ,like offices ,engineers ,Dr,
lawer,and police stations .
E2-Lab, research, libraries and test houses
E3-computer Installations
 6. Group –F-MERCHANTILE: shops, stores, departmental stores
7. Group –G- INDUSTRIAL: low, moderate & high Hazard buildings
8. Group –H STORAGE: storage buildings
9. Group –i- HAZARDOUS

CLASSES OF FIRE

Class A fires involve solid materials, usually of organic matter such as wood,
paper etc. They can be dealt with using water, foam or multi-purpose powder
extinguishers, with water and foam considered the most suitable. Your risk
assessment will help you decide how many you need.

Class-B fires : (hydrocarbons and fuels on fire) require much different handling
than the standard water approach. Many fuels, such as gasoline or oil float on
water, and water would actually end up spreading the fire further. Other fuels,
such as coal, will not be put out by water, as fire spreads to the inside of the coal
and cannot be reached by water - as soon as the water stops, the fire inside of
the coal spreads back out to the outside. Fire control of these fires requires
specialized methods, and can be problematic to ordinary fire stations due to the
fact that these materials may not always be available.

One way to control a class-B fire would be to dump chemical dust on it - this is
also a method for handling class-A fires, and actually tends to be preferable due
to the fact that sprayed water tends to cause property damage. Gasoline fires
are more often smothered in a cooling protein foam.

Class-C fires: are electrical fires - fires that are caused by an electrical source and
get their heat from electricity. These fires are dangerous because if water is used
on them, electrical current will be passed through the stream and back into the
firefighter. There are only two ways to deal with this type of fire - take away the
oxygen (smother it with foam or a fire extinguisher) or simply turn off the
electricity, which will cause the fire to either die out or become a regular class-A
fire.

COOKING GAS DISTRIBUTION

. Gas supply network must be designed to ensure easy and effective
maintenance of different parts and complete safety upon any leakage,"

"Special well-ventilated cabinets, made of un-inflammable substances, must be

provided for gas cylinders.

"They should be away from direct sunlight and sources of ignition. Gas cylinders
must be stored in specific cabinets in a vertical position all the time. No other
items or substances may be stored in gas cylinder cabinets,"

It is also necessary that a valid extinguisher be mounted at gas storage locations

in an easily accessible place.
"Periodic maintenance program of all parts and connections of gas lines must be
developed and documented in special records,"

Maintain an effective firebreak by removing and clearing away flammable

vegetation and combustible growth from areas within 30 feet of buildings or
structures. An additional firebreak up to 150 ft. may be required.

Keep flammable objects, including pot holders, dish towels and curtains, at least
three feet away from the stove.

• Wood and coal stoves, fireplaces, chimneys, and all other solid-fueled
heating equipment needs to be inspected annually by a prIf there is a
microwave fire, keep the door closed and unplug the microwave. Make
sure to have the microwave oven serviced before you use it again.
• If there is an oven fire, keep the door closed and turn off the heat. If the
fire doesn't go out immediately, call the fire department.

A grease fire occurs when oil or greasy foods are heated and ignite. The simplest
way to fight a grease fire is to carefully slide a lid over the pan. Turn off the
burner, don't move the pan, and keep the lid on until the pan cools completely.
Baking Soda may also be used to suffocate the fire. NEVER PUT WATER ON A
GREASE FIRE. Water causes the grease to splatter and the fire to spread. Also,
NEVER attempt to take a grease fire outdoors. It will be too hot to carry and
you will drop it, causing a major house fire.
Be sure any gas-fueled heating device is installed with proper attention to
ventilation, and never put unvented gas space heaters in bedrooms or
bathrooms

• Space heaters should be kept at least three feet away from anything that
can burn.

If outlets or switches feel warm, shut off the circuit and have them checked by an
electrician.
Never overload a socket. The use of "octopus" outlets or "power bar", outlet
extensions that accommodate several plugs, is strongly discouraged. Try to limit
one high-wattage appliance into each individual outlet at a time
If a circuit breaker trips or a fuse blows frequently, cut down on the number of
appliances on that line. In many older homes, the capacity of the wiring system
has not kept pace with today's modern appliances and can overload electrical
systems. Some overload signals include: dimming lights when an appliance goes
on, fuses blowing frequently or shrinking TV picture.
Try to avoid extension cords. If you feel an extension cord is necessary, make sure
that it is not frayed or worn. Do not run it under carpet or around doorways.
GAS SUPPRESSION SYSTEM NAV S !25 SYSTEM CO 2 SYSTEM Archer offers two
types of gas agents for different type of fire risks. All gas systems involve basic
components: gas cylinders, cylinder valves and actuators, discharge piping and
nozzles. The number of cylinders and amount of gas depends on the type of gas
agent and size of the risk being protected. Each gas agent has a different
discharge rate for effective fire extinguishing as well as to minimize damage from
room overpressure or toxic by-products. This discharge rate is controlled by the
number and size of nozzles as well as the size of pipe network. Archer will
carefully calculate all these factors to ensure proper fire protection of each risk.
Archer has the experience to design and supply gas fire fighting systems for all
types of applications, including turbine generators, computer server rooms, ship
engine rooms and archive storage.

Piped gas

Flaws in piped cooking gas system

 • The gas pipe does not have any local isolation valve at the point where
the rubber tube joins it. Also, the isolation valve is located above the
window and the stove, beyond easy reach.
• The rubber tube runs from the top to the stove and will get softened due
to heat. The metering device is also located above the stove where it may
get damaged due to heat and oily vapour.
• The window of the kitchen is provided just at the back.

An isolation valve in the form of a gas tap is provided just before the tube. This
valve is operated whenever the cook-top has to be operated (this was not
clearly visible in the photograph). The valve that you have mentioned is the
master cut-off valve for the kitchen. In between these two, there is also an
additional safety device that shuts of the flow of gas in case there is an
uninterrupted flow of LPG vapour.

Bulk Gas Systems:

Where sufficient demand exists, central bulk gas systems (including cryogenic
tanks and vaporizers) shall be provided in lieu of numerous compressed gas
cylinders. Typically, this applies to gasses such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen,
but may vary for each project. Bulk systems shall be located in a secured area
and in full compliance with NFPA standards. The specific location of bulk tanks
shall be subject to NIH approval. For cases where a set contract is in place, the
NIH project officer can advise as to the gas purveyor is to be utilized for provision
and service of the bulk cryogenic tank farm, as well as how systems are to be
specified for purchase or (less common) rental. Duplex vaporizers, refrigeration
units, etc. should generally be provided as necessary to ensure continuous service.
Stand-off warning signage shall be provided for bulk tanks with regards to
safety valve/rupture disc discharge. Cryogenic piping systems shall be vacuum
jacketed.

Bottled Gas Supplies

Particular care is needed with cylinders of Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) which
may be sued for mobile heating or in workshops. Never be tempted to keep
these cylinders in ordinary storerooms. Bottled gas should be stored outside in
well ventilated conditions, out of sight and substantially secured against vandal.

UNIT 4
The balancing tank is located below and beyond the pool wall and it has a
suction line going to the equipment. The tank itself, is filled by pool water that
either goes over the edge (like in a vanishing edge pool) or via a pipe or channel
near the pool surface. The tank itself is the reservoir that the pump takes water
from and filters. That filtered water is then sent back after being treated and
heated, to the pool returns. This fills the pool to the level of the wall (vanishing
edge) or to the channel or pipe, for overflow to the balancing tank. In a nut shell,
that's how these pools work. How you plumb it, type of pipe you use, etc, will
vary depending on your local codes. These days, most municipalities will insist on
a schedule 40 PVC pipe or a red stripe poly pipe. If you go with the poly,
DOESN’T use nylon insert fittings. The nylon, though more expensive, degrades
when exposed to chlorine. Use the cheaper poly.

Balance Tank
a balance tank is used in pools that do not use skimmer boxes. Its primary use is
for the storage of excess water generated from the displacement of swimmers
bodies. A pool with a balance tank maintains a constant depth regardless of how
many people are in the pool. Once the swimmers exit the pool the extra water
that the balance tank has been holding returns to the pool and the balance
tank returns to its normal operating level. The balance tank is also fitted with an
equalizing and control valve and is an ideal place to dose chemicals that are
able to be "slug dosed". The circulating pump's suction is also located in the
balance tank. Fittings and avoid using any galvanized as well.
 FILTRATION

• Sand – The bullet proof filter

Water is pushed through a bed of filter sand and removed through a set of
lateral tubes at the bottom. The filter area of a sand filter is equal to the area
of the filter itself. For example, a 24” filter will have 3.14 sq ft of filter area. Only
the top 1” of sand is actually used to filter the water. The principle behind this
filter is that water is pushed through the filter sand, somewhat like an espresso
machine. Dirty water goes in the top and clean water exits out the bottom. As
the filter sand becomes plugged with debris from the pool, the pressure
increases on the filter and the water flow drops. In order to clean the filter, you
just run it in reverse and dump the waste water; this is referred to as
“backwashing” the filter. Once the filter is backwashed, you move to the rinse
mode and that repacks the sand and then back to filter. This has to be done
manually every few weeks. From a hydraulics standpoint, a backwash valve is
typically the most inefficient piece of equipment you can add to a swimming
pool system. Should the sand ever become really dirty, it is easily and
inexpensively replaced. In terms of particle size filtered out, sand is the lease
effective method – it can allow smaller particles to pass back into the pool.
• Cartridge – The economic low maintenance filter.
This one is easy to understand. Water passes though a filter material and the
filter captures the debris. This is just like the water filters used under your sink.
Cartridges have much more available area to filter than sand. Most start at
100 sqft and the majority of the cartridge filters sold are larger than 300 sqft.
So they don’t clog up as quickly and therefore you touch them less frequently.
There are two types of cartridge filters in general. In the first case, there are
filters elements that are inexpensive to replace and as such, they don’t tend to
last as long. Then there are other filters that have very expensive elements and
these last 5 or more years. In both cases, cartridge filters are designed to run at
lower pressure than sand. This puts less back-pressure on the pump and hence
you get more flow and turnover for an equivalent pump size. Generally these
filters have to be cleaned once or twice a season by simply hosing them off, so
you don’t touch them as often. In terms of particle size filtered out, cartridge is
somewhere between sand and DE.
• DE – The water polisher.
Diatomaceous earth is mined and is the fossilized exoskeletons of tiny diatoms.
They are used to coat “grids” in the filter housing and act as tiny sieves to
remove debris. They are very small and as such can filter out particles as small
as 5 microns. Diatom filter area are sized between sand and cartridge –
around 60-70 sqft are most common. Once the filter pressure rises, the filter is
backwashed just like a sand filter and then “recharged” with more DE powder.
 Typically it is poured in a slurry into the skimmer and it then coats the filter
grids. DE filters run at higher pressures than cartridge filters and as such can
lead to some inefficiency and flow loss.

Cleaning the Swimming Pool water

Pollution in pool water comes either from the environment or is carried into the
water by the swimmers. Environmental pollution includes dust, leaves, chemical
wastes, pollen, spores, bacteria and so on, that are blown into the water by the
wind. Swimmers carry other pollutants into the water: sweat, suntan oils, urine,
bacteria, viruses, etc.

Every swimming pool has a circulation pump and filter. The filters most common
these days are sand filters, and are much easier to maintain than the earlier
diatomaceous filters of a few years back. The pool pump ensures that the
swimming pool water moves through the filter every day, thus removing
unwanted pollutants and disinfected organic materials as quickly as possible.

Other common pool filters include DE (diatomaceous earth) filters, which are
able to filter out finer particles of dirt, though they require more maintenance.
Cartridge filters are also quite widespread and are quite simple to maintain.
Nowadays a filter sand substitute containing zeolite is gaining in popularity. The
zeolite (specifically the clinoptilolite mineral) is able to filter particles as finely as
DE filters in addition to having a capacity to absorb ammonia and its complexes
(reducing combined chlorine and offensive chlorine odours), while not requiring
any extra maintenance.

Generally, the swimming pool pump should run for at least 6 - 8 hours
each day. There is usually a timer which cycles the pool pump on and off to
ensure this constant filtration. The circulation of pool water will remove floating
or suspended particles of dirt from the water, but has no effect on the substances
which have settled to the bottom of the swimming pool or "stuck" to the walls.

Depending on the environmental conditions and swimmer load, the swimming

pool needs regular brushing and vacuuming, generally about once a week
in the swimming season for home pools. With the circulation pump turned off,
the walls and floor of the pool are swept with a stiff brush. When the "dust" from
the brushing settles, it is vacuumed off the floor of the swimming pool. The pool
must also be vacuumed after treating with a flocculant. Nowadays, there is a
variety of automatic swimming pool cleaners, which suck the dirt off the walls
and floor of the swimming pool whenever the pool pump is running. These are
really great for pool owners who never seem to have the time for swimming pool
chores.

Now that the vacuuming is done, it is time to backwash the filter. Sand filters
trap dust and dirt, as the name implies, in a bed of sand. When the filter has
accumulated a large amount of dirt, the water cannot pass freely through the
sand and the filter loses efficiency as the pressure increases. Backwashing sends
water backwards through the filter and flushes the trapped dirt out. After
backwashing, you will notice an increase in return pressure to the pool, and if
you have a pressure guage, you should notice an increase of at least 0,5 bar.

With the pool pump off, turn the filter setting to "backwash". Remove the leaf
basket from the weir, clean and replace it. Turn on the pump and let it run until
the water coming out of the waste pipe is clear. This generally needs a few
minutes. Turn off the pump and set the filter to rinse; this cleans out the pipes
and prevents any dirt from returning to the pool. It also settles the sand in the
filter which has been stirred up by the backwashing. Run the pump for about a
minute and then turn it off. Set the filter to "closed". Open the leaf trap near the
pump, remove the basket and clean out all the leaves, twigs and rubbish it may
have collected. Replace the basket, set the filter to "filter" and turn your pump
back to its automatic (timer) operating position.

Great! The swimming pool looks clean and the filter has been rejuvenated. Now
it's time totest the pool water and adjust the pH and chlorine levels.

If your swimming pool needs topping up, now is the ideal time to put the hose in
the pool. It is very healthy for the swimming pool water to be replaced bit by bit,
to prevent it becoming stale and creating chemical problems or pool water
problems. A routine of 5-minute backwashing followed by a 1-minute rinse every
week will ensure that you replace about 5% of the swimming pool water each
month. This means a complete changeover of swimming pool water
approximately every 2 years.

REMEMBER too, that the useful lifespan of the sand in your filter is 3-5 years. If
you neglect to change the sand, your filter will not be able to remove the finer
particles of dirt and your swimming pool can never be completely clean. Have
the pool filter opened for inspection at least every 2 years to avoid filtration
problems.

Swimming pool water treatment

Swimming pool water must undergo treatment, in order to remain clear and
 clean, free from harmful substances, bacteria, viruses, algae and other pathogens
and suitable for use by swimmers.
Purification steps
Swimming pool water is treated by means of various purification steps (figure 1).
The water is first transported from swimming pools to a water purification
plant (1). In the water purification plant, it will flow through a hair removal
filter (2), which removes raw pollutions, such as hairs, plasters and leaves, from
water. After that, a flocculant (3) is added, which causes smaller colloids to bind
together. Colloids are visible floating particles of organic matter, such as skin
tissue and textile fibers. This group of pollutants also concerns colloidal pollutants,
such as saliva, soap remains, cosmetic products and skin fats. When these
pollutants are abundant, they cause turbidity.
Parameters that indicate the presence of undissolved particles are water
turbidity and potassium permanganate (KMnO4) demand of the water.
Potassium permanganate is used as an indicator of organic matter oxidation.
Floating particles are removed from water in a sandfilter. The sandfilter is
backflushed periodically. Finally, pollutants are discharged into the sewer.

water quality
If not properly maintained, the water in your domestic swimming pool harbours a
range of microbes, including bacteria and algae, that can cause health problems
such as ear, nose and throat infections. You should check your swimming pool
regularly to make sure that the water is healthy. A simple way to do this is to take
a daily look into the pool. Is the water clear? Can you see to the bottom of the
pool? Does the water look any different to how it looked the day before? Any
changes, such as cloudiness, mean that you need to test the water and take steps to
improve water quality before anyone goes swimming.

Sources of contamination
Some of the various sources of bacteria and microbes in your pool can include:

• People swimming in the pool - this is the main source of bacteria.

• Animals, such as dogs - some pets like to paddle in the pool on hot days.
• Dead wildlife - for example, frogs or lizards or insects may occasionally drown
in your pool.
• Debris from around the property, such as leaves, grass and dust.

Swimming pool maintenance

The five keys to maintaining water quality in your swimming pool include:

• Filtration
 • Chlorination
• pH level
• Total alkalinity (TA)
• Calcium hardness.

Filtration
The water in your pool is pumped through a filter to remove debris and particles.
How long you need to run the filter depends on the size of your swimming pool and
the horsepower of your pool pump. If you are unsure, check your instruction
manual or consult with a pool maintenance company. Remember that even when
you are filtering your pool according to specifications, about 35 per cent of the
water still won't be filtered.

Chlorination
Chlorine is a chemical that disinfects the water and helps to remove debris. You
should use a chlorine stabilizer to extend the chlorine's half-life. Generally, the
longer your filtration cycle, the less chlorine you will need. Similarly, the more
chlorine you use, the shorter your required filtration cycle. Remember that your
chlorine requirements will be affected by a range of factors including your pump
and filter system, water temperature, water level, amount of debris, and the
number of swimmers in your pool.

pH level
The pH level indicates how acidic or alkaline the water is at any given time. A pH
level of 7 means that water is neutral; above 7 means the water is alkaline, while
below 7 indicates acidity. You should aim for a pH level of between 7 and 7.6. If the
water pH is higher than 8, anyone who swims in the pool is at risk of skin rashes,
while a pH of lower than 7 can sting the swimmers' eyes. Some of the many factors
that can affect your pool's pH level include heavy rain, lots of swimmers and pool
chemicals. Remember to regularly check your pool's pH level.

Total alkalinity (TA)

Total alkalinity (TA) means the sum of all alkaline chemicals in your water. If TA is
too low, the pH balance can become unstable; concrete and painted pool surfaces
will also deteriorate over time. TA and pH are interconnected; for example, raising
the TA could also raise the pH. Make sure you don't disrupt your pool's pH when
adjusting the TA, and vice versa.

Calcium hardness
Calcium hardness refers to the amount of the mineral calcium dissolved in your
water. Low calcium levels will deteriorate pool surfaces, while high calcium levels
will leave a 'scum' or scale on surfaces and equipment.

General water quality suggestions

Be guided by pool professionals, but general suggestions on maintaining good
water quality in your swimming pool include:

• Check your pH and chlorine levels daily. Preferably, these tests should be
done before the first swim of the day, to make sure the water quality hasn't
altered overnight.
• In very hot weather, it is a good idea to check the pH and chlorine twice
daily.
• Remember that heated pools need more chlorine than non-heated pools.
• Brush and vacuum your pool on a regular basis.
• Regularly check the pump, skimmer boxes and other pool equipment, and
repair or replace parts as necessary.

Solving common problems

Be guided by your pool maintenance specialist or pool chemical supplier, but
general suggestions include:

• Algae - these single-celled organisms have a short life cycle, and can turn the
water in your swimming pool green within a few hours. The cause is zero
chlorination, which allows these organisms to thrive. Treatment includes
lowering the pH level by adding pool acid and, later, adding a copper
treatment to the water to kill the spores. You can use a brush and garden
hose to remove algae from pool surfaces. The next day, vacuum the settled
algae from the floor of your pool - don't try to remove it by running the
filter. Make sure you check the TA, pH and calcium hardness before you
allow anyone to swim.
• Faeces - young children can occasionally have a toileting accident while
swimming. Get everyone to vacate the pool, and fish out the faeces using a
fine mesh scoop. If your pool is small, you might consider draining and
cleaning it. Otherwise, superchlorinate the pool for at least half an hour
before letting anyone swim. Always ensure chlorine levels are back to regular
 levels before swimming.
• Chlorine smell - a strong chlorine smell can affect the eyes, nose and skin.
Contrary to popular belief, it's too little chlorine that causes the smell, not too
much. Too little chlorine permits chloramine compounds to form. It is these
compounds that have the strong smell and that cause the irritation. If your
pool smells strongly, check the chlorine level - you'll find you need to
superchlorinate.

Safety suggestions for pool chemicals

Pool chemicals can be dangerous if not handled properly. Suggestions include:

• Keep pool chemicals locked up in a cool, dry place.

• Don't store pool chemicals near other chemicals or flammables, including
petrol, detergents or alcohol.
• Always use chemicals strictly as instructed.
• Don't combine chemicals together - for example, mixing different types of
chlorine together (such as granular and liquid) can cause an explosion.
• To avoid splashing the chemicals, add the chemicals to water - don't add the
water to the chemicals.
• If you are splashed, rinse contaminated clothing straight away and wash
your skin thoroughly in plenty of water.

Disinfection of swimming pool water

Micro-organisms polluted swimming pools. Every swimmer adds 1.000.000 to

1.000.000.000 microorganisms to the water. The water itself contains
microorganisms, as well. After oxidation a disinfectant must be added to the water
to kill pathogenic microorganisms.
Demands on disinfectants
Disinfectants used for swimming pool water disinfection must meet certain
demands. They should be harmless and non-irritating to swimmers and attendants.
They must be active in small concentrations and remain their activity for a long
time.
Contrary to drinking water disinfectants, disinfectants for swimming pool treatment
must be active in the pool itself, because pollutions and pathogenic micro-
organisms are constantly added to the water. Therefore the water has to maintain
a residual disinfectant concentration. The disinfectant must be easily traced and
measured and should be safe to use.

Disinfection methods for swimming pool water

In some countries, sodium hypochlorite is used for both oxidation and disinfection of
swimming pools. When it is added to water, sodium hypochlorite increases the pH
value. It is better to use chlorine as a disinfectant and an oxidizer at a pH value of
6,5. Often, acid is added to lower the pH value.

Demands on swimming pool conditions

Chlorine-based disinfectants are among the most frequently applied disinfectants

and oxidizers for swimming pool treatment. Chlorine is usually added as
hypochlorous acid (HOCl) or hypochlorite (OCl-).
Chlorine kills pathogenic microorganisms that are present in the water. When too
much chlorine is present, it can cause eye and mucous membrane irritation, as a
result of chloramine formation.
Threshold and maximum levels are set for chlorine concentration. For available
chlorine the minimum concentration in swimming pools is set to 0,5 milligram per
litre. The maximum level is set to 1,5 mg/l. When using cyanic acid (stabilizer)
minimum and maximum values are set to respectively 2,0 and 5,0 mg/L. For
outdoor swimming pools and indoor pools smaller than 20 m2, the maximum level
is set to 5,0 mg/l.
Lowering the chlorine concentration is undesirable, because this increases the risk of
waterborne diseases.
Alternative disinfectants can be used as well, these decrease the required amount
of chlorine or cause chlorine addition to be irrelevant.
The pH value is measured daily. It should be between 6,8 and 7,8. At a pH of 7,0,
the amount of free chlorine present is 70%, while this concentration decreases to
20% at pH of 8,0.
The water and air temperature in swimming pools is usually high. Furthermore the
humidity is high. This influences the activity of disinfectants and the behaviour of
substances that are formed in the swimming pool during disinfection. When sodium
hypochlorite is used, chlorine gas is formed due to reactions with the acid that is
added to lower the pH of the water. Chlorine gas must be removed, because it can
be harmful to human health and corrosive on materials. Chloramines, formed
through reactions of ureum and chlorinated disinfectants, are corrosive as well.

(YAHA TAK THEEK THA. AB YEH POOL TILE AND ALL KYA HAI NAI
MALUM :P )

Pool Tile
Pool tile has been around for a long time, mostly because it offers a customized
look in a variety of colors and patterns. The other big advantage to this material is
its durability and low maintenance. Aside from regular cleanings and the
occasional re-grouting, this material is built to last with relatively little care. If tile is
your choice in a pool finish, you will be happy to know that in addition to a
rainbow of color choices, you can expand your options even further with a pattern
or design. Some pool owners love the look of a random mosaic dotting the sides of
the pool. Others enjoy a mosaic filled with dolphins, turtles and tropical fish created
with colored tiles.
Fiberglass Pools
Fiberglass pools come in prefabricated shapes with steps and platforms built into
the surface. These pools are relatively inexpensive compared to other types of pool
finishes, but fairly durable, making them a good value. Fiberglass offers a smooth,
slip-proof finish that families with children may appreciate. The pools are usually
available in a variety of shades of blue and grey for a natural look and feel.
Gunite Finishes
Gunite has become one of the most popular and durable pool finishes today. This
concrete mixture is sprayed onto a rebar infrastructure, allowing more flexibility
and strength than traditional poured concrete pools. These pools can be platered
and or painted to dress up the pool's interior. The surface can also be coated with a
skid proof sealant to protect slipping in the pool. Gunite is a wonderfully durable
material. Often times a plaster material is coated over a roughened concrete and
give a permanent strong finish. Additives can be added into the plaster such as
aggregate, colored quartz sand and tile insets.
 UNIT 5

UNIT 6
WASTE GENERATION

Definition
Quantity of materials or products that enter a waste stream before composting,
incinerating, landfilling, or recycling.

THERE ARE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WASTE

Waste characteristics and its variation quantity

The Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) quality is same in all areas but its quantity
varies. There are cases of biomedical waste, industrial waste and hazardous
waste mixing with MSW. No segregation of MSW done in general. However in
certain urban areas like Kozhikode Municipal Corporation an attempt is being
made to segregate the waste.

Industrial hazardous waste quality and quantity is based on the type of source.
Industrial solid waste and Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) sludge are not
properly disposed. Waste generated from conventional industries like coir and
cashew also causing problems.

According to the pollution potential, hazardous wastes handling units are

classified into three categories namely red category (highly polluting), orange
category (medium polluting) and green category (less polluting). The distribution
of hazardous waste handling units as per the category wise classification is given
below

Biomedical wastes are not fully segregated at source, though there is tremendous
improvement in the biomedical waste in the State. So the entire solid waste
generated from health care in institutions becomes infectious

Treatment and disposal of municipal waste

As cities are growing in size with a rise in the population, the amount of waste
generated is increasing becoming unmanageable. The local corporations have
adapted different methods for the disposal of waste – open dumps, landfills,
sanitary landfills, and incineration plants. One of the important methods of
waste treatment is composting

Open dumps

Open dumps refer to uncovered areas that are used to dump solid waste of all
kinds. The waste is untreated, uncovered, and not segregated. It is the breeding
ground for flies, rats, and other insects that spread disease. The rainwater run-off
from these dumps contaminates nearby land and water thereby spreading
disease. In some countries, open dumps are being phased out.

Landfills
Landfills are generally located in urban areas where a large amount of waste is
generated and has to be dumped in a common place. Unlike an open dump, it
is a pit that is dug in the ground. The garbage is dumped and the pit is covered
thus preventing the breeding of flies and rats. At the end of each day, a layer of
soil is scattered on top of it and some mechanism, usually an earth-moving
equipment is used to compress the garbage, which now forms a cell. Thus, every
day, garbage is dumped and becomes a cell. After the landfill is full, the area is
covered with a thick layer of mud and the site can thereafter be developed as a
parking lot or a park.

Landfills have many problems. All types of waste is dumped in landfills and when
water seeps through them it gets contaminated and in turn pollutes the
surrounding area. This contamination of groundwater and soil through landfills is
known as leaching.

Sanitary landfills
An alternative to landfills which will solve the problem of leaching to some
extent, is a sanitary landfill which is more hygienic and built in a methodical
manner. These are lined with materials that are impermeable such as plastics
and clay, and are also built over impermeable soil. Constructing sanitary landfills
is very costly and they are have their own problems. Some authorities claim that
often the plastic liner develops cracks as it reacts with various chemical solvents
present in the waste.

The rate of decomposition in sanitary landfills is also extremely variable. This can
be due to the fact that less oxygen is available as the garbage is compressed very
tightly. It has also been observed that some biodegradable materials do not
decompose in a landfill. Another major problem is the development of methane
gas, which occurs when little oxygen is present, i.e. during anaerobic
decomposition. In some countries, the methane being produced from sanitary
landfills is tapped and sold as fuel.

Incineration plants
This process of burning waste in large furnaces is
known as incineration. In these plants the recyclable
material is segregated and the rest of the material is
burnt. At the end of the process all that is left behind
is ash. During the process some of the ash floats out
with the hot air. This is called fly ash. Both the fly ash and the ash that is left in
the furnace after burning have high concentrations of dangerous toxins such as
dioxins and heavy metals. Disposing of this ash is a problem. The ash that is
buried at the landfills leaches the area and cause severe contamination.

Burning garbage is not a clean process as it produces tonnes of toxic ash and
pollutes the air and water. A large amount of the waste that is burnt here can
be recovered and recycled. In fact, at present, incineration is kept as the last
resort and is used mainly for treating the infectious waste.

INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS

In some countries, significant quantities of organic industrial solid waste are

generated. Industrial waste generation and composition vary depending on the
type of industry and processes/technologies in the concerned country. Countries
apply various categorisations for industrial waste. For example, construction and
demolition waste can be included in industrial waste, in MSW(municipal solid
waste), or defined as a separate category. The default categorisation used here
assumes construction and demolition waste are part of the industrial waste. In
many countries industrial solid waste is managed as a specific stream and the
waste amounts are not covered by general waste statistics.
These statistics are published periodically. In most developing countries industrial
wastes are included in the municipal solid waste stream, therefore, it is difficult to
obtain data of the industrial waste separately. Industrial solid waste disposal
data may be obtained by surveys or from national statistics. Only those industrial
wastes which are expected to contain DOC( Degradable Organic Carbons should
be considered for the purpose of emission estimation from waste. Construction
and demolition waste is mainly inert (concrete, rubble, etc.) but may contain
some in wood and some fossil carbon in plastics. Recycling and reduction using
different technologies applied to industrial waste prior to disposal or incineration
should be taken into account, where data are available.

HOSPITAL BUILDINGS :

Hospitals produce a diverse set of wastes that require management. An

important starting point is to assess what types of waste a typical healthcare
facility produces and begin to understand who is responsible for tracking and
managing each waste stream. The next stage will involve determining the
volumes of each waste generated and the associated costs.
These are the major categories of waste typically found in an acute-care hospital
setting.

Solid Waste – This waste stream is also called municipal waste, black bag, clear
bag, or non-regulated medical waste. This is general trash, similar to what you
would find in a hotel but with more plastics and packaging.
Regulated Medical Waste – This waste stream is also called potentially
infectious material, red bag waste or biohazardous waste.

Hazardous Waste – common hazardous wastes include hazardous

pharmaceuticals, bulk chemotherapeutic agents, mercury, xylene and other
solvents, some paints, aerosol cans etc.

Pharmaceutical Waste – Some pharmaceutical waste is considered hazardous

while a large majority may not require handling as hazardous waste but should
receive special disposal considerations, including controlled substances. As
regulatory scrutiny of pharmaceutical waste increases, it is critical for healthcare
organizations to understand the appropriate management and disposal
methods.

Universal Waste – certain hazardous wastes—when sent for recycling, may be

managed under a less stringent set of regulations and do not have to be counted
toward total hazardous waste volumes that determine generator status.
Materials eligible to be handled as Universal Waste include:
• batteries
• pesticides
• mercury-containing equipment
• bulbs (lamps)

Recyclables – Recyclables are items and materials bound for the waste stream
that can be converted into a reusable material. Recyclables in healthcare include
the usual suspects found in commercial buildings such as paper, cardboard,
beverage and food containers, metal and glass. Additionally, there are a host of
healthcare-specific materials that can also be recycled, including paper waste,
medical plastics, and items that can be reprocessed for reuse rather than
disposed of.
Composting – This waste stream is primarily comprised of food and landscaping
waste—material that will breakdown naturally in short periods of time under the
proper temperature and pressure conditions, such as grass, weed clippings, tree
limbs and branches, waste from vegetable produce, bread and grains, and
paper products such as napkins or paper plates. One hospital found that 23% of
its total waste stream was food waste. Organizations are finding ways to
compost this material—either onsite or using an offsite contractor.

UNIT 7
SOLAR ENERGY
Solar Energy, radiation produced by nuclear fusion reactions deep in the Sun’s
core.
Solar energy travels to Earth through space in discrete packets of energy called
photons. A Photon is defined as a packet or quantum of a wave-like fluctuations
in electric and magnetic fields traveling through free space or a material
medium.

The simplest example of solar energy use is your calculator. As long as there is
light in the room, the calculator will always work by converting light into useful
energy. The solar cells on a calculator are called photovoltaic cells and are made
of semiconductors, like silicon.

On the side of Earth facing the Sun, a square kilometer at the outer edge of our
atmosphere receives 1,400 megawatts of solar power every minute. Only half of
that amount reaches Earth’s surface. The amount of light that reaches any point
on the ground depends on the time of day. The total radiation power varies only
slightly, about 0.2 percent every 30 years. Any considerable change would alter
or end life on Earth.
 Greenhouses and solariums are common examples of the direct use of solar
energy, having glass surfaces that allow the passage of visible light from the sun
but slow down the escape of heat and infrared energy.

Solar Energy - Advantages

• Clean, non-polluting.

• Renewable, endless supply that belongs to no one.

• Works best in the sunniest, often the poorest, parts of the world.

• Dovetails with other clean systems.

• Flexible and modular - systems can be resized.

• Safe.

Solar Energy - Disadvantages

• Some research and development not funded.

• Electricity produced is more expensive.

• Cannot be used as the only system in cloudy places.

• Energy has to be stored in batteries, hydrogen, water or other matter

HOT WATER SYSTEMS (BRIEF)

 The use of the sun's heat to warm a potable water supply instead of electricity
is a very efficient method and truly cost-effective. Solar HVAC systems, battery-
backed off-grid systems, solar farms and more are at the forefront of the solar
power world innovations; There are two basic types of solar heating systems:
passive solar heating and active solar heating.

Active solar is a term referring to those technologies that can be employed to

convert solar energy into usable heat, to cause air-movement for ventilation or
cooling.

A passive solar heating design does not actually include any sort of mechanical
heating device. Rather, passive solar heating functions by incorporating building
features that absorb heat and then release it slowly to maintain the
temperature within the home.

Solar panels are one of the most important factors in the generation of Solar
Energy. On an average, 1 Sq. Ft. of Solar Panel generates 10.6 Watts of power.
Some of the modern Solar Energy systems consist of magnifying glasses along
with pipes filled with fluid. These systems consist of frontal glass that focuses the
sun’s light onto the pipes. The fluid present in the pipes heats up instantly. In
addition theSE pipes are painted black on the outside so as to absorb maximum
amount of heat. The pipes have reflective silver surface on the back that reflects
the sunlight back, thus heating the pipes further. This reflective silver surface also
helps in protecting everything that is on the back of the solar panel. The heat
thus produced can be used for heating up water in a tank, thus saving the large
amount of gas or electricity required to heat the water.

Wind Energy

Wind energy is defined as the “power generated by harnessing the

wind, usually by windmills”. In scientific terms, wind energy is the
"force" of winds blowing across the earth’s surface. Wind energy is usually
associated with wind turbines/windmills, but there are other similar concepts out
there, check out Floating Air Turbines and Underwater Power.

Wind is caused by uneven heating on the earth’s surface.

The equator region receives more heat .

That heat tries to move from hotter to colder regions. Wind energy was first
harvested centuries ago, when early windmills were used to power millstones,
pumps, and forges.

Wind farms have been, and are being constructed in upland areas of the British
Isles, such as Wales and the Lake District, but they have been objected to
because of visual and noise pollution. To solve this problem, engineers have
suggested offshore locations, where wind speeds are higher and the impact of
visual pollution is dramatically reduced.

When harnessed, wind energy can be converted into mechanical energy for
performing work such as pumping water, grinding grain, and milling lumber.
The amount of kinetic energy within Earth's atmosphere is equal to about
10,000 trillion kilowatt-hours.

The picture below shows how much wind energy is currently harvested by the
entire world and a future prediction. Image Source: WWEA

An efficient windmill can produce approximately 175 watts per square meter of
propeller-blade area at a height of 25m. In 2006, a total of 73,904 MW was
generated, so if each windmill has 2 sq. meters of area that equals to over
200,000 wind turbines working throughout the globe.

Wind Energy - Advantages

• Wind energy is free, clean and non-polluting. The generation of wind

power does not produce any by-products that could be harmful to the
environment. There are no chemicals involved, no waste production, it's sque1aky
clean.

• Wind supply is plentiful,

so wind energy is a renewable
supply. Click on the image on
the right, to see the "amount of
wind" available across the
United States.

• Suitable for less sunny regions. This creates the possibility of generating
energy non-stop, during day and night.

• Dovetails well with other systems. The generated wind energy can be used
full time in residential or commercial applications combined with your regular
power supply. It can also act as a back-up in case your residential supply line
fails.

• Simple technology. There is nothing too complex, mechanically, in terms of

designing and building wind turbines.

• Cheap electricity. Wind energy is relatively cheap as compared to other

sources.

• Safe, if properly maintaine

Wind Energy - Disadvantages

• Aesthetically disturbing. Some people just don't like the look of giant
whirling blades structures outside their window. A number of companies are
working on solving this problem. Check out Underwater Wind Power and
Floating Air Turbines.

A company called Verdant Power came up with an idea

of placing wind turbines underwater. This new free-flow
hydropower technology utilizes underwater currents to
harvest energy. The advantages are that this system is
out of sight, hidden deep in rivers or oceans. Some
disadvantages could be the cost of installation and
 maintenance. Image Sources: VerdantPower

An Ontario-based company is also working

to an alternative approach, by placing
"turbines" floating hundreds of feet high
above the ground! This could pose a risk for
airplanes thought, or act as a giant
conducting wire for lightning bolts. Image
Source: Magenn Company.

• Inconstant nature of the wind. Hey, it might be windy, or not. Who knows.
Constructions companies try to place turbines in the most windy areas, even
though at times, it still might not be as windy.

• Affects the bird population. Birds and other flying creatures have trouble
seeing the turbines. Although special coloring patterns and slower moving blades
have reduced this problem.

• Wind farms generate noise in quiet, rural sites. Construction companies

tried to solve this by moving the turbines offshore (in the middle of a lake or a
river).

Solar Energy Can Be Used for Heat and Electricity

When converted to thermal (or heat) energy, solar energy can be used to:
• Heat water — for use in homes, buildings, or swimming pools
• Heat spaces — inside homes, greenhouses, and other buildings
Solar energy can be converted to electricity in two ways:

• Photovoltaic (PV devices) or “solar cells” change sunlight directly into

electricity. Individual PV cells are grouped into panels and arrays of panels that
can be used in a wide range of applications ranging from single small cells that
charge calculator and watch batteries, to systems that power single homes, to
large power plants covering many acres.

Solar Photovoltaic

Photovoltaic Cells Convert Sunlight into Electricity

A photovoltaic cell, commonly called a solar cell or PV, is the technology used to
convert solar energy directly into electrical power. A photovoltaic cell is a non
mechanical device usually made from silicon alloys.

How Photovoltaic Systems Operate

The photovoltaic cell is the basic building block of a photovoltaic system.
Individual cells can vary in size from about 0.5 inches to about 4 inches
across. However, one cell only produces 1 or 2 watts, which isn't enough power for
most applications.

To increase power output, cells are electrically connected into a packaged

weather-tight module. Modules can be further connected to form an array. The
term array refers to the entire generating plant, whether it is made up of one or
several thousand modules. The number of modules connected together in an
array depends on the amount of power output needed.

Weather Affects Photovoltaics

The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon sunlight. Climate
conditions (such as clouds or fog) have a significant effect on the amount of solar
energy received by a photovoltaic array and, in turn, its performance. Most
modern modules are about 10% efficient in converting sunlight. Further research
is being conducted to raise this efficiency to 20%.

Commercial Applications of Photovoltaic Systems

The success of PV in outer space first generated commercial applications for this
technology. The simplest photovoltaic systems power many of the small
calculators and wrist watches used every day. More complicated systems provide
electricity to pump water, power communications equipment, and even provide
electricity to our homes.
Some advantages of photovoltaic systems are:

1. Conversion from sunlight to electricity is direct, so that bulky mechanical

generator systems are unnecessary.

2. PV arrays can be installed quickly and in any size.

3. The environmental impact is minimal, requiring no water for system cooling

and generating no by-products.
Photovoltaic cells, like batteries, generate direct current (DC), which is generally
used for small loads (electronic equipment). When DC from photovoltaic cells is
used for commercial applications or sold to electric utilities using the electric grid,
it must be converted to alternating current (AC) using inverters, solid state
devices that convert DC power to AC.
BIOGAS PLANT – BIOGAS DIGESTER

A biogas plant consists of five main structure or components

1. Inlet tank
2. Digester
3. Dome,called as gas holder
4. Outlet tank
5. Composite pit

A “biogas digester” is a simple system which produces biogas, via the natural
anaerobic decomposition of organic material. The biogas digester, once its
“starter culture” of methanogenic (CH4producing) bacteria has been established
(usually several weeks after initial loading with animal manures or lake mud)
can be fed daily with kitchen and garden waste.

The ecosystem of bacteria in the biogas digester extract energy from the organic
material and generate methane gas. The digested organic material exits the
system as a high-quality fertilizer in liquid form. This liquid anaerobic “compost”
still contains all the minerals and other soil nutrients of the kitchen and garden
waste, including the nitrogen that can be lost through aerobic composting.

Before being fed into the digester tank, the biomass is mechanically macerated
— chewed up — with an “Insinkerator” garbage disposal. For our biogas digester
a slurry of ground biomass and warm (40°C) water is poured into the tank inlet
funnel. The inlet for the digester leads down to the bottom center of the digester
tank.

Before normal operation, the biogas digester must be “started.” This is done by
preparing a 1:1 mixture of fresh animal manure and water, and allowing this to
ferment anaerobically for several weeks. The volume of this mixture should be
around 200 liters for a 3000 liter digester or roughly 30-40 kg of animal
manures per cubic meter of digestor tank space.

Once the manure-mixture is producing flammable gas, feeding of the digester

with biomass can begin. It is best to begin gradually, for example with 1/3 of the
expected feeding for the first week, 2/3 for the second, and then onto a normal
feeding regime.

Different methane-producing bacteria respond to temperature differently; some

prefer cooler temperatures as low as 17°C-20°C (psychrophilic). Others thrive at
higher temperatures around 57°C (thermophilic). On the whole, however, biogas
digesters well-suited to temperate climates work best at temperatures around
37°C (mesophilic).