A-level Revision Summary: Electromagnetism

Magnetic fields can be due to permanent magnets or electric currents and they exert forces on both of
these. The direction of a magnetic field is always shown as the direction in which a force would be
exerted on the north-seeking pole of a magnet. The strength of a magnetic field, B, is defined as the
force exerted per unit (current x length) that is perpendicular to the field; i.e. B = F/Il . The mutually
perpendicular directions of the magnetic field, the current and the force are given by the LEFT
HAND RULE.

This definition leads to the formula F=BIl for the force on a current-carrying conductor and F=Bqv
for the force on a moving charge, provided that these are perpendicular to the field. (F=Bev for an
electron.) Otherwise they apply to the component of the vectors Il and qv that is perpendicular to the
magnetic field.

The magnetic field due to a current in a straight conductor can be represented as concentric circles
around the current. The direction is clockwise when viewed in the same direction as the current and
the field strength at a distance d from the current is given by B = µ oI/2π d, where m represents the
permeability of free space. Inside, but away from the ends of a solenoid, the uniform field has a
constant value of B = µonI, where n represents the number of turns of wire per metre. The field in
the centre of a plane coil of radius r, having N turns is given by B = µoNI/2r.
The force between two parallel current-carrying conductors, F = µoI1I2l/2πd is used as the basis of
the definition of the ampère.

The term magnetic flux density is an equivalent term to magnetic field strength. It refers to a model
of magnetic fields being due to flux. On this model, the amount of flux, f, passing through an area at
right angles to the flux is given by the formula φ = BA. A coil of N turns at right angles to a
magnetic field is said to have a flux-linkage Φ = Nφ = BAN .

The flux model is useful when considering electromagnetic induction. An e.m.f. is induced in a
conductor whenever it is subjected to a change in magnetic field. This change can arise due to
movement of the conductor, e.g. an aircraft flying through the Earth's magnetic field, or movement of
the field, e.g. a magnet rotating inside the coil of wire in a dynamo, or a changing current, e.g. the
alternating current in the coil of a transformer.

The induced e.m.f., causes a current to pass if there is a complete circuit.

Faraday's law states that the size of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux-linkage.
For a uniform change in flux-linkage this can be written as

ε = ∆Φ
∆t
Lenz's law states that the direction of the induced e.m.f. is always such as to oppose the change that
causes it. This can be illustrated by the induced e.m.f. produced when a magnet is pushed into a coil
of wire. It causes a current with a magnetic field that repels the magnet. Faraday's law and Lenz's
law can be combined together into the single equation

ε = - dΦ
dt

or ε = - ∆Φ
∆t
if the flux-linkage is changing at a uniform rate.
The induced emf in an alternator or generator varies with time as the rate of change of flux linkage in
NON-UNIFORM. The instantaneous value is given by the formula E = Eo sin 2πft , where Eo is the
peak value of the induced emf given by the formula Eo = BANω .