Intelligence 69 (2018) 195–199

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Intelligence
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/intell

Higher IQ in adolescence is related to a younger subjective age in later life: T

Findings from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study
⁎
Yannick Stephana, , Angelina R. Sutinb, Anna Kornadtc, Johan Caudroitd, Antonio Terraccianob
a
Euromov, University of Montpellier, France
b
Florida State University College of Medicine, USA
c
Bielefeld University, Germany
d
University of Lyon, France

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Subjective age predicts consequential outcomes in old age, including risk of hospitalization, dementia, and
Subjective age mortality. Studies investigating the determinants of subjective age have mostly focused on aging-related factors
IQ measured in adulthood and old age. Little is known about the extent to which early life factors may contribute to
Personality later life subjective age. The present study examined the prospective association between IQ in adolescence and
Education
subjective age in later life and tested education, disease burden, adult cognition, and personality traits as po-
Cognition
tential mediators. Participants (N = 4494) were drawn from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study. Data on IQ were
Prospective study
obtained in 1957 when participants were in high school. Education, disease burden, cognition, and personality
were assessed in 1992–1993, and subjective age was measured in 2011 at age 71 (SD = 0.93). Accounting for
demographic factors, results revealed that higher IQ in adolescence was associated with a younger subjective age
in late life. Bootstrap analysis further showed that this association was mediated by higher openness. The present
study suggests that how old or young individuals feel is partly influenced by lifespan developmental processes
that may begin with early life cognitive ability.

1. Introduction aging that is likely to reflect a wide range of biological, psychological,

How old individuals feel relative to their chronological age is as-
sociated with a range of outcomes in old age. Indeed, feeling younger
than one's age is related to fewer depressive symptoms over time (Choi
& Dinitto, 2014), lower risk of chronic conditions (Demakakos, Gjonca,
& Nazroo, 2007), and is predictive of lower risk of cognitive impair-
ment and incident dementia (Stephan, Sutin, Luchetti, & Terracciano,
2017). Furthermore, a younger subjective age is related to higher sur-
vival compared to an older subjective age (Kotter-Grühn, Kleinspehn-
Ammerlahn, Gerstorf, & Smith, 2009; Rippon & Steptoe, 2015): In-
dividuals who feel older than their present age have a 41% greater
mortality hazard compared to individuals who feel younger (Rippon &
Steptoe, 2015). As a whole, the contribution of subjective age to health
and cognitive outcomes is often comparable or even stronger than de-
mographic factors, including chronological age. More attention has
been given to the health outcomes of subjective age than its determi-
nants. That is, relatively little is known about who feels younger than
their chronological age and why. The aim of this study is to expand
current knowledge on factors that shape subjective age.
Subjective age is conceptualized as a biopsychosocial marker of
and environmental factors (Stephan, Sutin, & Terracciano, 2015a).
Specifically, slower biological aging, better physical fitness, better
physical and cognitive health, and fewer depressive symptoms are more
common among individuals with a younger subjective age (Bergland,
Nicolaisen, & Thorsen, 2014; Hubley & Russell, 2009; Kotter-Grühn,
Neupert, & Stephan, 2015; Stephan et al., 2015a). On average, in-
dividuals with better physical fitness felt 2–4% younger than those with
worse physical fitness (Stephan et al., 2015a). Psychological factors
such as beliefs about aging are also influential, such that individuals
with negative general views about aging and those with positive future
self-views are more likely to feel younger (Hess et al., 2017; Kornadt
et al., in press). In addition, personality traits such as lower neuroti-
cism, and higher extraversion and openness are related to a younger
subjective age (Canada, Stephan, Caudroit, & Jaconelli, 2013; Hubley &
Hultsch, 1994; Stephan, Demulier, & Terracciano, 2012). Environ-
mental factors such as the experience of daily stressors, the exposure to
negative aging stereotypes and age discrimination are also associated
with an older subjective age (Bellingtier, Neupert, & Kotter-Grühn,
2015; Stephan et al., 2015a). For example, individuals who experienced
age discrimination felt 2% older than those without such experiences

⁎
Corresponding author at: Euromov, University of Montpellier, UFRSTAPS, 700, Avenue du Pic St Loup, 34090 Montpellier, France.
E-mail address: yannick.stephan@umontpellier.fr (Y. Stephan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2018.06.006
Received 13 December 2017; Received in revised form 22 May 2018; Accepted 26 June 2018
0160-2896/ © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Y. Stephan et al. Intelligence 69 (2018) 195–199

(Stephan et al., 2015a). Across studies, the contributions of biological, Table 1

psychological, health-related and environmental factors on subjective Descriptive statistics for the sample.
age are relatively comparable and often stronger than those of demo- Variables M/% SD
graphic factors. However, studies investigating the determinants of
subjective age have mostly measured the variables of interest in Age (years) 71.21 0.93
Sex (% women) 54% –
adulthood and old age. Existing life-span theories such as stereotype
IQ 103.2 14.61
embodiment (Levy, 2009) suggest that subjective aging is a lifelong Subjective age 0.17 0.13
process. Accordingly, self-perceptions of aging in later life reflect the Educationa 13.92 2.40
accumulation of (age-related) processes that start already in childhood, Neuroticisma 3.16 0.99
and accumulate over time to be integrated into one's self-definition. Opennessa 3.68 0.80
Disease burdena 0.99 1.21
Childhood intelligence is one of the most influential early life fac-
Adult cognitiona 8.18 2.65
tors for health-related outcomes in old age. Higher cognitive abilities
are related to slower biological aging (Schaefer et al., 2015) and better Note. N = 4494. IQ was obtained in 1957. Age, sex, and subjective age were
physical and mental health in adulthood (Deary, Whiteman, Starr, obtained in 2011.
a
Whalley, & Fox, 2004; Wraw, Deary, Der, & Gale, 2016; Wraw, Deary, Variables measured in 1992–1993. N = 3876.
Gale, & Der, 2015). Higher IQ in younger years is also protective of late-
life cognitive ability (Deary et al., 2004; Ritchie et al., 2016) and has 2. Methods
been associated with lower risk of brain damage (Valdes-Hernández
et al., 2013), incident dementia (McGurn, Deary, & Starr, 2008; Russ 2.1. Participants
et al., 2017), and mortality (Čukić, Brett, Calvin, Batty, & Deary, 2017;
Whalley & Deary, 2001). No research has yet tested, however, whether Participants were drawn from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study
early life cognitive abilities shapes individuals' subjective experience of (WLS) graduate sample. The Wisconsin Longitudinal Study is a long-
aging. From a theoretical perspective, it could be expected that in- term study of a random sample of 10,317 men and women born be-
dividuals with higher intelligence would experience more growth tween 1937 and 1940 who graduated from Wisconsin high schools in
across the lifespan (e.g., by accumulating financial and social capital) 1957. Participants from the WLSG are representative of white, non-
and slower aging, such as maintaining better health and fitness at older Hispanic older Americans having completed at least a high school
age. This more favorable aging process is expected to lead to and be education. IQ was assessed in 1957 when participants were in high
reflected in a younger subjective age. school, and subjective age was assessed in 2011. Data on the potential
Using 50-year longitudinal data from the Graduate Sample of the mediators (educational level, adult cognition, disease burden person-
Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS), the first objective of the present ality) were obtained in 1992–1993. Of the 10,317 participants who
study was to examine the association between adolescence IQ and later provided complete IQ data in 1957, 4494 answered the subjective age
life subjective age. Based upon existing evidence on the link between question in 2011 at age 71 (SD = 0.93) (after outliers excluded, see
higher cognitive ability in childhood and early adulthood and better below). Of these, 3876 individuals also provided complete data on
outcomes in old age (Deary et al., 2004; Ritchie et al., 2016; Wraw disease burden, adult cognition, education and personality in
et al., 2015; Wraw et al., 2016), it was hypothesized that higher IQ in 1992–1993 (See Table 1). Attrition analysis revealed that individuals
adolescence would be prospectively related to a younger subjective age with complete follow-up data in 2011 (n = 4494) and complete data
assessed 50 years later. both in 1992–1993 and 2011 (n = 3876) had higher IQ in adolescence
A second objective of this study was to test education, disease (d = 0.32 and d = 0.36, respectively).
burden, adult cognition and personality as mediators of the association
between early-life IQ and late-life subjective age. Educational 2.2. Measures
achievement could mediate the association between IQ and subjective
age because higher IQ is predictive of higher education (Deary, Strand, 2.2.1. IQ
Smith, & Fernandes, 2007), which has been found to lead individuals to IQ was measured using the Henmon-Nelson Test of Mental Ability
feel younger (Stephan et al., 2015a). Health status is also likely to (see Hauser & Palloni, 2011; Maenner, Greenberg, & Mailick, 2015), a
mediate the association because individuals with higher IQ in early life 30-minute test of 90 problems, including measures of verbal, spatial,
may establish more favorable health-related profiles over the course of and numerical knowledge and reasoning. Raw Henmon-Nelson test
their lives. Indeed, individuals with higher IQs have a lower risk of scores were converted to IQ scores by standardizing to a mean of 100
chronic conditions (Wraw et al., 2015) and depressive symptoms based on centile rank. IQ scores ranged from 61 to 145.
(Wraw et al., 2016), which are strong correlates of a younger subjective
age (Bergland et al., 2014; Hubley & Russell, 2009; Stephan et al., 2.2.2. Subjective age
2015a). Individuals with higher IQ in childhood and early adulthood In 2011, participants were asked to indicate in years the age they
have better cognition in older adulthood (Ritchie et al., 2016), which is felt most of the time. Consistent with existing research (e.g. Brothers,
likely to foster a younger subjective age (Hughes and Lachman, in Miche, Wahl, & Diehl, 2017), a proportional discrepancy score between
press). Finally, we expect personality traits to be significant mediators a person's actual chronological age and felt age was computed. Felt age
because adolescents with higher cognitive abilities are more open and was subtracted from chronological age divided by chronological age.
emotionally stable in adulthood (Gow, Whiteman, Pattie, & Deary, Positive values indicated a younger subjective age, and negative dis-
2005; Sutin, Luchetti, Stephan, Robins, & Terracciano, 2017). In turn, crepancy scores represented an older subjective age. Seventy-three
openness and emotional stability are associated with a younger sub- participants were excluded from the analysis because their discrepancy
jective age (Hubley & Hultsch, 1994; Stephan et al., 2012). Taken to- scores were three standard deviations above or below the mean.
gether, these studies suggest that individuals with higher IQ early in life
develop educational, cognitive, health, and personality profiles in 2.2.3. Personality
adulthood that translate into a younger subjective age as people get Neuroticism and openness were assessed in 1992–1993 using a 29-
older. item version of the Big Five Inventory (John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991).
Neuroticism was assessed by five descriptive statements (i.e., “I see
myself as someone who worries a lot”) and openness was assessed using
six items (i.e., “I see myself as someone who has an active

196
Y. Stephan et al.
imagination”). Participants were asked whether they agreed or dis-
agreed with each descriptive statement using a scale ranging from 1
(disagree strongly) to 6 (agree strongly). Mean scores were computed;
Cronbach alphas were 0.78 for neuroticism and 0.61 for openness.
2.2.4. Disease burden
A measure of disease burden was obtained in 1992–1993.
Participants were asked to report whether a medical professional ever
said that they suffer from anemia, asthma, arthritis or rheumatism,
bronchitis or emphysema, cancer, chronic liver trouble, diabetes, ser-
ious back trouble, heart trouble, high blood pressure, circulation pro-
blems, kidney or bladder problems, ulcer, allergies, multiple sclerosis,
colitis, or any other illness or condition. The sum of diagnosed condi-
tions was computed to obtain a disease burden measure, ranging from 0
to 11 in the present study.
2.2.5. Adult cognition
In 1992–1993, an 8 items abbreviated version of the Weschler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS) similarity part was administered to partici-
pants. They were asked how two things are alike, for example « In what
way are an orange and a banana alike ». The eight items were assigned
scores of 0, 1 or 2. Responses were summed to give a total cognition
score, ranging from 0 to 16. Higher scores indicated better adult cog-
nition.
2.2.6. Education
In 1992–1993, the equivalent years of regular education based on
highest degree obtained was used as a measure of educational level
(range: 12–21 years).
2.3. Data analysis
A regression analysis was conducted to predict subjective age in
2011 from IQ in 1957. Age in 20111 (in years) and sex (coded as 1 for
male and 0 for female) were entered as covariates. A second aim was to
test whether disease burden, education, neuroticism, and openness
mediated the relationship between IQ and subjective age. The extent to
which the indirect effects were significant was tested with a boot-
strapping approach (Preacher & Hayes, 2008) using 5000 resamples
and producing 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals. This analysis
also controlled for age and sex.
3. Results
On average, individuals felt 17% younger than their real age in
2011 (see Table 1). Supplemental material presents a scatterplot of felt
age vs. chronological age. As hypothesized, in regression analysis that
controlled for age and sex, we found that higher IQ in 1957 predicted a
younger subjective age in 2011 (Table 2). The effect size for the dif-
ference in subjective age between individuals in the top quartile of the
IQ distribution and those in the bottom quartile was d = 0.15. The size
of the association between IQ and subjective age was stronger than the
size of the contribution of chronological age. In additional analysis we
tested whether IQ predicted those who felt younger compared to those
who felt older. Using logistic regression analysis with demographic
variables as covariates, we found only a weak trend (odds ratio = 1.13,
95%CI: 0.98–1.31, p = .09).
Bootstrap analysis revealed that higher IQ was related to higher
educational achievement, higher openness, higher adult cognition and
lower neuroticism which were in turn related to a younger subjective
age (Table 2). When tested individually, significant mediation was
found for education (point estimate = 0.0004, 95% CI = 0.0002,
0.0005), neuroticism (point estimate = 0.0001, 95% CI = 0.0001,
1
Age at completion of IQ test was not available in the WLSG.
197
Intelligence 69 (2018) 195–199
0.0002), openness (point estimate = 0.0004, 95% CI = 0.0003,
0.0005), and cognition (point estimate = 0.0002, 95% CI = 0.0001,
0.0003), but not for disease burden (point estimate = 0.00, 95%
CI = 0.00, 0.00). Both education and openness explained 100% of the
mediation whereas the proportion of mediated effect was 67% and 33%
for cognition and neuroticism, respectively. These results suggest that
higher IQ is related to a younger subjective age through its association
with higher educational achievement, adult cognition and openness to
experience and lower neuroticism, but not disease burden. However,
when the five mediators were examined simultaneously, only openness
mediated the link between IQ and subjective age (see Table 2), whereas
no significant mediating role of neuroticism, adult cognition or edu-
cation was found. The link between IQ and subjective age was com-
pletely mediated by openness to experience, with 100% of the asso-
ciation being mediated by this variable. While disease burden was
related to subjective age, there was no association between IQ and
disease burden. These findings suggest that higher IQ is related to a
younger subjective age mainly through its association with higher
openness to experience. Additional analysis that included all other
personality traits revealed no change in this overall pattern of relations.
Openness remained the only significant mediator of the association
between IQ and subjective age (point estimate = 0.0003, 95%
CI = 0.0002, 0.0004); neuroticism (point estimate = 0.00, 95%
CI = 0.00, 0.0001), extraversion (point estimate = 0.00, 95%
CI = 0.00, 0.00), agreeableness (point estimate = 0.00, 95%
CI = −0.0001, 0.00) or conscientiousness (point estimate = 0.00, 95%
CI = 0.00, 0.00) did not mediate this association.
4. Discussion
With a large prospective survey, the present study examined the
association between IQ in adolescence and subjective age in later life.
As hypothesized, higher cognitive ability in adolescence was predictive
of a younger subjective age assessed 50 years later. This study adds to
existing knowledge on the correlates of subjective age, given that this is
the first prospective study that examined an association between an
early life factor and subjective age. Indeed, most studies focus on de-
terminants that are concurrent or proximal to the assessment of sub-
jective age in samples of middle-aged and older adults (Kotter-Grühn
et al., 2015; Stephan et al., 2015a). The present study extends this re-
search by demonstrating that how old or young individuals feel may
also be the result of a longer lifespan developmental process that begins
at least as early as cognitive ability in adolescence.
The relation between higher adolescent IQ and a younger subjective
age is consistent with a substantial body of research that links higher
childhood cognitive ability to more favorable age-related outcomes,
including survival (Čukić et al., 2017; Ritchie et al., 2016; Russ et al.,
2017; Wraw et al., 2015; Wraw et al., 2016). Higher intelligence in
adolescence is considered a resource that promotes slower biological,
physical, and cognitive aging (Ritchie et al., 2016; Russ et al., 2017;
Schaefer et al., 2015). This study suggests that intelligence also con-
tributes to the subjective experience of age. Individuals with a higher IQ
may be better equipped to manage age-related changes and constraints
across the lifespan, which results in a younger subjective age in late life.
This finding parallels recent research that identified a link between IQ
and other age markers, including epigenetic clock (Marioni et al., 2015)
and brain age (Cole et al., in press).
A second purpose of the present study was to examine whether
higher cognitive ability is associated with educational, cognitive, health
and personality profiles that are beneficial for subjective age. In partial
support of our hypothesis, higher cognitive ability was related to a
younger subjective age almost 50 years later mainly through a per-
sonality pathway: openness was the only independent significant
mediator in models that considered all potential mediators simulta-
neously. Therefore, adolescents with a higher IQ may feel younger in
later life mainly because they have a higher propensity to be curious,
Y. Stephan et al.
Table 2
Summary of regression analysis and bootstrap analysis.
Regression analysisa Bootstrap analysisb
Variables Subjective age Variables Effect of IV on MV
β (SE) p β (SE) p
Age −0.02(0.01) 0.23 Dependent variable (DV)
Sex −0.07(0.01) 0.000 Subjective age
IQ 0.04 (0.01) 0.013 Mediating variables (MV)
Education 0.43(0.01) 0.000
Neuroticism −0.11(0.02) 0.000
Openness 0.23(0.02) 0.000
Disease burden −0.02(0.02) 0.14
Cognition 0.41(0.01) 0.000
Note. DV: dependent variable; IV: independent variable; MV: mediating variable.
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
a
N = 4494.
b
N = 3876.
c
Bootstrap estimates and 95% bias-corrected confidence interval for indirect effects of IQ on subjective age through education, neuroticism, openness, disease
burden and cognition, controlling for age and sex.
open-minded and to entertain new experiences and ideas. In addition,
higher openness is related to a preference for unconventional, counter-
stereotypical values (Flynn, 2005), leading individuals high in openness
to present favorable attitudes toward aging (Allan, Johnson, &
Emerson, 2014; Bryant et al., 2016), resulting in feeling younger than
their age (Canada et al., 2013). Openness is further related to health
behaviors, such as frequent physical activity (Sutin et al., 2016), and
the maintenance of better physical functioning over time (Stephan
et al., in press) that may promote a younger subjective age.
Besides the factors investigated in our study, there are several ad-
ditional pathways that may operate in the association between ado-
lescent IQ and subjective age in later life. For example, higher early life
cognitive ability is related to a slower biological aging (Schaefer et al.,
2015), which is reflected in individuals' feeling younger than their age
(Stephan et al., 2015a). Surprisingly, although IQ predicted subjective
age, it did not predict disease burden and therefore disease burden was
not a mediator. In the present study, disease burden was defined by
number of diagnosed conditions. However, it is likely that more specific
health-related biological processes not captured by diagnosis might be
possible mediating variables. For example, higher IQ scores are asso-
ciated with lower prevalence of obesity (Batty, Deary, & McIntyre,
2007) and better lung function in adulthood (Deary, Whalley, Batty, &
Starr, 2006), which have been related to a younger subjective age
(Stephan et al., 2015a). Higher childhood intelligence is predictive of
lower inflammation in middle age, indexed by C-reactive protein
(Calvin, Batty, Lowe, & Deary, 2011), which is also found among in-
dividuals who feel younger than their age (Stephan, Sutin, &
Terracciano, 2015b). Finally, higher intelligence in adolescence is a
product of both genetic and environmental factors (Sauce & Matzel,
2018) that may influence subjective age. In particular, individuals with
higher IQ are more likely to come from well-educated and wealthy
families (Sutin et al., 2017), which may contribute both to higher IQ
and to a younger subjective age.
The present study has several strengths including the examination of
a large sample, a prospective study spanning more than five decades,
three waves of measurement, mediation analysis and the identification
of a new factor associated with subjective age. There are also some
limitations. The design of the present study does not allow the identi-
fication of causal relationships or to track changes in subjective age
because of the lack of early life assessments. In addition, the results
were obtained among White Americans who graduated from high
school. The findings need to be expanded to a more heterogeneous
population. The effect size of the association between IQ and subjective
age was relatively small, but this effect should be considered in the
198
Intelligence 69 (2018) 195–199
Effect of MV on DV Direct Effect of IQ Indirect Effect of IQc
β (SE) p β (SE) p
−0.03(0.02) 0.10
0.04(0.02) 0.04 0.0002(0.00;0.0003)
−0.07(0.02) 0.000 0.0001(0.00;0.0001)
0.15(0.02) 0.000 0.0003(0.0002;0.0004)
−0.07(0.02) 0.000 0.00 (0.00;0.00)
0.02(0.02) 0.27 0.0001(−0.0001;0.0002)
context of the 50-year timespan between IQ and subjective age mea-
surements. The mediation findings should also be interpreted in the
context of the multiple tests conducted. In addition, subjective age is a
multi-determined construct that reflects a range of biological, physical,
mental and environmental factors, all of which account for part of the
variance in subjective age. On the basis of recent reports on the mul-
tidimensionality of subjective age (e.g. Hess et al., 2017; Kornadt et al.,
in press), future research is needed to examine the link between IQ and
subjective ages in specific domains. Further research may also examine
additional mediators of the link between cognitive ability and sub-
jective age.
Despite these limitations, the present study indicates that higher IQ
in adolescence prospectively predicts a younger subjective age in later
life. Furthermore, it shows that higher openness explains part of this
association. Therefore, this study opens new avenues of research on the
early life factors shaping subjective age in late life.
Funding
No specific grant from any funding agency, commercial or not-for-
profit sectors was received for the present research.
Conflict of interest
The authors have no conflict of interest to report.
Acknowledgment
The present study is based upon the analysis of data collected in the
Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS). The WLS has been supported
principally by the National Institute on Aging (AG-9775, AG-21079,
AG-033285, and AG-041868), with additional support from the Vilas
Estate Trust, the National Science Foundation, the Spencer Foundation,
and the Graduate School of the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
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