OUTLINE OF THE REPORT

CHAPTER IV: STREAMFLOW

I. WATER STAGE

A. TERMINOLOGIES
B. STREAMFLOW
1. SOURCES OF STREAMFLOW
C. WATER STAGE MEASUREMENT
1. MANUAL GAUGES
2. NON-RECORDING STREAM GAUGE
a. POINT AND HOOK GAUGE
b. STAFF GAUGE
3. RECORDING GAUGES
a. FLOAT TYPE
b. DIGITAL GAUGE
4. CREST-STAGE GAGES
a. IMPORTANCE OF CREST-STAGE GAGE
5. MISCELLANEOUS STAGE GAGES
a. STILLING WELL, FLOAT SENSOR, SHAFT ENCODER, AND DATA-
COLLECTION PLATFORM
b. RADAR LEVEL SENSOR
D. SELECTION OF GAGING-STATION SITES
1. CONSIDERATIONS IN SPECIFIC SITE SELECTION
2. GAGING STATION CONTROLS
a. SECTION CONTROLS
b. CHANNEL CONTROL
c. ARTIFICIAL CONTROLS
II. DISCHARGE
A. CURRENT METER
1. TYPES OF CURRENT METER
a. PRICE TYPE
b. PROPELLER TYPE
c. ELECTROMAGNETIC TYPE
2. CURRENT-METER MEASUREMENTS
a. VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
b. TWO-POINT METHOD
c. SIX-TENTHS-DEPTH METHOD
d. THREE-POINT METHOD
3. CURRENT-METER MEASUREMENT BY WADING
a. PREPARATION FOR MEASUREMENT
b. PROCEDURE FOR CURRENT-METER MEASUREMENT OF
DISCHARGE
4. CURRENT-METER MEASUREMENT FROM CABLEWAYS
 5. CURRENT-METER MEASUREMENT FROM BRIDGES
B. STAGE-DISCHARGE RELATIONS & EXTENSION OF RATING CURVES
C. PLANNING A STREAMFLOW NETWORK

1. TYPES OF STREAM GAGING STATIONS

a. BASIC DATA STATION
b. OPERATIONAL STATION
c. SPECIAL STATION
2. NUMBER OF GAUGING STATION SITES

D. EFFECT OF ICE ON STREAMFLOW

1. OTHER METHODS OF OBTAINING STREAMFLOW DATA

a. WEIRS
b. FLUMES
E. APPLICATION OF HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLE
1. CHEZY - MANNING FORMULA
2. MOVING BOAT METHOD
F. INTERPRETATION-OF-STREAMFLOW-DATA

1. WATER YEAR
a. USES OF WATER YEAR
b. HYDROGRAPH
2. MEAN ANNUAL FLOW
3. RANKED ANNUAL FLOW
4. GAUGED DAILY FLOW (GDF)
G. ADJUSTMENT OF STREAMFLOW DATA
1. DOUBLE-MASS ANALYSIS
2. RUNOFF
a. MEAN ANNUAL RUNOFF
H. STREAMFLOW VARIATIONS
1. LONG-TERM VARIABILITY
2. SHORT-TERM (ANNUAL) FLUCTUATIONS
 CHAPTER IV:
STREAMFLOW

CHAPTER IV:
STREAMFLOW

I. WATER STAGE
A. TERMINOLOGIES
1. WATER

 A clear colorless tasteless odorless liquid that is essential for plant and animal life
and constitutes, in impure form, rain, oceans, rivers, lakes, etc. it is a neutral
substance, an effective solvent for many compounds, and is used as a standard for
many physical properties.

2. WATERSHED
 Drainage Basin

 Is the area of land that drains to a particular lake, wetland or ocean

3. STAGE
 Water surface elevation.
 Refers to the water level in a river or stream with respect to a chosen reference
height.
 It is the height of water surface above a fixed datum. The datum could be bottom
of the channel or Mean Sea Level or any other standard identity.

4. DEPTH
 It is the depth of water in the channel measured from the bottom of the channel

5. RATING
 This is the relationship existing between stream stage and discharge in the stream.

6. WATER LEVEL OR GAUGE HEIGHT OR STAGE

 Is the elevation of the free surface of a stream, lake or reservoir relative to a
specified datum

7. HYDROGRAPH
 A graph that shows how the water level at a particular location changes with time
during a flood. It must be referenced to a particular datum.
 A graph showing stage, flow, velocity, or other property of water with respect to
time.
 The record of flow over time

8. GAUGES
 An instrument that is measuring for something

9. STREAM
 A general term for body of flowing water.
 In hydrology, the term is generally applied to the water flowing in a natural
channel as distinct from a canal.
 Streams are created when excess water from rain, snowmelt, or near-surface
groundwater accumulates on the ground surface and begins to run downhill this
 excess water from rain or snowmelt generally occurs when the water accumulates
at a faster rate than the soil and organic matter (e.g. dead and decaying vegetation)
can absorb the water, plants can use it, or the water can be evaporated into the air.

10. FLOW
 To move in a steady and continuous way

B. STREAMFLOW

 Channel Runoff or Channel Flow

Is a measure of the rate at which water is carried by rivers and streams, and it represents
a critical resource for people and the environment.
 Changes in streamflow can directly influence the supply of drinking water and the
amount of water available for irrigating crops, generating electricity, and other needs.
 In addition, many plants and animals depend on streamflow for habitat and survival.
 Forms the most important data for engineers and hydrologists since they are
concerned mainly with estimating rates, volumes and quality of the streamflow to be
used in the design of water resources and environmental projects, or the changes in
these values resulting from the human activities.
 The main mechanism by which water moves from the land to the oceans or to basins
of interior drainage.
1. SOURCES OF STREAMFLOW

a. CHANNEL PRECIPITATION
 The moisture falling directly on the water surface, and in most streams.
 It adds very little to discharge.

b. OVERLAND FLOW
 Surface Runoff
 In dry regions, cultivated, and urbanized areas, it is usually a major source of
streamflow.
 It is a storm water runoff that begins as thin layer of water that moves very
slow (typically less than 0.2 feet per sec) over the ground.

c. INTERFLOW
 Is water that infiltrates the soil and then moves laterally to the stream channel
in the zone above the water table.

d. GROUNDWATER
  Is a major source of discharge, and in large streams, it accounts for the bulk of
the average daily flow. It enters the streambed where the channel intersects the

water table, providing a steady supply of water, termed base flow, during both
dry and rainy periods. Water in the ground that is in the zone of saturation,
from which wells, springs, and ground-water runoff are supplied.

HOW STREAMFLOW IS MEASURED?

1. Stage Measurement
2. Discharge Measurement
3. Stage-Discharge Relation

C. WATER STAGE MEASUREMENTS

1. MANUAL GAUGES
 Manual gauges are simple and inexpensive

2. NON RECORDING STREAM GAUGE

a. POINT AND HOOK GAUGE

 These are the simple and common

methods adopted to determine the
depth of flow in small channels.
 These consists of a graduated bar
attached to a hook or pointer. The
bar can slide up or down over a
fixed mounting.

 The depth of water is measured by

operating the system by bringing
the pointer or hook to close to the
water surface. Then with the help
 of finer adjustment screw the sharp point of the pointer or hook is made to just
touch the surface of water. At this moment it is ready for measurement of the
depth by reading on the graduated bar. Provision of Vernier is also made for
accurate reading.

b. STAFF GAUGE

 The vertical staff gauge which is

nothing but a graduated scale (about
15cm wide) such that a portion of it is
always in water at all times. It can be
conveniently attached to a bridge pier
or any or existing structure. It is read
manually by noting level of water
surface in contact with it. The vertical
height should cover the highest and
lowest water levels in that section.

 When flow in stream is subjected to large variations resulting in correspondingly

large fluctuations in stage, it may be beyond the range of a single vertical staff
gauge to record entire rise or fall in the water surface. There should be a minimum
overlap of.0.5 m between any two successive staff gauges. This arrangement is
known as section staff gauges .

 This arrangement would be more accurate for the streams which have low stages.
It must be properly anchored to slope of natural bank of river channel. It is
calibrated in site by precise leveling and graduated accordingly. Inclined staff
gauges may be constructed on one continuous slope or on more slopes. A flight of
steps constructed alongside inclined gauge proves to be convenient and facilitates
taking of observations easily.
 c. WIRE – WEIGHT GAUGE
 In this method a weight (electrically connected) attached to a rope is lowered
from a fixed reference point on a bridge or other overhead structure till it touches
the water surface. By subtracting the length of the rope lowered from the reduced
level of the fixed reference point the stage is obtained.
3. RECORDING GAUGES
 Automatic Stage Recorder
 It is used to measure the stage continuously with time.

a. FLOAT TYPE
The stage can also be
measured by the arrangement of float
and pulley attached to a pointer
which moves over the graduated
scale in accordance with the water
surface in the stream. Figure.6 shows
one such arrangement.
Float movement fluctuates
with change in stage and this is
recorded by a chart. In hydrologic
measurements, both the big and low flows are measured within the chart.
b. DIGITAL GAUGE
 They have clocks and used when for example hourly measurements are
desired usually where stages do not increase and decrease steeply.
 The recorder should be placed at a
height more than the expected peak
stage.
 To know the maximum stage
expected, an ordinary gauge can be
used for some time.

4. CREST-STAGE GAGES
The crest-stage gage is a simple,
economical, reliable, and easily installed device
for obtaining the elevation of the flood crest of streams. Although many different types of
crest-stage gages have been tested, the most functional one is a vertical piece of 2-in.
galvanized pipe containing a wood or aluminum staff held in a fixed position with
relation to a datum reference, as shown in figure.
The bottom cap has six intake holes located around its circumference so that when
aligned correctly with the flow as shown in figure, drawdown or head buildup inside the
pipe is kept to a minimum. Tests have shown that this arrangement of intake holes will be
effective with velocities up to 10 ft per second, and at angles up to 30 degrees with the
direction of flow. The top cap contains one small vent hole
The bottom cap or a perforated tin cup or copper screening in a cup shape
attached to the lower end of the staff contains granulated cork. As the water rises inside
the pipe, the cork floats on its surface. When the water reaches its peak and starts to
recede, the cork adheres to the staff inside the pipe, thereby retaining the crest stage of
the flood. The gage height of a peak is obtained by measuring the interval between the
reference point on the staff and the flood mark. The datum of the crest-stage gage should
be checked by levels run from a reference mark to the top of the staff, or to the top of the
bottom cap. Crest-stage gage pipes should be routinely checked for slippage.

a. IMPORTANCE OF CREST-STAGE GAGE

 Crest gages can be an important addition to

your current gage program to monitor peak
flow events from your drainage area, but
can also be used independently as a back-
up at your recording gage station. A 4' long
1” x 2” wooden stick is included that is
calibrated in tenths of foot for easy
reading.

 Crest stage gages are typically used to

gather data from ephemeral streams or
waterways that are subject to infrequent,
but severe flooding. Increasingly, crest
stage gages are becoming a cost-effective
means of gathering peak flow data, which
can then be used in a variety of
applications, such as emergency planning, engineering design, and stormwater
permitting
The United States Geological Survey (USGS; 2006) describes the advantages
of automated crest stage gages:
 Record date, time, and continuous data
 Measure multiple peak flow events between site visits-
 Do not require field calibration
 Reduce site visits
 Offer user-selected recording time interval
 Integrate into real-time monitoring networks
5.

MISCELLANEOUS STAGE GAGES

a. STILLING WELL, FLOAT SENSOR, SHAFT ENCODER, AND DATA-
COLLECTION PLATFORM
The traditional, basic stage-recording system, used since the early 1900s,
consisted of a stilling well located in or near the stream with a float used as the stage
sensor. To this day, this method remains the most consistent and least uncertain method
for the measurement of stream stage. The inside auxiliary gage is typically used as the
reference gage for setting the recorder. This has proven to be a reliable system and is still
used at about 4 of 10 USGS stream gaging stations today. This configuration with a shaft
encoder and DCP is shown schematically in figure 50.
Figure 50 shows a stilling well and float sensor, an incremental shaft and a DCP.
The encoded stage, as determined by the float-actuated shaft encoder, is passed to the
DCP by a hard-wired connection. The inside reference gage is used for setting the shaft
encoder. The DCP transmits data through the GOES to the NWIS for reception, decoding,
processing, analysis, and near virtual issuance of preliminary stage data to the NWIS
World Wide Web (NWISWeb).
FIGURE 50

b. RADAR LEVEL SENSOR

The noncontact radar-level sensor is mounted on a bridge handrail or other stable
structure above the water surface. Radar-level sensors are generally immune to weather
 conditions, such as snow and rain, and the radio wave used for this application is
harmless to humans and wildlife. The usable sensor-to-water sensing range is minimally
from near zero to about 66 ft, and can be greater, depending on the radar instrument.
Radar sensors are usually self-contained units having typically a horn-like transmitting
device and electronic circuitry.
Radar sensors are internally programmed to convert radar-frequency reflections
from units of distance to the water surface to stage. The stage, as sensed by the radar, is
transmitted to the DCP by a hard-wired connection, typically SDI–12. The encoded stage
is stored and typically later transmitted by the GOES transmitter. All instruments, except
the transducer, are housed in an instrument shelter. An outside reference gageis used for
setting and maintaining stage in the noncontact radar-level sensor.
The configuration for a radar-level sensor is shown in FIGURE 53.

D.

SELECTION OF GAGING-STATION SITES

The general location of a gauging station is dependent on the specific purpose of the
stream flow record. If the stream flow record is needed for the design or operation of a water
project, such as a dam and reservoir, the general location of the gauging station obviously
will be in the vicinity of the water project.
The selection of a gauging-station site becomes complicated, however, when the
station is to be one of a network of stations whose records are required for study of the
general hydrology of a region. Such studies are used to inventory the regional water resource
and formulate long-range water- development plans. In that situation, attention to hydrologic
principles is required in selecting the general locations of the individual stations in the
network to ensure that optimum information is obtained for the money spent in data
collection.
A discussion of the design of gauging-station networks is beyond the scope of this
manual and for the purpose of this chapter we will assume that the general location of a
proposed gaging station has been determined. The discussion that follows will be concerned
with the hydraulic considerations that enter into the selection of the precise location of the
gage to obtain the best locally available conditions for the measurement of stage and
discharge and for the development of a stable discharge rating.

The following factors have to be considered in selecting a site or the Location of Gauges:
1. Gauges should not be located in rivers with scouring characteristics.
2. The locations should not be on river bends because the water surface is inclined and there
is turbulence making the stage measurement inconsistent.
3. The upstream of a natural eg., a rapid should be used not downstream. (Fig. 7)
4. A uniform channel helps good stage measurement. Irregular cross sections should be
avoided (Fig. 8)

1. CONSIDERATIONS IN SPECIFIC SITE SELECTION

An important consideration in the selection of a gaging site is the availability of
adequate cross sections. The cross sections are used for the current-meter measurement of
discharge. As will be explored in later lessons, theoretically the measurement cross-
section should be of uniform depth; the flow lines should be parallel and uniform in
velocity throughout the cross-section. Moreover, the measurement section should be in
proximity to the gage to avoid the need for adjusting measured discharge as the storage
varies, e.g. the stage changes rapidly during a discharge measurement. As recommended
by the U.S. Geological Survey (Rantz et al., 1982), a distance of as much as 0.5 miles
between the gaging site and measurement section is acceptable.
2. GAGING STATION CONTROLS
The stage record is transformed or converted into stream flow using a stage-
discharge relationship for the gaging station. The physical element that is responsible for
the characteristics of the stage-discharge relationship is known as a control. Hydrologists
differentiate between section and channel controls, natural and artificial controls, and
complete, partial, and compound controls.
a. SECTION CONTROL
Section controls occur when the geometry of a single cross section just
downstream of the gage constricts the channel. The constriction results from an
increase in the stream bed as occurs at a natural riffle or rock outcrop, or at a
constricted weir or dam. Constriction can also result from man-made channel
encroachment, e.g. a bridge where the waterway opening is considerably narrower
than the width of the existing channel. Figure 3.1 illustrates a typical section control
where the channel narrows though a riffle directly under the bridge.

b. CHANNEL CONTROL
In contrast, a channel control occurs when the roughness and geometry of a
long reach of channel downstream of a gaging station control the stage—discharge
relationship. Generally, the length of the stream channel responsible for the the
"channel control" increases as the discharge rate increases. Relatively flat stream
gradients, require longer channel control reaches. A channel control is shown in
Figure 3.2.
Controls are also complete controls in the sense of governing the entire range
of stage at a gaging station. This typically does not occur, and compound controls are
used for the stage—discharge relationship. As illustrated in Figures 3.1 and 3.2 for the
Eel River near Scotia, a section control is used as the control for low flow regimes;
channel control, high stages. Compound control can sometimes include two section
controls and a channel control. The channel control again is effective at high stages. A
section control further downstream is "operational" for intermediate stages while
upstream section control is used for low flow stages.
 Also, a section control can be a complete control provided the section control
is a weir, dam, cascade, or falls and the height is not submerged at high discharges.
Similarly, a channel control can be "complete" if a section control is not available or
in an artificial channel.
c. ARTIFICIAL CONTROLS
Formally, an artificial control, which is always a section control, is a structure
built in a stream channel that constricts and stabilizes the channel. It simplifies the
procedure of obtaining accurate discharge records. A typical artificial control is a
broad-crested weir; the weir is designed to conform to the height and shape of the
streambed.
In drains and canals where the range in discharge is limited, thin-plate or
sharp-crested weirs and flumes are commonly used artificial controls. The artificial
controls are designed to function as complete controls throughout the entire range in
stage.
Artificial controls are typically designed with laboratory rated or field rated
weirs or flumes. The issue is whether to use the pre-calibrated rating or to calibrate
the control in situ. In the United States, the conventional wisdom is that it is seldom
desirable to accept the rating curve prepared for the model structure without checking
the entire rating in the field. Field studies have demonstrated that there are differences
between model and prototypes. The differences are sufficient such that complete on
site calibration is required.
 SUMMARY
Accurate and reliable flood forecasts require accurate and reliable flow and stage
measurement data at gaging stations. The objective of this lesson is to provide background
information on the criteria used to select stream gaging stations, and on the different type of
"controls" governing the hydraulics at the gage site. While NWS hydrologist are not responsible
for selecting gage site, or in collecting stage or discharge data, understanding the criteria used
and the hydraulic characteristics of the flow at the site can help in understanding the data
limitations and in providing guidance in extrapolating beyond the limits of previously observed
data.
II. DISCHARGE
Discharge is the volume rate of water flow that is transported through a given cross-
sectional area or is the outflow of water from a river or lake or other body of water.
In its simplest concept discharge means outflow; therefore, the use of this term is not
restricted as to course or location, and it can be applied to describe the flow of water from a pipe
or from a drainage basin. If the discharge occurs in some course or channel, it is correct to speak
of the discharge of a canal or of a river. It is also correct to speak of the discharge of a canal or
stream into a lake, a stream, or an ocean.
A commonly applied methodology for measuring, and estimating, the discharge of a river
is based on a simplified form of the continuity equation. The equation implies that for any
incompressible fluid, such as liquid water, the discharge (Q) is equal to the product of the
stream's cross-sectional area (A) and its mean velocity (V), and is written as:

Q = A*V
Where:
Q is the discharge (m3/s or ft3/s)
A is the cross-sectional area of the portion of the channel occupied by the flow (m2 or ft2 )
Vis the average flow velocity (m/s or ft/s)

WHY DO WE NEED TO MEASURE DISCHARGE?

The size of a waterway and its flow rate affect its water quality. For example, discharges
containing contaminants will have less effect on large swiftly flowing rivers than on small slow
streams. This is one reason for measuring flow - to work out the load of contaminants and
sediment the waterway is carrying. Because discharge can have a significant effect on water
quality, it is important that it is recorded at the time of sampling and, if possible, during the
previous few days. It is particularly valuable to know if flows are at low, moderate or high level
and if the level is rising or falling. This is because the concentrations of nutrients, turbidity and
contaminants tend to be higher when the stream level is rising than when it is falling.

A. CURRENT METER

 Is an instrument use to measure velocity of water in open channels or streams.

 An ideal current meter, whether mechanical or electromagnetic, should respond instantly
and consistently to any changes in water velocity, and should accurately register the
desired velocity component. Additionally, the meter should be durable, easily maintained,
and simple to use under a variety of environmental conditions

1. TYPES OF CURRENT METER

 Price Type

 Propeller Type : for high discharge

 Electromagnetic Type : for low river flow

a. PRICE CURRENT METER

The Price current meter at contemporary version (so called AA type) the
most common current meter in the United States consisting of six conical cups
arranged on a circumference of a circle with their axes tangential to the circle.
Electric contacts driven by the cups close to a circuit through a battery and
the wire of the supporting cable to cause a click for each revolution (or each fifth
revolution) in headphones worn by the operator. Electrical counting devices are also
used.

William Gunn Price designed a water current meter in 1882, obtained a

patent, and asked W. & L. E. Gurley, a large instrument firm in Troy, New York, to
undertake commercial production. This example is marked “W. G. PRICE / PAT.
AUG. 25, 1885 / No. 21 / W. & L. E. GURLEY, TROY, N.Y.” It has a four-blade
rudder, and a wheel with five conical buckets. Since it is 34 inches long, it must date
from the period 1886-1894 when Gurley offered Price meters of this size. The
National Bureau of Standards, the organization that calibrated current meters for
federal agencies and engineers in private practice, transferred it to the Smithsonian in
1959.

b. PROPELLER TYPE CURRENT METER

The propeller type of water current meters are popularly use to measure
velocity of water flow ranging from 0.3 to 3.5 meters per second (also available in
measuring range up to 6 meters per second). These meters have a bucket wheel
assembly, which is mounted upon a shaft with permanent magnet that rotates in
response to the fluid flow. Then the rotating shaft produces a magnetic current
through which signal is formed proportional to the fluid flow velocity.
Fluid velocity is determined by counting the number of revolutions of the
bucket wheel over a given period of time. These water current meter can be
suspended by means of a cable and wading rod from overhead structure.

The relation between revolutions per second N of the meter cups and water
velocity v is given by an equation of the form
v = a + bN
where:
b is the constant of proportionality and
a is the starting velocity or velocity required to overcome mechanical friction.

c. ELECTROMAGNETIC TYPE CURRENT METER

The third most common

flowmeter (behind differential
pressure and positive displacement
flow meters) is the magnetic flow
meter, also technically
an electromagnetic flow meter or
more commonly just called a mag
meter. A magnetic field is applied to
the metering tube, which results in a
potential difference proportional to
the flow velocity perpendicular to the
flux lines. The physical principle at
work is electromagnetic induction.
 Faraday’s Law states that the voltage generated is proportional to the
movement of the flowing liquid. The electronic transmitter processes the voltage
signal to determine liquid flow.

2. CURRENT-METER MEASUREMENTS

A current-meter measurement is the summation of the products of the subsection

areas of the stream cross section and their respective average velocities.
Discharge is usually measured using the velocity-area methoddischarge = (area of
water in cross section) x (water velocity). The practical procedure involves dividing the
stream into a number of vertical sections. Discharge of each sub-section = Area x Average
Water Velocity (Area of each sub-section determined by directly measuring width and
depth). Water velocity in each sub-section estimated using a current meter to measure
water velocity at selected vertical locations in the water column.

a. VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
Current meter measures velocity at a point. The method of making discharge
measurements at a cross section requires determination of the mean velocity in each of
the selected verticals. The mean velocity in a vertical is the average of many point
velocities in that vertical, but it can be approximated by making a few velocity
observations and using a known relation between those velocities and the mean in the
vertical.
Flow velocity in natural channels generally pulsates. Velocity is therefore
measured for at least 40 seconds in an effort to better represent average velocity at a
point.

VERTICAL-VELOCITY CURVE

The vertical-velocity profile under normal conditions tends to have the shape
shown below. We can use this relation to compute a mean vertical velocity based on
measurements at certain
points in the vertical.

b. TWO-POINT METHOD

 When velocity profiles are relatively normal, it has been found that average velocity
can be adequately estimated by averaging velocities at .2 and .8 of the depth below
the water surface.
  The vertical-velocity curve will be distorted by overhanging vegetation that is in
contact with the water or by submerged objects, if those elements are close to the
vertical in which velocity is being measured. In this case, an additional velocity
observation at 0.6 of the depth should be made.

c. SIX-TENTHS-DEPTH METHOD

 In the 0.6-depth method, an observation of velocity made in the vertical at 0.6 of the
depth below the surface is used as the mean velocity in the vertical.
 The U.S. Geological Survey uses the 0.6-depth method under relatively shallow
conditions as described by Rantz.

d. THREE-POINT METHOD

 In the three-point method velocities are observed at 0.2, 0.6, and 0.8 of the depth.
 The mean velocity is computed by averaging the 0.2- and 0.8-depth observations and
then averaging that result with the 0.6-depth observation.
 The three-point method is used when the velocities in the vertical are abnormally
distributed because of disturbing elements in the water.
 When a Price type AA current meter is used, the three-point method cannot be applied
unless the depths are greater than 2.5 ft (0.76 m).

3. CURRENT-METER MEASUREMENT
BY WADING

 Current-meter measurements are best made

by wading, if conditions permit. Wading
measurements have a distinct advantage
over measurements made from cableways or
bridges in that it is usually possible to select
the best of several available cross sections
for the measurement.
 If depths or velocities under natural
conditions are too low for a dependable
current-meter measurement, the cross
section should be modified, if practical, to provide acceptable conditions, for example by
building temporary dikes or by removing rocks and debris.
 The hydrographer should stand in a position that least affects the velocity of the
water passing the current meter:
 That position is usually obtained by facing the bank so that the water flows against the
side of the leg. The wading rod is held at the tag line by the hydrographer who stands
about 3 in. Down-stream from the
tag line and at least 1.5 ft. From
the wading rod.

a. PREPARATION FOR
MEASUREMENT

 After the cross section has been

selected, the width of the stream is
determined. A tag line or
 measuring tape is strung at right angles across the measurement section for measurements
made by wading, from a boat, from ice cover, or from an unmarked bridge.
 Next the spacing of the verticals is determined to provide about 25 to 30 subsections. The
verticals should be so spaced that no subsection has more than 10 percent (ideally 5
percent) of the total discharge.

b. PROCEDURE FOR CURRENT-METER MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGE

 Check meter assembly. The meter should balance on the hanger and should spin freely;
the electric circuit through the meter should operate satisfactorily; and the stopwatch
should check satisfactorily in a comparison with the hydrographer's watch.
 After recording on the note sheet the station (distance from initial point) of the edge of
water, the actual measurement is ready to be started.
 Depth (if any) at the edge of water is measured and recorded. The depth at each
observation vertical determines the method of velocity measurement to be used, normally
the two-point or the 0.6-depth method.
 After the meter is placed at the proper depth and pointed into the current, the number of
revolutions made by the rotor is counted for a period of 40 to 70 s. The stopwatch is
started simultaneously with the first signal or click, which is counted as "zero," and not
"one.“
 Measure each observation vertical in the cross section.

4. CURRENT-METER MEASUREMENT FROM CABLEWAYS

 The size of the sounding weight used in current-meter measurements depends on depth
and velocity in the cross section.
 Rule of thumb is that the size of the weight (lb) should be greater than the maximum
product of velocity (ft/s) and depth (ft) in the cross section, more if there is debris or ice.
If insufficient weight is used, the meter assembly will be dragged downstream, and will
result in errors in the depth computation.
 The Price type AA current meter has generally been used in the U.S.A. when making
discharge measurements from a cableway. The depth is measured using of a sounding
reel, and the velocity is measured by setting the meter at the proper position in the
vertical.
 Some reels are equipped with a computing depth indicator. To use the computing spiral,
the indicator is set at zero when the center of the current-meter rotor is at the water
surface. The sounding weight and meter are then lowered until the weight touches the
streambed.

5.

CURRENT-METER MEASUREMENT FROM BRIDGES

 Bridges are often used for making discharge measurements of streams that cannot be
waded. Such measurements are often satisfactory, but cableway sections are usually
superior.

Either the upstream or downstream side of the bridge can be used for making a
discharge measurement. The advantages of the upstream side are:
1. Hydraulic characteristics at the upstream side of bridge openings usually are more
favorable.
2. Approaching drift can be seen and thus can be more easily avoided.
3. The streambed at the upstream side of the bridge is not likely to be scoured as badly as
the downstream side.

The advantages of using the downstream side of the bridge are:

1. Vertical angles are more easily measured because the sounding line will move away from
the bridge.
2. The flow lines of the stream may be straightened by passing through a bridge opening
with piers.
 Measurement location should be decided individually for each bridge after
considering the above factors.

B. STAGE-DISCHARGE RELATIONS & EXTENSION OF RATING

CURVES
The vast majority of all flow data ever produced is the derived result of a transform
from a variable that is easy to monitor continuously (stage) to a variable that is impossible to
directly measure continuously (discharge).This means we are dependent on rating curves for
advancements in hydrological science; for flood forecasting; for drought management; and
for engineering designs.
In hydrology, a rating curve is a graph of discharge versus stage for a given point on
a stream, usually at gauging stations, where the stream discharge is measured across the
stream channel with a flow meter. Numerous measurements of stream discharge are made
over a range of stream stages. The rating curve is usually plotted as discharge on x-axis
versus stage (surface elevation) on y-axis.The development of a rating curve involves two
steps. In the first step the relationship between stage and discharge is established by
measuring the stage and corresponding discharge in the river. And in the second part, stage of
river is measured and discharge is calculated by using the relationship established in the first
part. Stage is measured by reading a gauge installed in the river. If the stage-discharge
relationship does not change with time, it is called permanent control. If the relationship does
change, it is called shifting control. Shifting control is usually due to erosion or deposition of
sediment at the stage measurement site. Bedrock-bottomed parts of rivers or concrete/metal
weirs or structures are often, though not always, permanent controls.
Streamgages continuously measure stage, as stated in the "Measuring Stage"" section.
This continuous record of stage is translated to river discharge by applying the stage-
discharge relation (also called rating). Stage-discharge relations are developed for
streamgages by physically measuring the flow of the river with a mechanical current meter at
a wide range of stages; for each measurement of discharge there is a corresponding
measurement of stage. Discharge measurements are at streamgages are measured every 6 to 8
weeks, ensuring that the range of stage and flows at the streamgage are measured regularly.
Special effort is made to measure extremely high and low stages and flows because these
measurements occur less frequently. An example of a stage-discharge relation is shown in the
diagram below. The stage-discharge relation depends upon the shape, size, slope, and
roughness of the channel at the streamgage and is different for every streamgage.

The development of an accurate stage-discharge relation requires numerous discharge

measurements at all ranges of stage and streamflow. In addition, these relations must be
continually checked against on-going discharge measurements because stream channels are
constantly changing. Changes in stream channels are often caused by erosion or deposition of
streambed materials, seasonal vegetation growth, debris, or ice. An example of how erosion
in a stream channel increases a cross-sectional area for the water, allowing the river to have a
greater discharge with no change in stage, is shown in the diagram below. New discharge
measurements plotted on an existing stage-discharge relation graph would show this, and the
rating could be adjusted to allow the correct discharge to be estimated for the measured stage.
 The stage information is routinely reviewed and checked to ensure that the calculated
discharge is accurate.
The equation of the rating curve is
b
q=k (g−a) (eq. 1)
Where: g=¿ gage height
a , b , k =¿ station constants
If the constants can be determined from the observed rating, then equation 1 can be used to
extend the rating. For three points on the observed rating such that q 2=√ q1 q3
2
g 1 g3−g 2
a=
g1 + g3 −2 g2

Values of b and k can be determined from equation 1.

Another method of extending rating curves is based on the Chézy formula

q= AC √ Rs
where: C = roughness coefficient
s = slope of the energy line
A = cross-sectional area
R = hydraulic radius (A divided by the wetted perimeter)

Extrapolation is prediction outside the range of our data

Extrapolation of rating curves is required because the range of level over which gauging
has been carried out does not cover the full range of observed levels.
The rating curve may fall short at both the lower and the upper end. Extreme flows are
often the most important for design and planning and it is important that the best possible
estimates are made.Extrapolation is not simply a question of extending the rating from existing
gaugings to extreme levels (although in some cases this may be acceptable); a different control
may apply, the channel geometry may change, flow may occur over the floodplain and form and
vegetation roughness coefficients may change.
 C. PLANNING A STREAMFLOW NETWORK
The sections where river measurements are carried out are known as stream gauging
station. A network of these stations is established to collect data about river flows of a region.
The location of gaging sites depends on the purpose of data collection.
1. TYPES OF STREAM GAGING STATIONS
Stream gauging stations are of three types:
1. Basic Data Station
2. Operational Station
3. Special Station

a. BASIC DATA STATION

For Basic Data Station these are established to collect data for a variety of uses, including
planning and designing of projects, and to understand the hydrological characteristics- the annual
hydrographs of a change in flow of a particular location.
b. OPERATIONAL STATION
The Operational Station collect data to run projects and issue forecasts.
c. SPECIAL STATION
The Special Stations is to meet the specific data need that may arise in cases, such as
research, project investigation, special studies, legal cases, etc. Their operations are terminate
when the specific need is fulfilled.

2. NUMBER OF GAUGING STATION SITES

The number of gauging sites depends on the cost of installation and operation.

D. EFFECT OF ICE ON STREAMFLOW

What ice does on streamflow?

When ice covers a stream, a new friction surface is formed and the stream becomes a
closed conduit with lower discharge because of the decreased hydraulic radius. The underside of
the ice sheet may be extremely rough if ice cakes are tilted helter- skelter and then frozen
together.
Movement of the water under the ice gradually causes a smooth surface to develop. If the
stage falls, leaving the ice as a bridge across the stream, the stage-discharge characteristics return
to those of a free stream.
ICE CAKES
 1. OTHER METHODS OF OBTAINING STREAMFLOW DATA
The discharge at dams can be determined from calibration of the spillway, sluiceway, and
turbine gates. If a record of gate and turbine operation is maintained, the discharge can be
computed.
On small streams, flow measurements may be made with weirs or flumes. Weirs are
barriers across a river designed to alter the flow characteristics. Weirs are commonly used to
prevent flooding, measure discharge and help render rivers navigable.For small streams and for
low flows, the use of weirs may be used.
a. WEIRS

Flumes are specially shaped, engineered structures that are used to measure the flow of
water in open channels. Flumes are static in nature - having no moving parts - relying on
restricting the flow of water in such a way so as to develop a relationship between the
water level in the flume at the point of measurement and the flow rate.For small streams
and for high flows, the use of weirs may be used.
 b. FLUMES

E. APPLICATION OF HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLE

Is a method of estimating flow and is often referred to as a slope-area computation.Sufficient
high water marks must be located along a channel to permit determination of the water - surface
slope at the time of peak.
1. CHEZY - MANNING FORMULA
The Chezy - Manning formula is ordinarily used to compute discharge:
1
q= C R2 /3 s 1 /2
n
Where:
q = flow discharge
R = hydraulic radius or area
s = slope of the channel or water surface slope
n and C = numerical constants which depend on the streams roughness and boundaries
2. MOVING BOAT METHOD
In the moving boat method, a boat traverses the stream at constant speed on a course
normal to the flow. A special meter which operates continuously and indicates the instantaneous
velocity is mounted in the boat. The meter has a traii vane which keeps it pointed along the
resultant of the boat and stream velocities. An echo sounder measures the cross section of the
stream during the traverse. With depth, meter angle, and water velocity measured across the
section, the discharge can be computed.
F. INTERPRETATION-OF-STREAMFLOW-DATA

1. WATER YEAR
A water year (also called hydrological year, discharge year or flow year) is a term
commonly used in hydrology to describe a time period of 12 months for
which precipitation totals are measured. Its beginning differs from the calendar year because part
of the precipitation that falls in late autumn and winter accumulates as snow and does not drain
until the following spring or summer's snowmelt.
 Due to meteorological and geographical factors, the definition of the water years varies;
the United States Geological Survey defines it as the period between October 1st of one year and
September 30th of the next. The water year is designated by the calendar year in which it ends,
so the 2010 water year (USGS) started on October 1, 2009 and ended on September 30, 2010.
a. USES OF WATER YEAR

Examples of how water year is used:

 Used to compare precipitation from one water year to another.

 Used to define a period of examination for hydrologic modeling purposes.

 Used in reports by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) as a term that deals with
surface-water supply.The end of the water year is used by the CoCoRaHS project as an

opportunity for observers to audit and verify data for their site.
 A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of flow (discharge) versus time past a specific
point in a river, or other channel or conduit carrying flow. The rate of flow is typically expressed
in cubic meters or cubic feet per second (cms or cfs).
It can also refer to a graph showing the volume of water reaching a particular outfall, or
location in a sewerage network. Graphs are commonly used in the design of sewerage, more

specifically, the design of surface water sewerage systems and combined sewers.
2. MEAN ANNUAL FLOW
What is it?

Mean annual flow is the average flow for the individual year or multi-year period
of interest. When working with hydrologic data it is customary to view the data by water
years (October-September) rather than by calendar years (January-December).

How is it calculated?
Mean annual flow is obtained by dividing the sum of all the individual daily flows
by the number of daily flows recorded for the year.
You may also want to calculate the mean flow for the period of record. This value
is calculated by dividing the sum of all the individual flows by the number of flows
recorded for the period of record. If mean annual flows are available for each year of the
record, their sum may be divided by the number of years of record to obtain the long-
term mean annual flow for the period of record.
What kind of graphs and charts can be generated?
It is important to calculate the mean annual flow for each year in the
period of record. Often, this value is used for various graphs and charts such as
those mentioned in the following paragraphs.
What does this particular information tell you about your stream?
This value will indicate the average flow for the river for the calculated
period of record.
3. RANKED ANNUAL FLOW
What is it?

This technique arranges the annual flows in order of magnitude, usually from the
largest to the smallest value, regardless of the year in which they occurred (i.e., the
chronological sequence is ignored).

How is it calculated?

Ranked annual flow is obtained by listing all the chronological annual flow values
in a column and then sorting these values in descending order. The flows can be ranked
using the sort function found in the data pulldown menu in Excel. It is advisable to have a
column with the flow and a column with the corresponding water year. Sort these
columns together to keep track of the water year when the ranked flow occurred. Then
you can plot these ranked flow values for easier visual reference.

What kind of graphs and charts can be generated?

You can generate a graph of discharge versus rank. For additional information, the
user can also calculate the standard deviation for the annual flows using Excel and the
mean flow for the period of record. It may be useful for design purposes to identify the
average annual flow within one standard deviation (mean + one standard deviation and
mean - one standard deviation). Statistically, this represents the range of flows that have
occurred about 68% of the time (assuming a normal probability distribution).
The range of flows within one standard deviation of the mean flow can be
overlaid on the ranked plot so that commonly occurring values can be identified more
easily.

What does this particular information tell you about your stream?

The ranking of annual flows makes it possible to identify the extreme high and
low flows easily, as well as the range of average and near-average flows.

4. GAUGED DAILY FLOW (GDF)

G. ADJUSTMENT OF STREAMFLOW DATA
Adjusts stream flow data at a given location for diversions, etc. by adding or
subtracting one or more time series from the observed values.

Perform a double mass analysis on daily stream flow records to look for inconsistencies
caused by factors such as changes in diversions or flow regulation over time, physical
modifications due to urbanization, agricultural practices, forest fires, alterations in
vegetation cover, or rating problems.

1. DOUBLE-MASS ANALYSIS
Is a commonly used data analysis approach for investigating the behavior of records
made of hydrological data at a number of locations.

The double - mass curve is used to check the consistency of many kinds of hydrologic
data by comparing date for a single station with that of a pattern composed of the data
from several other stations in the area.
2. RUNOFF

Runoff can be described as the part of the water cycle that flows over land as surface
water instead of being absorbed into groundwater or evaporating.
 Surface runoff is a major component of the water cycle. Is a part of precipitation,
snow melts or irrigation water that comes from the uncontrolled surface streams or
drains.

a. MEAN ANNUAL RUNOFF

 Annual runoff is the total quantity of water that is discharged ("runs off") from a
drainage basin in a year. Data reports may present annual runoff data as volumes in acre-
feet, as discharges per unit of drainage area in cubic feet per second per square mile, or as
depths of water on the drainage basin in inches.
 The term “Average annual runoff” as it applies to the area of reclamation can be defined
as “For a specified area, the average value of annual runoff amounts calculated for a
selected period of record that represents average hydrologic conditions”.

MISSOURI RIVER
  The Missouri River is the longest river in North America. Rising in the Rocky
Mountains of western Montana, the Missouri flows east and south for 2,341 miles
(3,767 km) before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis, Missouri.

OHIO RIVER

 The Ohio River, which streams westward from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo,
Illinois, is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River in the United
States. At the confluence, the Ohio is considerably bigger than the Mississippi.

H. STREAMFLOW VARIATIONS

1. LONG-TERM VARIABILITY

 Long-term variability in stream flow is distinguished from natural short-term

variability typically associated with seasonal weather variations. Long-term records

of stream flow data have been collected at thousands of sites throughout the United
States by the U.S. Geological Survey.

2. SHORT-TERM (ANNUAL) FLUCTUATIONS

  Short-term (Annual) fluctuations of great magnitude are superimposed on these
long-term trends. Year-to-year fluctuations over a broad range are common to nearly
all flowing-water systems, but they do not correspond to permanent changes in the
normal flow. Hence, a true picture of long-term trend cannot be attained by
examination of only a few years of data.

 The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has been measuring stream flow at thousands of
streams for over a century. When extensive records of past stream flows exist, it is
possible to see a pattern of stream flow variation by month and season. Of course,
every stream exhibits its own unique patterns, each stream "resides" in its own spot
on the Earth's landscape, and each reacts differently to weather conditions, such as
precipitation, seasonal differences, and evaporation.

These variations include the following:

 Variations in total run off from year to year

 Seasonal variations in runoff

 Variations of daily rates of runoff throughout the year